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EXPERIMENT A1

Aim: To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current. Apparatus: a resistance wire about 1 meter long, a battery eliminator, rheostat, voltmeter, ammeter, a resistance box, one way key, connecting wires and sand paper. Theory: According to Ohms law The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions of the conductor remains the same. Let I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential drop across the ends, then IV or, VI or, V/ I = constant = R where R is a constant called the electrical resistance. Its S.I. unit is ohm and its value depends upon the dimensions (length and area of cross section) and material of the wire. If a graph is plotted with V on the x-axis and I on the y-axis, then it will be a straight line as V is directly proportional to I. The slope of this graph (I/V) can be used to find the resistance of the wire. R = 1/slope.

Circuit Diagram: OBSERVATIONS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Range of instruments: Ammeter A, Voltmeter . Volt Least count of ammeter = A Least count of voltmeter = . Volt Zero error of ammeter = .. A Zero correction of ammeter = .. A

6. Zero error of voltmeter = .. volt 7. Zero correction of voltmeter = .. volt 8. Length of the wire = .. cm S.No. Voltmeter reading (V) (Volt) Observed Corrected Ammeter reading (I) (Ampere) Observed Corrected R=V/I (Ohm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean value of resistance, R = Graph: Choose appropriate scale and plot a graph between V on the x-axis and I on the yaxis. Find the slope of the graph, after drawing the suitable triangle on the graph. Calculations: Substitute values from the graph Slope = I / V = (I2 I1) / (V2 V1) = 1/R Therefore, R = V / I = 1/slope R = . ohm from the graph Resistance per unit length = R / L = ohm/cm Result: (i) The graph between potential drop V and current I through a conductor is a straight line. (ii)The value of the resistance of the given wire is . . (iii) The resistance per cm of the given wire is ./ cm Precaution: 1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper to remove the insulation properly. 2. Connections should be neat and tight. 3. Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with proper polarities. 4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. 5. Measuring instruments of proper range should be used and zero error, if any, must be taken into account. 6. Too high currents should not be drawn from the battery and care must be taken to avoid short circuiting.

7. The length of the resistance wire should be measured from the point where the wire leaves one terminal to the point where the wire enters the second terminal. The length at ends of the wire which is wound around the terminal should not be included otherwise it will contribute to error. Sources of error: 1. Due to heating effect of current, the resistance of the wire may change during the course of experiment. 2. The ammeter and voltmeter are not ideal and hence introduce some error on account of their resistances. 3. Error due to parallax may creep in. 4. The length of the wire may not have been measured accurately.

EXPERIMENT A2
Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of its material. Apparatus: a metre bridge, a resistance wire about 1 metre long, a resistance box, jockey, one way key, galvanometer, Daniel cell, connecting wire, screw gauge and sand paper. Theory: Metre Bridge is a simple apparatus based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R and S joined such that they form a quadrilateral ABCD as shown in the figure. The current i drawn from the cell is divided in A into two parts. One part i1 flows along the path AB and the other part i2 flows along AD. Since the potential falls equally along the two conductors, it is possible to find two points B and D, such that they are at the same potential. If B and D are connected to a galvanometer through a key K, no current will flow through it. Hence there will be no deflection in the galvanometer and the bridge is said to be balanced. Let i1 and i2 be the currents in the arms ABC and ADC respectively and let Va, Vb, Vc and Vd be the potentials at the points A, B ,C and D respectively. Then, applying Ohms law, we get Va- Vb = P .i1 Vb Vc = Q .i1 Va - Vd = R .i2 Vd Vc = S .i2 In balanced condition Va- Vb = Va - Vd And Vb Vc = Vd Vc (since, Vb = Vd) Therefore, P i1 = R i2 Q i1 = S i2 Or, P/Q=R/S If the resistances Q, R and S are known, P can be calculated.

Therefore,

P = (R / S) x Q

Measuring an unknown resistance In Meter Bridge, let unknown resistance X be inserted in gap P (left gap) and a resistance box in gap Q (right gap). For a particular value of resistance from the resistance box, if the balance point is obtained at D such that the galvanometer shows no deflection, then from the principle of the Wheatstone bridge X/Q = resistance of length AD / resistance of length DC = k x length AD / k x length DC where k is the resistance per unit length. If length AD = l cm then DC = (100 l) cm Therefore, X = [l / (100 l)] x Q Specific resistance The resistance of a resistor varies directly as its length L and inversely as its area of cross section r2, where r is the radius of the wire. Therefore, the resistance of the wire can be written as X = 4L / d2, where d is the diameter of the wire and is the specific resistance of the wire. Therefore, = (d2 /4L) X

Circuit Diagram:

OBSERVATIONS: (a) Length of the wire = .. cm (b) Least count of meter bridge scale = . Cm (c) For measurement of resistance of the wire No. of Resistance P observation (ohm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mean value of resistance, X = (c)For measurement of diameter of wire Pitch of screw gauge (p) = mm No of div on the circular scale (n) = . Least count of screw gauge = p/n = .. mm Zero error = (+ or -) div = mm No of obs Reading along perpendicular Mean Corrected dir. obsd diameter Main Circular Observed Main Circular Observed dia scale scale dia scale scale dia reading reading reading reading (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Reading along one dir. Balancing length (l) (cm) Length DC = (100 l) (cm) X =[ l / (100 l) ] xQ (ohm)

1 2 3 Mean corrected diameter = . mm Calculations: Substitute the value of X, d and L in the working formulae to obtain the specific resistance of the material of the wire. Result: (i) The value of the unknown resistance as determined by the meter bridge was found to be . (ii) The value of specific resistance of the material of the given wire is . cm.

