Advantages of using amphibians in animal experiments Basic physiology. The basic physiology of amphibians is relatively well understood.

tood. Amphibian diversity Favorable phylogenies. Amphibians have phylogenies that are both well understood and complex, which lend themselves to sophisticated experimental designs shaped by evolutionary history Wide range of habitats. Amphibians are found in a wide range of habitats and, accordingly, show a wide range of morphological and physiological adaptations to these habitats Sufficiently similar to mammals

Why are fruit flies used for genetics experiments?

They have a very short generation time so you can have several generations within days. They also have a high mutation rate and can easily BE mutated so you can look at a lot of different phenotypes very easily. Their genetics is well understood and documented too so you have a huge base of knowledge at your fingertips. Drosophila melanogaster is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured in mass out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable

Cell determination
Definition noun The process in which a previously undifferentiated cell is already programmed to become a specific cell type by following a specified path towards cell differentiation. Supplement Cell determination is influenced by the action of the extracellular environment and the contents of the cell's genome. When a cell is said to be determined it means that the cell is irreversibly committed to a specific cell fate.

Gel Electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a method for separation and analysis of macromolecules (DNA, RNA and proteins) and their fragments, based on their size and charge Animal Husbandry Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. Differential gene expression cells differentiate through differential gene expression. The three postulates of differential gene expression are as follows: 1. Every cell nucleus contains the complete genome established in the fertilized egg. In molecular terms, the DNAs of all differentiated cells are identical. 2.

The unused genes in differentiated cells are not destroyed or mutated, and they retain the potential for being expressed. 3. Only a small percentage of the genome is expressed in each cell, and a portion of the RNA synthesized in the cell is specific for that cell type.

Gene probe
A gene probe is a specific segment of single-strand DNA that is complementary to a desired gene. Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/what-is-a-gene-probe#ixzz2PBc1NjqJ Reasons for human cloning Against Human rights Religious beliefs Embryos at risk Killing embryos Infertility Curing diseases Genetic illness Replacing body parts

Ethical objections to embryonic stem cell research Killing human beings The Moral Status of the Embryo According to different moral views, the embryo or fetus has a significant moral status or a right to life The 14 Day View The problem with the 14 day view is that it identifies us, what is fundamentally us, with facts about our body or physical organism. Yet for many people, we are more than physical entities we are minds, or conscious minds to be more precise. Potentiality Another objection to using cloned cells and embryos is that they are potential persons.

using "spare" human embryos for research means a lack of respect for the beginning of human life, and in the second--whether creation of embryos for research is morally worse than experimentation on already created, but unused human embryos

Ethical objections to therapeutic cloning Slippery slope to reproductive cloning Although the embryo is produced in an unorthodox way, it still has the right to live

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder which impairs the memory and intellectual abilities of the affected individuals. Loss of episodic as well as semantic memory is an early and principal feature. The basal forebrain cholinergic system is the population of neurons most affected by the neurodegenerative process. Extracellular as well as intracellular deposition of beta-amyloid or Abeta (Abeta) protein, intracellular formation of neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal loss are the neuropathological hallmarks of AD. In the last few years, hopes were raised that cell replacement therapy would provide cure by compensating the lost neuronal systems. Stem cells obtained from embryonic as well as adult tissue and grafted into the intact brain of mice or rats were mostly followed by their incorporation into the host parenchyma and differentiation into functional neural lineages

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) is a statutory body in the United Kingdom that regulates and inspects all UK clinics providing in vitro fertilisation, artificial insemination and the storage of human eggs, sperm or embryos. It also regulates Human Embryo research.

Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990

Main article: Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 1990 The 1990 Act provided for the establishment of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA), an executive, non-departmental public body, the first statutory body of its type in the world. The HFEA is the independent regulator for IVF treatment and human embryo research and came into effect on 1 August 1991. The 1990 Act ensured the regulation, through licensing, of: the creation of human embryos outside the body and their use in treatment and research the use of donated gametes and embryos

the storage of gametes and embryos An HFEA research licence is required for any activity involving the use of an embryo for research. Polygenetic inheritance

'A single characteristic that is controlled by two or more genes' present on many loci
Each allele of a polygenic character often contributes only a small amount to the over all phenotype. This makes studying the individual alleles difficult. In addition environmental effects smooth out the genotypic variation to give continuous distributionPolygenic inheritance can cause a trait to have continuous variation,

which means the characteristic does not have discrete forms and instead varies gradually between two extremes. curves.
Epistasis is the masking of the phenotypic effect of either one or both members of a pair of alleles by a gene or genes of a different pair of alleles. So one locus determines the color of the flower: however, the other locus controls whether or not the flower-color locus is masked or expressed.

