Contents

Botany

1. .Introduction Characteristic features of living organisms. Branches of botany Specified Branches 2. Cell Structure Cell organelles Cell division Mitosis, Mciosis 3. Tissue Meristcmal il: tissue Permanent tissue 4. Algae - General characters, Major groups. 5. Fungi - General characters, economic importance 6. Lichens - Classification forms 7. Bacteria - Forms, Nutrition, Economic Importance 8. Virus - Structure, General Characters Diseases Mode of transmission, control Size, Reproduction 9. Ptcridophyta - General characters. classification 10. Classification 11. Elements of heredity and variation Genetics, Mendelism, DNA, Mutation 12. Adaptations - Hydrophytes, Xerophytes, Mesophytes 13. Ecology - Ecosystem Component of Ecosystem, Types of Ecosystem, Limiting Factors, Ecological Niche, Energy Flow in Ecosystem, Ecological Pyramids, Biomes, Biosphere, Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle 14. Objective questions.

Botany

Introduction

Biology is the science that deals with the study of living organisms (Gr.Bios, life; logos, discourse or science). Since both animals and plants are living, biology includes a study of both. Biology is, therefore, divided into two branches: Botany (botane, plant) which treats of plants and Zoology (Zoon, animal) which treats of animals.

Characteristic Features of Living Organisms: Living organisms may be distinguished from non-living things by following characters:

1.

Metabolism - It includes a constructive phase (anabolism) and a destructive phase (catabolism). Manufacture of food in the plants is an anabolic process and oxidation of protein, carbohydrates of fats is a catabolic process. 2. Respiration - Living organisms both animals and plants respire throughout their lire. In this process of breakdown of carbohydrates, O2 is used up and CO2 is given out with liberation of energy. 3. Irritability - The main feature of all living bodies is irritability or power of responding to external stimuli. The response is in the form of movement. 4. Movement - Locomotion or movement from one place to another is characteristic facture of. Living organisms. Movement may be spontaneous or induced. 5. Growth - Living organisms grow in size, volume and weight. This growth takes place by cellular divisions. 6. Excretion - Every living organism has the capability to excrete from his body, the waste product of his metabolism. 7. Adaptation - Living organisms have the power to adjust themselves in the environment, wherever they live. 8. Reproduction - The power of reproduction is common in both plants and animals in order to maintain their continuity of life. 9. Life history - Every living organism shows a distinct life cycle in the form of birth, growth, reproduction, old age and death. 10. Death - Every living organism has its own life span whether it is of short or very long period i.e. hundreds of years.

Branches of Botany: Different branches of Botany are as follows1. Anatomy - Study of internal structures of various plant parts. 2. Bacteriology - Study of bacteria. 3. Bryology- Study of Bryophytes. 4. Cytology- Study of cell including cell contents, structure of nucleus and its behavior. 5. Ecology - Study of plants in reciprocal relationship with their environment. 6. Embryology- Study of development of egg after fertilization and formation of embryo. 7. Ethnobotany - Study which includes the total relationship 'between the primitive people and the plants. 8. Evolution- Study which deals with the sequence of descent of more complex, recent and advanced types of plants from simpler, earlier and primitive types through successive stages. 9. Exobiology - Study of micro-organisms in space or in other planets. 10. Genetics - Study of heredity and variations. 11. Histology - Study of detailed structure of tissues. 12. Horticulture. - Concerned with the development and propagation of good varieties of fruit, vegetable and ornamental plants. 13. Lichenology - Study of Lichens. 14. Microbiology - Study and application of micro-organisms. 15. Morphogenesis - Study of development. 16. Morphology - Stud~' ~jf forms and features of different plant parts. 17. Mycology - Study of Fungi. 18. Palaeobotany - Study of fossils of prehistoric plants. 19. Phycology - Study of Algae. 20. Physiology - Study of various functional aspects of the plants, like nutrition, metabolism and growth. 21. Plant Breeding - Study deals with the production and development of new high yielding and disease resistance varieties. 22. Plant Pathology - Study of plant diseases, their causes, symptoms and methods of control. 23. Taxonomy -Study deals with the description, identification, classification and nomenclature of plants. 24. Virology - Study of viruses

Specified Branches: 1. Agroforestry - Form of land use in which herbaceous crops and tree-crops are cultivated. 2. Bio-chemistry - The chemistry of living things or the chemicals present in the living beings. 3. Bio-technology - The use of organisms or their components in commercial processes, which can be aided by the techniques of genetic manipulation. 4. Cell Biology - The study of structure, function, reproduction and life history of cells. 5. Genetic Engineering - Science of adding, removing or repairing part of genetic material in organism. 6. Parasitology - The study of parasites. 7. Pathology - Concerned with diseases, their symptoms, causes, spread and control. 8. Phylogeny. - The study of evolutionary relationships among different groups of organisms.