Precautions: 1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper to remove the insulation properly. 2. Connections should be neat and tight. 3. The jockey wire should be long. 4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. 5. Tightness of each plug in the resistance box should be ensured. 6. The key of the battery should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on the wire when the reading is being taken. After taking the reading, the jockey is removed first and then the battery key. This helps to save the galvanometer from a momentary kick due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of make or break of current in the circuit. 7. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the null point, the jockey should be lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided on the wire, otherwise the uniformity of the wire will be damaged. 8. At the null point also, the jockey should not be pressed too hard. 9. The null point should be obtained between 30 cm 70 cm to minimize end errors. 10.The length of the resistance wire should be measured from the point where the wire leaves one terminal to the point where the wire enters the second terminal. The length at ends of the wire which is wound around the terminal should not be included otherwise it will contribute to error.

Sources of error: 1. The wire of the meter bridge may not be of uniform area of cross-section through out its entire length. 2. End errors: The resistance of the copper strips of the meter bridge and the soldering at the ends of the bridge wire, which has been assumed to be zero, may not be negligible. 3. The wire may get heated with passage of current and its resistance might change. 4. The screw gauge may have backlash error. 5. The length of the wire may not have been measured accurately.

EXPERIMENT A3
Aim: To verify the laws of combination of resistances (in series and parallel) using a meter bridge. Apparatus: a metre bridge, two resistance wire of different length, a resistance box, jockey, one way key, galvanometer, Daniel cell, connecting wire, and sand paper. Theory: Laws of combination of resistances:

a) Series combination of resistances: two or more resistances are said to be connected in series when they are connected end to end as shown in the diagram. The equivalent resistance is given by Rs = R1 + R2 + .. + Rn b) Parallel combination of resistances: two or more resistances are said to be in parallel when one end of each resistance is connected to a common point and their other ends are connected to another common point as shown in the figure. The equivalent resistance is given by 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + .. + 1/Rn Measuring an unknown resistance using Metre Bridge In Meter Bridge, let unknown resistance X be inserted in gap P (left gap) and a resistance box in gap Q (right gap). For a particular value of resistance from the resistance box, if the balance point is obtained at D such that the galvanometer shows no deflection, then from the principle of the Wheatstone bridge X/Q = resistance of length AD / resistance of length DC = k x length AD / k x length DC where k is the resistance per unit length. If length AD = l cm then DC = (100 l) cm Therefore, X = [ l / (100 l) ] x Q Circuit Diagram:

OBSERVATION: Resistanc e used S.No. Resistanc eQ () Balancing length (l) (cm) (100 l) (cm) Unknown resistance (X) Mean value of resistance

X1

X2 X1 and X2 in series

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

X1 = .

X2 = .

Xs =

X1 and X2 in parallel

1 2 3

Xp =.

Calculations: For verifying the laws of combination S.No. 1 2 Nature of Experimental Theoretical value () combination value () series Xs = . X s = X1+ X2 = . parallel Xp = . X p = X1. X2 / (X1 + X2) = . Difference () X s - X s = X p - Xp=

Result 1. The values of the individual resistances measured by metre bridge are X1 = and X2 = . 2. The experimental value of resistance of series combination of X1 and X 2 (.) is found to agree with the theoretically calculated value () within the limits of experimental error. Hence the law of series combination of resistances stands verified. 3. The experimental value of resistance of parallel combination of X1 and X2 (.) is found to agree with the theoretically calculated value (.) within the limits of experimental error. Hence the law of parallel combination of resistances stands verified. Precautions: 1. Before connecting, the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sand paper to remove the insulation properly. 2. Connections should be neat and tight. 3. The jockey wire should be long. 4. The key should be plugged in only while taking observations, otherwise the current would cause unnecessary heating in the circuit. 5. Tightness of each plug in the resistance box should be ensured. 6. The key of the battery should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on the wire when the reading is being taken. After taking the reading, the jockey is removed first and then the battery key. This helps to save the galvanometer from a momentary kick due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of make or break of current in the circuit. 7. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the null point, the jockey should be lifted again and again and should not be pressed and slided on the wire, otherwise the uniformity of the wire will be damaged. 8. At the null point also, the jockey should not be pressed too hard. 9. The null point should be obtained between 30 cm 70 cm to minimize end errors.

Sources of error: 1. The wire of the meter bridge may not be of uniform area of cross-section through out its entire length. 2. End errors: The resistance of the copper strips of the meter bridge and the soldering at the ends of the bridge wire, which has been assumed to be zero, may not be negligible. 3. The wire may get heated with passage of current and its resistance might change. 4. The screw gauge may have backlash error. 5. The resistance of the overlapping portions of the wires at the joints has not been taken into account.

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