Discontinuous variation This is where individuals fall into a number of distinct classes or categories, and is based on features that cannot be measured across a complete range. You either have the characteristic or you don'tn. Such data is called discrete (or categorical) data. Chi-squared statistical calculations work well in this case. Discontinuous variation is controlled by alleles of a single gene or a small number of genes. The environment has little effect on this type of variation. Continuous variation In continuous variation there is a complete range of measurements from one extreme to the other. Continuous variation is the combined effect of many genes (known as polygenic inheritance) and is often significantly affected by environmental influences. Milk yield in cows, for example, is determined not only by their genetic make-up but is also significantly affected by environmental factors such as pasture quality and diet, weather, and the comfort of their surroundings. When plotted as a histogram, these data show a typical bell-shaped normal distribution curve, with the mean (= average), mode (= biggest value) and median (= central value) all being the same. Standard Deviation () This is a measure of the variability of a data set. Put simply, the taller and narrower the histogram, the lower the SD () and the less variation there is. For a low, wide, histogram, the opposite applies: Standard Error is a refinement of this, which takes into account sample size (n). The formula is:

Sampling Error When collecting data, it is vital that the data is reliable and reflects real differences in the population. This can be ensured by having a large data size, but it is also necessary to ensure that the data collected is typical of the whole population in other words, that it is randomly collected. In the laboratory, we repeat experiments 3 times and/or pool class data. In field-work, we use random number tables; grids laid out with tape-measures, and large numbers of quadrats to ensure that our data are reliable and randomly collected. N.B. It is easy to (unwittingly) introduce bias into the collection of results, and to avoid bias is an important point to make in your answers to questions on this topic Causes of Variation Variation in the phenotype is caused either by the environment, by genetics, or by a combination of the two. Meiosis and sexual reproduction introduces variation (see Ch 1), through Independent

assortment of the parental chromosomes; through Crossing-over during Prophase I; and through the random fertilisation that forms the zygote.
Twin studies (studies involving twins) help disentangle the relative importance of environmental and genetic influences on individual traits and behaviors. Twin research is considered a key tool in behavioral genetics and related fields. Alternative groups that can also be studied based on facts about genetic similarity include full siblings in general and adoptees. Twins are a valuable source for observation because their genotypes and family environments tend to be similar. More specifically, monozygotic (MZ) or "identical" twins, share nearly 100% of their geneticpolymorphisms, which means that most variation in pairs' traits (measured height, susceptibility to boredom, intelligence, depression, etc.) is due to their unique experiences. Dizygotic (DZ) or "fraternal" twins share only about 50% of their polymorphisms. Fraternal twins are helpful to study because they tend to share many aspects of their environment (e.g., uterine environment, parenting style, education, wealth, culture, community) by virtue of being born in the same time and place. The classical twin design compares the similarity of indentical (identical) and fraternal (fraternal) twins. Identical twins are almost always more similar than fraternal twins because of higher genetic similarity coupled with the same amount of environmental similarity. By comparing many hundreds of families of twins, researchers can then understand more about the complementary roles of genetic effects, shared environment, and unique environment in shaping people. Modern twin studies have shown that almost all traits are in part influenced by genetic differences, with some characteristics showing a strong influence (e.g. height), others an intermediate level (e.g.intelligence quotient) and some more complex heritabilities, with evidence for different genes affecting different aspects of the trait as in the case of autism.