Cell
Study of cell is called cytology. A cell is defined as the membrane bounded protoplasmic mass which is biologically active and capable of self replication in a medium free from other system. Jansen(1590) invented the compound rnt4oscope . Robert Hooke(1665), using an improved microscope, examined lark and used the term cell. A.V.Leeuwenhoeck (1650-1700) observed unicellular organisms. In 1676, Bacteria were discovered. Robert Brown(1831-2) described the nucleus as a characteristic spherical body in plant cells. Schleiden and Schwann (1838-39) proposed the theory. Purkyne(1840) gave the name protoplasm. Virchow (1855) showed that all cells are araised from preexisting cells by cell division. In 1930 Electron microscope was developed, enabling much improved resolution. 1946 to present- Electron microscope is being widely used in biology that gives structure called ultra structure. Prokaryotic cell - A cell in which the genetic material is not enclosed by a membrane to form a nucleus but lies free in the cytoplasm. The cell lacks all membrane bound organelles. Eukaryotic cell - A cell which has a membrane bound nucleus. It also has number of membrane bound organelles. .

Structure of Eukaryotic cell Cell organelles- These are living cellular structures of the cytoplasm. E.g. Mitochondria, golgibody etc. Cell inclusions - These are non living substances Such as proteins, starch grains, oils 'etc present in the cytoplasm.

Cell wall- It SUI rounds plant cells. Consists of cellulose and provides mechanical strength allows building turgor pressure; and forms pathway for movement of water. Plasma Membrane- The membrane enclosing cytoplasm in a cell is known as plasma membrane which is made up of protein and lipid. It controls now of materials in and out of cell. Cytoplasm- Jelly like aqueous, transparent, colorless substance with nucleus forms the living matter of the cell. The cell organelles are suspended in it.

Nucleus- Highly dense and small body surrounded by nuclear membrane in the cytoplasm. Called brain of the cell

Mitochondria- Double membranous structure and site of aerobic respiration also called power house of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum- Folds of lipoprotein membrane with or without ribosomes forming sheets or canals. RER transports protein made by ribosomes. SER- sites of lipid and steroid synthesis. Golgiapparatus- Stack of membranous sacs of variable size and shape. Involved in secretion and lysosome formation. Lysosome - Spherical sacs having single membrane, containing hydrolytic enzymes. Act as phagocytic, autophagic vacuoles, connected with endocytosis and exocytosis .

Ribosomes- Very small organelles consisting of a large and small subunits and is the site of protein synthesis.

Microbodies- Spherical organelles bound by single membrane contents are granular and contain catalyst which breaks hydrogen peroxide. Also sites of glyoxylate cycle in plants. Centriole- Nonmembranous organelle present' in pairs near the nucleus in the animal cells. It is meant for formation of spindle fibers and helps during cell division.

Vacuole- Small or large sacs bounds by a single membrane called tonoplast and contains cell sap. It is osmoregulatory in function.

Cell division: => Cell division- Process of multiplication of cell => Karyokinesis- Division of nucleus => Cytokinesis- Division of cytoplasm. In plant cell it takes place by formation of cell plate and in animal cell by cleavage. => Bivalent- A pair of homologous chromosomes. Chromosomes pair up during meiosis. => Haploid- Single set of chromosomes => Diploid - Double sets of chromosomes. =>Chromosome- Chromatin material containing genetic information. =>Synapsis- Pairing of homologous chromosome. =>Crossing Over- Exchange of nonsister internal chromatids. =>Chromatid- One part of a duplicate strand. =>Chiasmata- points of attachment where chromatids are attached. =>Homologous Chromosome-similar types of chromosomes. =>Reductional division- No. of chromosome reduces to half. =>Equational division- No. of chromosome is equal to that of parent cell. =>Germ cells- Reproductive cells. =>Somatic cell- Body cell or vegetate cell. =>Gamete- Sex cells. =>Amitosis- Direct division of nucleus-Amoeba.

Mitosis: It takes place in somatic cell and the number of chromosome in daughter cell is equal to that of parent cell. It causes growth, replacement of dead cells, healing of wounds etc. Interphase- Each chromosome has two equal parts called chromatids, Prophase- Nuclear membrane and nucleolus begins to disappear.