Organ
A group of tissues that perform a specific function or group of functions

System
A group of organs that work together to carry out a particular task

Stem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms, that can divide (through mitosis) and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication (replication) Crossing over occurs at prophase 1 of meiosis

Metaphase 1 : The random assortment of bivalent takes place. Independent assortment of alleles takes place at anaphase 1

Weighing Plants: Fresh vs. Dry Weight

Measuring Fresh Weight: While you can technically measure the fresh weight of plants without harming them, the simple act of removing a plant from its growing "medium" can cause trauma and affect the ongoing growth rate and thus your experiment. Measuring the fresh weight of plants is tricky and should probably be saved as a final measure of growth at the end of the experiment. Here is the process for measuring fresh weight: 1. Remove plants from soil and wash off any loose soil. 2. Blot plants gently with soft paper towel to remove any free surface moisture. 3. Weigh immediately (plants have a high composition of water, so waiting to weigh them may lead to some drying and therefore produce inaccurate data). Measuring dry weight: Since plants have a high composition of water and the level of water in a plant will depend on the amount of water in its environment (which is very difficult to control), using dry weight as a measure of plant growth tends to be more reliable. You can only capture this data once as a final measure at the conclusion of your experiment. 1. Remove the plants from the soil and wash off any loose soil. 2. Blot the plants removing any free surface moisture. 3. Dry the plants in an oven set to low heat (100 F) overnight. 4. Let the plants cool in a dry environment (a Ziploc bag will keep moisture out) - in a humid environment the plant tissue will take up water. Once the plants have cooled weigh them on a scale. 5. Plants contain mostly water, so make sure you have a scale that goes down to milligrams since a dry plant will not weight very much.

A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. A structure within
the cell that bears the genetic material as a threadlike linear strand of DNA bonded the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, or as a circular strand of DNA (or RNA in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in the mitochondrion and chloroplast of certain eukaryotes. to various proteins in some viruses) in

A hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an organism Functions of histones

Compacting DNA strands

Histones act as spools around which DNA winds. This enables the compaction necessary to fit the large genomes of eukaryotes inside cell nuclei: the compacted molecule is 40,000 times shorter than an unpacked molecule

Remodels chromatin A stud book, also called a breed registry, is a list of all of the known individual animals in a breed.
How to extract stem cells

However, when extracting embryonic stem cells, the blastocyst stage signals when to isolate stem cells by placing the "inner cell mass" of the blastocyst into a culture dish containing a nutrient-rich

broth. Lacking the necessary stimulation to differentiate, they begin to divide and replicate while maintaining their ability to become any cell type in the human body. Eventually, these undifferentiated cells can be stimulated to create specialized cells.

Stem cell cultures

Human embryonic stem cell colony [Wikipedia]

Stem cells are either extracted from adult tissue or from a dividing zygote in a culture dish. Once extracted, scientists place the cells in a controlled culture that prohibits them from further specializing or differentiating but usually allows them to divide and replicate. The process of growing large numbers of embryonic stem cells has been easier than growing large numbers of adult stem cells, but progress is being made for both cell types

Stem cell lines

Once stem cells have been allowed to divide and propagate in a controlled culture, the collection of healthy, dividing, and undifferentiated cells is called a stem cell line. These stem cell lines are subsequently managed and shared among researchers. Once under control, the stem cells can be stimulated to specialize as directed by a researcher - a process known as directed differentiation. Embryonic stem cells are able to differentiate into more cell types than adult stem cells. Multipotent - the ability to differentiate into a closely related family of cells. Examples include hematopoietic (adult) stem cells that can become red and white blood cells or platelets.

Chimeras
People also take issue with the creation of chimeras. A chimera is an organism that has both human and animal cells or tissues. Often in stem cell research, human cells are inserted into animals (like mice or rats) and allowed to develop. This creates the opportunity for researchers to see what happens when stem cells are implanted. Many people, however, object to the creation of an organism that is "part human"
Inbreeding is reproduction from the mating of parents who are closely related genetically. Inbreeding results in increased homozygosity, which can increase the chances of offspring being affected
[1]

byrecessive or deleterious traits. is called inbreeding depression.

[2]

This generally leads to a decreased fitness of a population,

[3][4]

which

Ex-situ conservation, while helpful in man's efforts to sustain and protect our environment, is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. It is to be used as a last resort, or as a supplement to in-situ conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire genetic variation of a species, its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements which, over time, might help a species adapt to its changing surroundings. Instead, ex-situ conservation removes the species from its natural ecological contexts, preserving it under semi-isolated conditions whereby natural evolution and adaptation processes are either temporarily halted or altered by introducing the specimen to an unnatural habitat. In the case of cryogenic storage methods, the preserved specimen's adaptation processes are frozen altogether. The downside to this is that, when re-released, the species may lack the genetic adaptations and mutations which would allow it to thrive in its ever-changing natural habitat. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation techniques are often costly, with cryogenic storage being economically infeasible in most cases since species stored in this manner cannot provide a profit but instead slowly drain the financial resources of the government or organization determined to operate them. Seedbanks are ineffective for certain plant generawith recalcitrant seeds that do not remain fertile for long periods of time. Diseases and pests foreign to the species, to which the species has no natural defense, may also cripple crops of protected plants in ex-situ plantations and in animals living in ex-situ breeding grounds. These factors, combined with the specific environmental needs of many species, some of which are nearly impossible to recreate by man, make ex-situ conservation impossible for a great number of the world's endangered flora and fauna. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List), founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species. A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations, which assess the risk of extinction to species within a political management unit. In-situ conservation is on-site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of tree species. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agroecosystems by farmers, especially those using unconventional farming practices. In agriculture, in situ conservation techniques are an effective way to improve, maintain, and use traditional or native varieties of agricultural crops. Such methodologies link the positive output of scientific research with farmers' experience and field work Wildlife and livestock conservation is mostly based on in situ conservation

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Zoos

1. Animals have been kept in captivity for many years and there are many advantages of zoos. 2. Firstly, in modern zoos animals are placed in enclosures which try to simulate their natural habitats. 3. In these enclosures they are protected from their natural predators and well looked after. 4. The animals are provided with shelter, food and medical attention. 5. Secondly, zoos provide the public with educational information about animals. 6. They increase the publics knowledge of the dangers many animals face and the

kind of habitats they live in. 7. Lastly, zoos often rescue animals which would have otherwise been killed or animals in captivity which have been treated cruelly by humans.
8. On the other hand, there are also some disadvantages of zoos. 9. Campaigners argue that zoos are cruel for animals and that the enclosures where they are kept are far too small. 10. They also argue that some animals are taken out of their natural environments. 11. Problems have arisen for animals that are faced with different climates, especially those from hot countries that then have to survive cold winters somewhere in Europe for example. 12. Finally, not all zoos provide their animals with the care and attention they require. 13. In some zoos animals are kept in dirty cages, are undernourished and not given any medical treatment. Animal Transfers Captive breeding and considerations involved with moving animals Why is there any need to move animals? Successful captive breeding programmes will ge e a e su p us d dua s o de o a a ea y popu a o s nerate surplus individuals. In order to maintain healthy populations within captive environments, and to maintain genetic variability within those populations, animal transfers are essential. It is therefore critical to have both the capability and the facilities in place for such movements. Record Keeping Accurate and organised record keeping is a fundamental requirement within captive Legislation Legislation covers national (including fundamental requirement within captive most of the EU) and international (non breeding programmes and for animal transfers Animals have to be moved when required, for example if new births mean the collection is Convention for the International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES). example if new births mean the collection is over stocked, or if an animal is an important individual within a captive breeding programme. Animal transfers are initiated in a number of wayg p s. One is through Studbook Keeper recommendations. The studbooks list all the individuals within a captive breeding programme and enable appropriate groupings of animals to be made. Another way is through the production of 2 Wanted\Surplus lists which are circulated

through BIAZA & EAZA (British and Irish, and European Association of Zoos and Aquaria) websites. There is also liaison between zoos at Curatorial and Registrar levels Summary References / Information important future within Europe. www.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/animaltrade /imports/iins/livebalai/index.htm www.defra.gov.uk/animal/welfare Animal transfers are a vital part of captive breeding programmes. Co-operation and good communication is essential. Good knowledge of and adherence to ifi l i l ti i f d t l ( i ll www.cites.org 4 specific legislation is fundamental (especially health and trade legislation). The final part of the process is the actual transport this alone has many potential issues! STUDBOOKS
A breed registry, also known as a herdbook, studbook or register, in animal husbandry and the hobby of animal fancy, is an official list of animals within a specific breed whose parents are known. Animals are usually registered by their breeders when they are still young. The terms "studbook" and "register" are also used to refer to lists of male animals "standing at stud", that is, those animals actively breeding, as opposed to every known specimen of that breed. Inbreeding depression is the reduced fitness in a given population as a result of breeding of related individuals. It is often the result of a population bottleneck. In general, the higher the genetic variation within a breeding population, the less likely it is to suffer from inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression seems to be present in most groups of organisms, but varies across mating systems. Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that + converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO + H . The free energyreleased in this process is used to form the high-energy compounds ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced [2] nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
[1]