Metaphase- Nuclear membrane and nucleolus completely disappear. Chrosomosome line up on spindle fibers, attached by their centromere. Anaphase- Chromatids separate and go in opposite directions. Telophase- Chromatids are arranged at respective poles and spindle fibers disappear. Nuclear membrane bounds the masses of sister chromatids. Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm is divided by cell wall into two equal halves and two cells are formed.

Meiosis: It takes place in germ cell and the number or chromosome is reduced to half in each daughter cell. It causes variation.

Meiosis-I: Prophasc-I [Leptotene, zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and diakinesis] Leptotene- The thread stage having chromatin net. Zygotene- Pairing stage. Homologous chromosomes form pair called synapsis. Pachytene- Shortenning and thickening stage crossing over takes place and chiasmata are formed Diplotene- separating stage; the chromosomes tend to separate from partnership but do not separate completely. Diakinesis- Moving apart stage; shifting of chiasmata towards terminal point takes place which is called terminalization. Metaphase -I- Homologous chromosomes line up on the spindle fibers attached by centromers. Anaphase-I- hOl11ologou~ pair separates Telophase-I- Each cell has half of the chromosome but each chromosome has two chromatids. Two cells are formed which fall in meiosis-II i.e. educational division.

Tissue

The study of tissues is called histology. Meristematic tissue: That has capacity of dividing and has not attained definite shape and size. These are always living. o Apical meristem: Present at the shoot and the root tips and axillary buds. It brings about an increase in the length of v1ant. o Lateral meristem: Present almost parallel to the long axis of the organs ego cork cambium, vascular cambium. It brings about an increase in the width or growth of the organ. o Intercalary meristem: Presellt at the base of the internodes and leaf sheaths of monocots.)t brings about an increase in the length of the inter node. Permanent tissue: That has lost the power of division. They have attained a definite form and size. They may be living or dead. It is of two types: simple and complex permanent tissue. Simple Permanent tissue: It is made up of only one kind of cells. o Parenchyma: These are roughly spherical to elongated as in rays of wood and packing tissues of Xylem and Phloem. Their function is to store food materials. They also provide support in herbaceous plants. Their intercellular spaces allow gaseous exchange. Transport of materials also through cell or cell walls. Epidermis: These are living elongated and flattened single layer of cells covering entire primary plant body, provide protection.

o o

Mesophyll and endoderm are also modified parenchymatous cells. Collenchyma: These are living elongated and polygonal with tapering end cells found in outer region of cortex, mid-rib of leaves etc that provide mechanical support and store food materials. Sclerenchyma: It is also a simple permanent type. of tissue and is composed of fibers and sclerids. They are mainly responsible for providing strength and mechanical support.

Complex permanent tissue: It is made up of more than one kind of cells ego Xylem and Phloem. o Xylem: It is mixture of living and dead cells and responsible for conduction of water and minerals. Tracheids: These are elongated cells with tapering ends. The wall constituting tracheids are hard thick and lignified. These are primitive water conducting tissues in Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Vessels: These are cylindrical tube like structure in angiosperm and provide system for transportation in tall plants. Wood fibers: Associate of scalerenchyma and xylem provides mechanical support Wood Parenchyma: Associate of living parenchymatous cells and xylem helps in lateral conduction of water and minerals. o Phloem: It is the mixture of living and dead cells, meant for conduction of prepared food. Sieve tube: These are living elongated and tubular structure meant for translocation of solutes (food). Companion cells: These are living elongated and narrow structures work in association with sieve tubes. Phloem Fiber: association of Phloem and Parenchyma. Phloem Parenchyma: association of Phloem and Sclerenchyma. Glandular tissue: These are special types of tissues meant for secretion and excretion of various substances like gums resins, mucilage, nectar, latex etc.

ALGAE
Characteristic: They possess chlorophyll hence are autotrophic. They reserves food in the form of starch or some allied carbohydrates. Their cell wall contains cellulose and pectin. They live in aquatic and semi aquatic habitat. Algae are divided into seven groups. The distinguishing characters of three main groups are presented in the following table.

Attributes

Habitat

Rhodophyta Phaecophyta Chlorophyta (Red algae) (Brown (Green algae) algae) .. Mostly in Mostly in Mostly in warm sea, cool sea, freshwater, some some in fresh very few in marine and Water. Fresh water. Chlorophyll a and c, fucoxanthin, carotenoids. Terrestrials. Chlorophyll a.

Pigments.

Chlorophyll a and c, blue phycobilin, red phycoerythrin. Cell wall Cellulose and composition Pectin. Reserved food Floridean starch

Cellulose and Cellulose. alginic acid. Laminarin Typical starch starch and mannitol and few fat.