Education 1)Zoos seek to educate the general public through informing visitors about conservation crises, and inspiring them to care enough to become involved through donations or other means. Furthermore, they provide education material on specific animals and habitats, to increase visitor's knowledge base about animals and their habitats. Ultimately, the idea is that if people feel a connection or empathy for the animals, they will feel motivated to take greater efforts toward supporting conservation, through moderating their environmental

impact, participating in local conservation efforts, and donations to field conservation funds. This is particularly important for children, as they often spear-head family changes--for example, the recycling movement largely grew through schools developing recycling programs, and educating children on the importance of recycling; the kids in turn, encouraged their parents to recycle. Children also represent the next generation of potential conservationists. Research 1) Zoo populations provide opportunities for many different avenues of research. In particular, the genetic research and management of small populations is crucial for maintaining genetic diversity of zoo populations themselves. However, this research is also helpful in learning to manage and conserve diversity in wild populations, that are often increasingly fragmented and isolated. 2)They provide observation and sampling opportunities for topics that may not be feasible in the wild (for example, projects that require close-range observation, or fecal sampling that may not be possible in the wild--for example, fecal samples collected from the spider monkeys at Brookfield Zoo before and after a stressful experience-a vet exam-are essential to my pilot research). 3)Finally, zoo research is crucial in monitoring the welfare and health of the animal themselves, and in making modifications to promote welfare.

However, an SEM and TEM also share some differences. The method used in SEM is based on scattered electrons while TEM is based on transmitted electrons. The scattered electrons in SEM are classified as backscattered or secondary electrons. However, there is no other classification of electrons in TEM. The scattered electrons in SEM produced the image of the sample after the microscope collects and counts the scattered electrons. In TEM, electrons are directly pointed toward the sample. The electrons that pass through the sample are the parts that are illuminated in the image. The focus of analysis is also different. SEM focuses on the samples surface and its composition. On the other hand, TEM seeks to see what is inside or beyond the surface. SEM also shows the sample bit by bit while TEM shows the sample as a whole. SEM also provides a three-dimensional image while TEM delivers a two-dimensional picture.

In terms of magnification and resolution, TEM has an advantage compared to SEM. TEM has up to a 50 million magnification level while SEM only offers 2 million as a maximum level of magnification. The resolution of TEM is 0.5 angstroms while SEM has 0.4 nanometers. However, SEM images have a better depth of field compared to TEM produced images. Another point of difference is the sample thickness, staining, and preparations. The sample in TEM is cut thinner in contrast to a SEM sample. In addition, an SEM sample is stained by an element that captures the scattered electrons. In SEM, the sample is prepared on specialized aluminium stubs and placed on the bottom of the chamber of the instrument. The image of the sample is projected onto the CRT or television-like screen. On the other hand, TEM requires the sample to be prepared in a TEM grid and placed in the middle of the specialized chamber of the microscope. The image is produced by the microscope via fluorescent screens. Another feature of SEM is that the area where the sample is placed can be rotated in different angles. TEM was developed earlier than SEM. TEM was invented by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in 1931. Meanwhile, SEM was created in 1942. It was developed at a later time due to the complexity of the machines scanning process. Summary: 1.Both SEM and TEM are two types of electron microscopes and are tools to view and examine small samples. Both instruments use electrons or electron beams. The images produced in both tools are highly magnified and offer high resolution. 2.How each microscope works is very different from another. SEM scans the surface of the sample by releasing electrons and making the electrons bounce or scatter upon impact. The machine collects the scattered electrons