Examples Chondrus, Laminaria, Chlamydomonas, Porphyra, Fucus, Ulothrix, Polysiphonia. Sargassum, Spirogyra. Macrocystis. I

FUNGI General characteristics They are eukaryotic and heterotrophic. Cell wall is made up of chitin (cellulose in others). The stored food material is glycogen (starch in others). Plant body is called mycelium, which is made up of large number of thread-like structure called hyphae.

Lower fungi: the fungi, which do not have septa in their hyphae. Higher fungi: the fungi, which have septa in their hyphae. Coenocytic hyphae: hyphae without septa. Haustorium: structure of fungi present inside the host cell, which absorbs food materials from the cell. Sporophore(fruiting body\ basidiocarp): special structure fromed by higher fungi where spores are produced. Mushroom: umbrella like sporophyte produced by certain Basidiomycetes. Structure of basidiocarp: basidiocarp is composed of the following structures: Stipe: cylindrical and fleshy stalk of basidiocarp. Annulus: ring like structure found at the upper portion of the stipe.

Pileus: cap like structure situated on the stipe. Gills: lines extending from center to the periphery of the pileus. Gills are situated on the ventral surface of the pileus and bear spores.

Primary hyphae: uninucleate hyphae produced from spores. Secondary hyphae: binucleate hyphae derived from primary hyphae. Edible mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus, Agaricus campestris, Rusmila adusta, Lentillus edodes, Volvariella volvacea, etc.

Poisonous mushrooms: Amanita muscaria, Amanita verna, anita phel/oides, Amanita pantherina, etc. Toadstool: poisonous mushroom. Mycetismus: Mushroom poisoning.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

Harmful activities: Spoilage of food Plant diseases Animal diseases Food poisoning, etc.

Useful activities: Decomposition of organic materials Production of alcohol from carbohydrates (Brewing industry) Makes the breads soft and porous (Baking industry) Production of citric acid from molasses. Production of antibiotics. Production of vitamins, enzymes and other useful chemicals. Etc.

LICHENS

Lichens are the entities made from permanent association of algae and fungi. Algae associated in lichens are called phycobionts. Fungi associated in lichens are called mycobionts. Lichens are the best example of symbiosis. Symbiosis is the relationship between two different organisms in which both the organisms are benefited from each other.

Theophrastus (371-284 B.C.) had coined the term lichen. Soredia: reproductive structures produced by lichens, which is composed of both algal and fungal partners. Bio-indicator of air pollution: lichens are called bioindicator of air pollution because they tell us the degree of air pollution. In a particular area, higher the population or lichens, lower is the air pollution in that area.

Lichens are classified into three groups on the basis of phycobionts present in the lichens. Basidiolichens: Lichens in which mycobiont belongs to basidiomycetes. Deuterolichens: Lichens in which mycobiont belongs to deuteromycetes. Ascolichens: Lichens in which mycobiont belongs to ascomycetes. Types: on the basis of morphology, lichens are divided into three types (forms of lichens). Crustose: spread as hard, granular crust on substratum and cannot be separated from the substratum without damage of thalli, e.g. Graphis, Haematoma, Lecanora, Lecidia, etc. Foliose: resemble flattened leathery leaves and are attached at one or few places on substratum. The thalli can be separated from the substratum without damage, e.g. Paramelia, Physcia, Peltigera, Gyrophora, etc. Fructiose: look like a network of slender branches. The thalli are attached to the substratum with the help of a disc present at their base, e.g. Cladonia, Usnea, Ramalina, Cladonia, etc ..

BACTERIA
Bacteria are prokaryotic organism composed of only one cell (unicellular). They are 20-50 times smaller than average animal or plant cell. They may range from 0.110J.lm in size. A teaspoon of fresh milk may contain more than 3,000 million and 1 gm of fertile soil about 100 million bacteria. They can survive in wide range of temperature, more than 60C and less than 0oC. Some bacteria are externally covered by a capsule or slime layer. Presence of this layer makes the bacteria virulent. Bacterial cell wall is composed of murein or peptidoglycan. Gram-positive bacteria have thick cell wall and retain a blue colored stain called gram stain. Gram negative bacteria have thin cell wall and do not retain the blue colored stain called gram stain. Gram stain was first developed by Hans Christian Gram, in 1884.

Form (shape) of bacteria Coccus (pI. cocci): spherical or globular. Bacillus (pI. bacilli): cylindrical or rod shaped. Spirillum (pI. spirilla): coiled or twisted. Vibro (pI. vibrios): curved like comma.

Nutrition A. Autotrophic bacteria: These bacteria can prepare their food themselves. Photoautotrophs: These bacteria use sunlight for the preparation of their food. These bacteria possess bacterio-chlorophyll.