and produces an image. The image is visualized on a television-like screen. On the other hand, TEM processes the sample by directing an electron beam through the sample. The result is seen using a fluorescent screen. 3.Images are also a point of difference between two tools. SEM images are three-dimensional and are accurate representations while TEM pictures are two-dimensional and might require a little bit of interpretation. In terms of resolution and magnification, TEM gains more advantages compared to SEM. Read more: Difference Between TEM and SEM | Difference Between | TEM vs SEM http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-betweentem-and-sem/#ixzz2Phc3KhyK
Differential centrifugation is a common procedure in microbiology and cytology used to separate certain organelles from whole cells for further analysis of specific parts of cells. In the process, a tissuesample is first homogenised to break the cell membranes and mix up the cell contents. The homogenate is then subjected to repeated centrifugations, each time removing the pellet and increasing thecentrifugal force. Finally, purification may be done through equilibrium sedimentation, and the desired layer is extracted for further analysis. The homogenised sample is now ready for centrifugation in an ultracentrifuge. An ultracentrifuge consists of a refrigerated, low-pressure chamber containing a rotor which is driven by an electrical motor capable of high speed rotation Vegetative reproduction (vegetative propagation, vegetative multiplication, vegetative cloning) is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new individuals arise without production of seeds or spores. It can occur naturally or be induced by horticulturists. Although most plants normally reproduce sexually, many have the ability for vegetative propagation, or can be vegetatively propagated if small pieces are subjected to chemical (hormonal) treatments. This is because meristematic cells capable of cellular differentiation are present in many plant tissues. Horticulturalists are interested in understanding how meristematic cells can be induced to reproduce an entire plant. Success rates and difficulty of propagation vary greatly. For example willow and coleus can be propagated merely by inserting a stem in water or moist soil. On the other hand, monocotyledons, unlike dicotyledons, typically lack a vascular cambium and therefore are harder to propagate.

Natural vegetative propagation

Natural vegetative reproduction is mostly a process found in herbaceous and woody perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem, although any horizontal, underground part of a plant (whether stem, leaf, or root) can contribute to vegetative reproduction of a plant. Most plant species that survive and significantly expand by vegetative reproduction would be perennial almost by definition, since

specialized organs of vegetative reproduction, like seeds of annuals, serve to survive seasonally harsh conditions. A plant that persists in a location through vegetative reproduction of individuals over a long period of time constitutes a clonal colony. In a sense, this process is not one of "reproduction" but one of survival and expansion of biomass of the individual. When an individual organism increases in size via cell multiplication and remains intact, the process is called "vegetative growth". However, in vegetative reproduction, the new plants that result are new individuals in almost every respect except genetic. Of considerable interest is how this process [3] appears to reset the aging clock. [edit]Artificial

vegetative propagation

Vegetative propagation of particular cultivars that have desirable characteristics is very common practice. Reasons for preferring vegetative rather than sexual means of reproduction vary, but commonly include greater ease and speed of propagation of certain plants, such as many perennial root crops and vines. Another major attraction is that the resulting plant amounts to a clone of the parent plant and accordingly is of a more predictable quality than most seedlings. However, as can be seen in many variegated plants, this does not always apply, because many plants actually are chimeras and cuttings might reflect the attributes of only one or some of the parent cell lines. Man-made methods of vegetative reproduction are usually enhancements of natural processes, but they range from rooting cuttings to grafting and artificial propagation by laboratory tissue culture.

perennating organ
In plants, that part of a biennial plant or herbaceous perennial that allows it to survive the winter; usually a root, tuber, rhizome, bulb, or corm.

Largest: Cytoplasm Cell Nucleus Endoplasmatic Golgi Chloroplast Mitochondria Vacuole Lysosome Centriole Microtubules/Microfilaments Ribosome

membrane/wall reticulum aparatus

Under this is cytokinesis differences not mitosis. we are studying this now so i should know. plant cells: 1.no centrioles 2. form a cell plate at which a new cell wall forms 3. in telophase, phragmoplast (actin myosin microtubules a.k.a. cell plate) forms in center of cell 4. have a cell wall 5. nuclear and cell division found in special regions called meristems animal cells: 1. centrioles 2. form a cleavage furrow during cytokinesis 3. contractile ring forms approximately midway between the 2 nuclei of the dividing cell 4. no cell wall 5. cells divide everywhere, all the time In plants
Thespindle fibres are formed by the centrosomes not the cenrioles.The centrioles come to the MTCs ( micro tubules organising centers) which are present in the centrosomes which make up the spindle fibers on which the chromosomes are held. Centromere- The strongest and thinnest region of a chromosome, to which the spindle fiber is attached during mitosis. the centromere is the point on the chromosome at which chromatids are held together and to which the spindle fibers attach during cell division. the centromere is visible during cell division as a constriction along the length of a contracted chromosome.