Chemoautotrophs: These bacteria use chemical energy for the preparation of their food. Chemoautotrophs are of following types: I. Nitrifying bacteria: use the energy released during oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate, for the synthesis of food. Sulphur oxidizing bacteria: use the energy released during conversion of hydrogen sulphide and sulphur to sulphate, for the synthesis of food.

II.

III. Iron bacteria: use the energy released during oxidation of ferrous ion to ferric ion, for the synthesis of food. B. Heterotrophic bacteria: These bacteria couldnt prepare organic food themselves and depends on food prepared by other organisms. I. Saprophytes: these bacteria obtain food from dead and decaying matter. II. Parasites: These bacteria obtain food from other living organisms.

Some useful aspects of bacteria: Decomposes varieties of organic matters. Inhabits in the gut of human and probably contribute vitamin B of K group. Increase the fertility of soil by fixing atmospheric nitrogen to the soil. Major source of antibiotics. Ferment lactose of milk in lactic acid, which changes the milk into curd.

Some diseases caused by bacteria Chlorea is caused by Vibrio cholerae. Typhoid is caused by Salmonella pallidum. Syphillis is caused by Treponema pallidum. Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani. Clostridium species causes anthrax in cattle. Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Leprosy is caused by Mycobacterium leprae. Bacterial influenza is caused by Hemophilus influenzae. Whooping caught is caused by Hemophillls pertusis. Pneumonia is caused by Diplococcus pneumoniae.

VIRUS

VIRUS is the term derived from latin word which means 'poison'. A virus particle is called viron, which is about 50 times smaller than bacteria. The name virus was given by Beijerink(1898). Adolf Mayer (1886) undertook the first serious study of virus and discovered that tobacco mosaic disease could be transmitted through the sap of diseased plant. Holmes (1948) classified virus into three groups as- plant virus, animal virus and bacterio-phages; on the basis of host. Lwoff (1966) kept all the viruses into a single phylum vira. He further divided it into two groups as- DNA viruses and RNA viruses. Animal virus: DNA virus. Plant virus: RNA virus.

Structure Virus is made up of two components-nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and caspid (protein). Nucleic acid forms a core which is Surrnded by caspid. Some animal viruses are externally covered by an envelope made up of protein. Characteristics: Viruses express the characteristics of both living and non-living substances.

Non-living characters (Molecular theory): They do not respire and show no metabolism. They are not made up of cell. They can be crystallized. They cannot live independent of living cell. They do not contain both the nucleic acids.

_Living characters (organismal theory): They are obligate parasite. They are capable of multiplication. They possess enzymes. They are infective and capable of spreading diseases. They respond to environment such as temperature and ultraviolet rays. General information of few common viral diseases

Viral disease Name of \Virus Poliomyclitis Polio virus

Organs affected Pharynx, spinal cord

Medium of

Preventive

transmission measures Saliva, facces Poli o drop s

Common cold

Rhinovirus Upper respiratory tract Respiratory organs Mouth. respiratory tract, intestine, skin

Sneezing

Control of droplets infe

Influcnza Measles

Myxovirus Paramyxo virus

Sneezing Saliva

ctio Conlrul of droplets n infe ctio Gamaglobulin vacc n inati on

Yellow fever Arbo virus

Blood vessels liver

Mosquito biting

K away from c mos e quit p oes -Anti rabies Vaccination

Rabies

Rabies Virus

Spinal cord

Saliva

Viral encephalitis Mumps

Encephalitis virus Paramyxo virus

Brain, spinal cord Respiratory tract, salivary glands Skin, blood, brain

Birds, animals, mosquitoes Sneezing, saliva

Keep away animals mosquitoes

from and

Control of droplet infection

AIDS

Retro virus

Saliva, blood, sex

Use of disposable syringe, avoid sex with affected people

Name of the virus causing any particular disease of a plant comes from the name of host plant and the name of the disease, e.g. Mosaic disease of Tobacco is caused by Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV). Symptoms of viral diseases of plants (viral diseases of plants): Chlorosis: uniform yellowing of leaf. Ring spot: yellowish rings on leaves Mosaic: irregular light green or yellow patches on the green background of leaves, flowers and fruits. Leaf distortion: curling of infected leaves. Blossom breaking: falling down of flowers and fruits prematurely.

Mode of transmission of plant diseases By grafting By insects (",lectors) By soil By seed By roots By contact By fungi By nematodes, etc. Control of viral diseases of plants By ( rogueing )removal of diseased parts and burnt. By controlling insect vectors By using resistant varieties of plants By selecting disease free seeds By disinfecting agricultural tools

Size of some common viruses Tobacco mosaic virus: 300 nm x 17.5 nm Myxovirus: 800 nm x10 nm Polio virus: 27-30 nm in diameter Alfalfa mosaic virus: 17 nm in diameter Herpes virus: 80 nm in diameter

Reproduction: A. Bacteriophagic: This type of reproduction takes place inside the bacterial cell. Lytic cycle: in this cycle, virus sends its DNA or RNA (genome) inside a bacterial cell and multiplies inside the cell. Finally large numbers of viruses are released from the bacterial cell by rupturing its cell wall. By the end of the reproduction the host cell dies. Hence the viruses undergoing this cycle are called virulent. Lysogenic cycle: in this cycle, virus sends its DNA or R N A (genome) inside a bacterial cell and' gets associated with the bacterial chromosome. Now the viral genome is called prophage and multiplies during the multiplication of the bacteria. During this cycle the host cell does not die.

Pteridophyta
It is considered as the highly evolved group of flowering plants. It includes the earliest plants that invaded the I hence are called the first land plants. They are also known as vascular plants as they possess vascular cylinder made up of xylem and phloem. Those tissues are responsible for. the conduction of water and food respectively.

General characters I. The plant body is sporophyte 2. The gametophyte is small and inconspicuous 3. The plant body is differentiated in to stem roots and leaves 4. The plants are perennial and possess vascular tissue. 5. It shows alternation of generation in its life cycle. 6. It reproduces by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. 7. Antherozoids are multiflagellate 8. Embrogy stage is present

Classification Div : Class : Order : Family : Genus :

pteridophyta Filicinea Filicales Polypodiacea Pteridium

Fern is a sporophytic plant. It grows in cool, shady and moist places. The plant consists of underground horizontal rhizome which gives out adventitious roots from underside and fronds from upper side. The frond is pinnately compound. The rachis gives out lateral leaflets, the pinnae, which in turn divide into lobed pinnules. Young leaflets are circinate. Rachis and rhizome are covered with brownish scale called tamenta. The ventral surface of the frond bears rows of sporangia grouped in sorous. Fern reproduces asexually by spores. The sporangia are produced in kidney- shaped sorus which is roofed by epidermal flap of tissue called illJusium. The V.S. of sporophyll passing through the sorous shows a number of sporangia attached on the swollen placenta. Each golden - brown sporangium consists of a short stalk and a biconvex capsule surrounded by a wall composed of large and transparent cells. It is accomplished by a special band of cutinized cells, called annulus, which encircles two- third of sporangium and the remaining one-third portion is occupied by the thin walled cell, the stromium. The prothallus is the early stage of gametophyte. It is a flat heart- shaped structure with a deep apical notch at the expanded side. Number of hair like rhizoids come out from the under surface of it. It being bisexual, its underside bears antheridia towards the posterior region and the flask- shaped archegonia around the notch.

Antheriditim is a single layered spherical body filled with coiled multiciliate antherizoids. Archegonium consists of a small neck and a swollen venter. The venter contains a large ovum and a venter cell above it. The neck contains a row of neck canal cells. Mucilage oozes from the archegonium attracts the multi flagellate antherozoids. Antherozoids move to archegonium and enter into the venter, where only one antherozoid fuses with egg 'nucleus and rest of them degenerate. In this way diploid zygote is formed. Zygote develops a wall around it and becomes Oospores. The

oospore divide continuously to form embryo. The young sporophyte is developed from embryo.

CLASSIFICATION:

Taxonomy or systematic botany is the science of identification, naming and classification or arrangement of plants. The process or phenomenon of the arrangement of plants into groups on the basis of their similarities is called classification. The various units of classification are termed as texa. The texa are arranged in descending order from kingdom to family. The process of giving names to organisms is called nomenclature. The system of nomenclature where organisms are provided with two-word names is called binomial nomenclature. The first word name is called genus and the second word name is called species. Theophrastus (370-285 B.C.), father of botany, was the first person to classify the plants as trees, shrubs, under shrubs and hel bs. Carl Linnuacs (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist, was the first person to attempt a through classification of living' organisms and to use binomial nomenclature. Artificial system of classification: in this system of classification, plants are classified on the basis of one or few characters only, for example, the separation of plants into trees, shrubs, under shrubs and herbs. Natural system of classification: in this system of classification;plants are classified on the basis of allimportant morphological characters. Phylogenetic system of classification: in this system of classification, plants are classified on the basis of their evolutionary and genetic characters . Benthan and Hooker's system of classification is the natural system of classification, published in the book "Genera Plantarum". In this classification, 9,205 species of seed plants are included in 202 orders (families). Engler and Prantel's system of classification (1884-1930) is the phylogenetic system of classification, publisheu in a book named "Syllabus per pflanzenlamilien".