Do the centrioles disappear during the telophase of mitosis?

On the handout my teacher gave, it said that the centrioles disappear during the telophase of mitosis along with the spindle fibers. In my book, however, it only mentions the spindle fibers disappearing, and the picture of the centrioles are still there on the diagram of telophase. Thank you in advance. The spindle fibers do indeed disappear as microtubules depolymerize, but thecentrioles, as microtubule organizing centers, do not disappear. Indeed, as cytokinesis is completed late in telophase, each daughter cell contains one of the centrioles that participated in the mitotic division just completed. During interphase centriole replication occurs. Specifically, at a certain point in G1, the two centrioles of each pair, which lie at right angles to one another, separate by a few micrometers. During S phase, a daughter centriole begins to grow near the base of each mother centriole and at a right angle to it. The elongation of the daughter centriole is usually completed by G2. The two centriole pairs thus created remain close together in a single centrosomal complex until the beginning of M phase when the complex splits in two and the two halves begin to separate. Each centrosome now nucleates its own radial array of microtubules called an aster. The two asters, which initially lie side by side and close to the nuclear envelope, move apart. By late prophase, the microtubules that interact between the two asters preferentially elongate as the two asters move apart along the outside of the nucleus. In this way a bipolar mitotic spindle is rapidly formed. Subsequently, the breakdown of the nuclear envelope enables spindle microtubules to interact with the chromosomes. Trust me, the centrioles NEVER disappear! Apoptosis (pron.: /ptoss/ also pron.: /epptoss/) is the process of programmed cell [4] death (PCD) that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclearfragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation. (See also apoptotic DNA fragmentation.)
[2][3]

1.

Tail / flagellum; {To swim / to propel it} to the {egg / ovum / vitelline membrane}; 2. Small(er) size; Makes it easier for it to swim / to aid mobility / makes it possible to produce them in large numbers; 3. Haploid number of chromosomes / only one of each chromosome / (only) 23 chromosomes rather than 46; So {normal / diploid} number restored at fertilisation;

5.

4. Acrosome / sac of enzymes; To digest way (in)to egg; Mitochondria; Energy for swimming / eq;

Why large numbers of sperms are produced? (Produces) {biological / genetic} variation; No two sperms the same; Many sperms do not reach egg / increases chances of fertilising eggs; Selection for {fittest / eq} sperm; Some sperms defective; Marking point 1 2 Prokaryotic cell Smaller Do not have a nucleus / nucleolus / have a nucleoid Do not have membrane-bound organelles / absence of named organelle Smaller / 70S ribosomes Mesosomes / description of infoldings Circular DNA No histones / chromosomes Murein / mucopeptide / peptidoglycan cell walls / no cellulose Flagellum with no microtubules / eq / reference to basal structure Eukaryotic cell Larger ; Have a nucleus / nuclear envelope / nucleolus (allow description) / no nucleoid ; Have membrane-bound organelles / presence of named membrane-bound organelle ; 4 5 6 7 8 Larger / 80S ribosomes ; No mesosomes ; Linear DNA ; Histones / chromosomes ; Cellulose cell walls (if present) ;

Flagellum with microtubules / 9+2 arrangement / reference to basal structure ;

Explain how the acrosin is released from the acrosome

idea of stimulus e.g. Receptors contact with zona pellucid acrosome swells vesicle/acrosome fuses with sperm cell surface membrane/ exocytosis

Explain the importance of packaging different parts of eukaryotic cells into organelles Enables different functions to be carried out in different areas. The organelles have their own compartment, What arguments might be presented for and against keeping animals in captivity in zoos? For: role in academic research. Captive breeding with careful use of studbooks to maintain genetic diversity: reintroduction programs: education

Against: isoloation of animals from family groups. Limted area for living. Alternatives: Provide species with the safe and most naturalistic environment. Some foundations belives wildlife belongs in the wild, they conserve species in their natural habitat Some welfare of animals in zoo is poor as they exhibit stereotypic behaviours such as repetive pacing up and down and chewing bars. Keeping animals in captivity can, and does, cause immense mental
suffering to the species put on display for our pleasure.