Monocotyledons The seed have one cotyledon. They have long leaves with parallel venation. They have fibrous roots. Stem is differentiated into distinct nodes and internodes. ,

Dicotyledons The seeds have two cotyledons, They have broad leaves with reticu late venation. They have adventitious roots. Stem is not differentiated into distinct nodes and internodes.

Elements of heredity and variation

Like begets is a grand old saying and it is true to some extent. It is an observation of common experience that the offsprings resembles its parents in a general way. We known that majority of the organisms start their life as a zygote which is formed he fusion of two gametes. The single celled zygote divides repeatedly by mitotic divisions to produce an adult resembling its parents. The passage of characteristics from parents to their offspring from one generation to another is termed as heredity. In other words, It can be said that the science of heredity deals with the transmission of similarities and the differences form parents to offspring, which are passed on through extremely small chemical unit of heredity called genes. These genes by interaction with the internal environment control the development of a trail. The word genetics was derived from the Greek root "gen" which means to become or to grow into and it was coined by Bateson in 1906 for study of physiology of heredity and variation.

Genetics: "The branch of science which deals with the transmission characters from parents to offspring from generation to generation is known as Genetics." Mendelism Mendel did some experiments on common pea from 1857-1865. From the results of these experiments, he formulated laws of Inheritance. These laws of Mendel are called Mendel's laws of inheritance or Mendelism. Mendel considered one character for a time and he named this type of experiment as monohybrid experiment. When two different characters are taken into account (use) the experiment is known as dihybrid experiment.

Experiments: Monohybrid crosses: Firstly Mendel concentrated his attention on only one pair contrasting characters at a time and he traced them carefully through many generations. He named this type of study 'as monohybrid cross.

For monohybrid cross he selected a tall plant [TT] and a dwarf plant [ttJ.He artificially crossed them. The offspring of this cross were all tall plants and they were hybrid (impure). He named this - generation as first filial generation or F,-generation. He collected seeds from these plants and planted in next year. These plants gave rise to a mixed type plants and they were tall and dwarf iu a ratio or 3: I. This generation was named as second filial generation or frgeneration.

Tall Plant [TT] T Gamets Tall plants Tt-F-1 generation [hybrid] Tall plants Tt-F, generation [hybrid] [Pollen Grain] [Ovule] Tt X Tt

Dwarf Plant [tt] t

2. Dihybrid: In dihybrid cross experiment; Mendel selected two pairs of contrasting characters at a time; the two characters were tall plant with red flower and dwarf plant with white flowers. lIe crossed them artificially and in F I generation, he found all the plants were tall with red flowers. I-Ie collected seeds from these plants .and planted for the F2 generation. In F2 gelienition, found segregat ion( separat ion] of characters showing _ all _ possible combination in a ralio 0(9:3:3: I and the plants were of four types. For example. tall red. tall white, dwal f red illld dwarf white. Pure: Tall Red White X Dwalfwhite TTRR ttrr Gamete: TR tr TRtr-F1-Generation

TR TR Tr tR tr TTRR TTRr TtRR TtRr

Tr TTRr TTrr TtRr Ttrr

tR TtRR TtRr ttRR ttRr

tr TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr

Tall red: 1,2,3,4,5,7,9,10,13 Tall white: 6,8,14 Dwarfred: 11,12,and 15 Dwarf white:'

=9 =3 =3 =1

Thus 9:3:3:.1.is dihybrid ratio Number 1,6,11 and 16 are homozygous while the rest are heterozygous.

Mendel's law of Inheritance: Mendel conducted two experiments and observed the suIts of these experiments. On the results of these experiments he Irmulated four laws for inheritance, they are described below:

1. Law of unit character 2. Law of dominance 3. Law of segregation 4. Law of independent assortment

1. Law of unit Character: An organism has many characters and all these characters function as a unit and give a particular appearance of that organism. All these characters are known as unit characters. Each character has at least two factors which are called genes. These genes factors express the characters during the development of the organism for which they are responsible. If an organism has similar genes (factor) for a character, it is known as homozygous; and the organism having different genes for a character is called heterozygous. The homozygous and heterozygous organisms are also known as pure and hybrid respectively.