Zoochosis is the term used to describe the stereotypical behaviour of animals in captivity. Stereotypic behaviour is defined as a repetitive, invariant behaviour pattern with no obvious goal or function. Stereotypic behaviour is not seen in animals in the wild and is understood to be abnormal and is therefore a negative factor in conservation captive breeding. Examples of this can be seen at most zoos in such behaviours as: Bar Biting, Neck Twisting, Tongue Playing, Excessive Grooming Head Bobbing, Coprophagia, Swaying/Pacing/Circling Excessive Grooming, Vomiting, Self Mutilation

In a 2001 study of 257 captive Giraffe and Okapi in 49 US institutions, it was found that 80% exhibited some form of stereotypic behavior. And the Causes? Separation from natural habitat Enforced idleness Loss of life in normal social groups Drugs and medical fertility control

Direct control by humans

Caging - a totally alien environment

They believe animals should be bred in protected habitats in the wild Animals are exhibited on the basis of their crown pulling power rather than on their endangered status. Animals are kept in inappropriate conditions both in terms of physical, mental and social being. Capture of animal for exhibition may deplete wild populations Reintroduction of species to the wild cannot be guaranteed.
Peripheral arteries are the arteries (specifically arterioles and capillaries) which are farthest from the heart (mouth, hands, and feet). Features of a good study salters pg 23
Intrinsic rhythm is the rate at which the heart beats with no interference from the Central Nervous System. Cells of cardiac muscle, when left to themselves, will beat atvariable rates. The heart has two structures, the Sinus node and the Atrial ventricular node that even out the rate of all the cardiac tissue. The rate provided by these two structures is around 100 bpm. The fact that our hearts usually beat at around 60-80 bpm is due to the influence of the parasympathetic nervous system, specifically the Vagus Nerve, which innervated the heart and constantly sends messages to slow down the rythm. The sympathetic, or adrenergic nervous system, also innervated the heart and can push the rate up way past the normal rate of 100 bpm.

Genetic counseling

Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence. Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, resources Counseling to promote informed choices and adaptation to the risk or condition.

Evidence for the fluid mosaic model salters pg 66-68

Gated channel channel through a membrane that can be opened or closed by chemical or electrical events.

The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international scientific research project with a primary goal of determining the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and of identifying and mapping the approximately 20,00025,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional [1] standpoint. CF is most common among Caucasians; 4% of people of European descent carries one allele for CF. Locus: A parituclar position on a chromosome Homologous chromosomes: Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs, one from each parent,
that are similar in length, gene position and centromere location. Dominant allele: The allele that comes into expression in the phenotype even it was present single Heterzogous: If the wo alleles coding for a characteristic are different Carrier: A heterozygous individual bearing an unexpressed defective gene.

People living with cystic fibrosis face a lifelong challenge of paying for medications, nutrition supplements, respiratory equipment, physician services, and various other medical expenses. Even with health insurance to cover some of the costs, the expenses of treatment can be devastating to any family's budget. If you find the cost of treatment is giving your wallet a squeeze, there are places you can turn to for help.

Health Insurance Health insurance coverage is an absolute must-have for people with cystic fibrosis. If you are having problems getting insurance elsewhere, government programs are available that may be able to help if you meet eligibility requirements.

Ethical and social issues relating to use of PGID Who has right to decide if tests should be performed Implications of medical cost / embryo has rights / disagreement over next step Issues relating to confidentiality of parents child Idea that some other abnormality might be found / paternal DNA doesnt match / other family members have the right to know False negative Possible problems in future e.g.: future employment / insurance

Reasons for regulating authorities for human embroyos Gives guiding on what can be done and what cannot Idea of setting ethical legal aspects Judging what is acceptable / follow a code of practices To ensure the source of embryo is proper and acceptable eg: spare embryo from ivf clinics To decide the maximum age of the embryo that it could be used Follow ethical framework Stopping cloning of humans Unessacary repeating of resource To discuss the ethical issues associated with the use of stem cells and make decisions People involved in embryo research Able to understand the science and recognize what is possible, benefits and risks. Judge in an informed manner. People not involved in embryo research Ehist Provides the view of the society. Balanced alternative view Present the view of those who may object to embryo research, present reasons against their use eg. Religious reasons