2. Law of Dominance: Mendel gave some very good explanation for the observed results for his crossing experiment. In these experiments, only one character appeared in F 1-generation and the other character remain hidden in the members of F,generation. According Mendel a character which appears in the F, generation is called dominant character and which fails to appear in F1 generation, is called recessive character. For example in Mendel's crossing experiment of tall and dwarf plant, the tallness was dominant over the dwarfness in F1 generation. Therefore all the plants of F, generation were tall. The dwarfness however is not completely eliminated and it reappeared later in F2 generation and so the F2 generation had two types of plants: tall and dwarf. Similarly dominant and recessive characters are also found in animals. Example: When a tall pea plant is crossed with a dwarf pea plant, only tall plants are produced ill the first generation .Thus tallness is dominant character and dwarfness is recessive character.

Tall Plant (Homozygous) Gamets (F-1 generation) TT T Tt

Dwaf Plant tt t

Tall Plant (Heterozygous)

3.Law of Segregation: The Mendel's law segregation may be defined as nonmixing of characters in the hybrid. In Mendel's tall and dwarf experiment only hybrid tall plants were appeared in F1 generation but in F2 generation two types of plant [tall and dwarf] were appeared. The reason of appearing second type of plant (dwarf) is that the two characters tallness and dwarfness of plant did not mix in the hybrid of F 1 generation. Therefore, the dwarfness results dwarf plant in the F2 generation. Example: When a tall plant is crossed with dwarf pea plant [Monohybrid cross], only tall plants [Heterozygotes) are produced in F1 generation. When F1 individuals are crossed again two types of plant: tall and dwarf are produced in F2 generation in the ratio of 3:1. This is because each F 1 individual forms two types of gametes by process of segregation.

4.Law of Independent Assortment: In the segregation of characters, all the characters segregated from each other and after segregation, they have chances for independent combination. As, when a dihybrid cross was made between two plants (having tall size with red flowers and dwarf size with white flowers, a third and fourth type were also appeared in F 2 generation. They were tall with white flowers and dwarf with red flowers. It means the characters like tallness and dwarfness of plant and red color and white color of the flower segregated from each other and they got chances to combine as tall with red color independently giving the two more types of plants. Example: Dihybrid cross.

DNA [Deoxyribo Nucleic acid] Introduction: DNA is genetic material of all living organisms except in case of some plant viruses, where RNA [Ribonucleic acid] acts as genetic material. The Swiss biochemist F. Meischer [1809] discovered DNA, calling it nuclein from the nuclei of pus cells. As the nuclein had acid properties, it was later called nucleicacid. Lattcr Avery, Mac Leod and Mc. Carty (1944] for the first time elucidated the role of DNA in heredity by experiments with bacteria and viruses ( Bacteriophases). Occurrence It is found in chromosomes within the nucleus of the eukaryotic cells. In case of prokaryotic cells, it is found naked and freely suspended in cytoplasm. A small amount of DNA is also found in the cell organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast.

Chemistry of DNA: It is macromolecule which is most complicated molecule in the living system and forms the chemical basis of life. It is composed of three kinds of molecules. 1. Pentose Sugar [Deoxyribose sugar lacking one oxygen atom in its molecule] 2. Phosphoric acid [H3P04] phosphate.
3. Nitrogen base of two types: i) Purine ii) Pyrimidine-

Adenin & Guanin Thymine & Cytosine

Watson and crick model of DNA: Watson.and crick L 1953] proposed a double helical L twisted ladder like] model of DNA molecule. According to them, DNA occurs double strand molecules with two strands spirally coiled throughout the length. Each strand is formed by end to end polymerization of large number of repeated building units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three sub-units phosphate. Deoxyribose sugar and nitrogen base either purine or pyrimidine. The back bone of helix is constructed entirely of sugar and phosphate in alternate sequence [s-p-s-p-s]. The two strands are held by hydrogen bonds which are established between the base pairs; each base pair is composed of two types of bases viz: -purine and pyrimidine. Adenin always pairs with thymine with the help of two hydrogen bonds and guanine pairs with cytosine by means of three hydrogen bonds. So once the sequence of bases in one strand of DNA double helix is known; the sequence bases in other strand are also known. The two strands are thus said to be complimentary. Genetic complementary of the two strands make DNA uniquely situated to store and transmit genetic information. There is fixed distance of 20A in between the two sugars (diameter). The inter nucleotide distance is 3.4 A. Each complete turn of double helix consists of 10 base pairs. The sugar phosphate back bones of the two complimentary strands are anti-parallel, i.e. they have opposite chemical polarity.

Function: i. Due to its capacity of' precise self replication, DNA is responsible for transmission of hereditary characters from generation to generation. ii. It controls biosynthetic process of cell like protein synthesis. iii. It controls the activities of cells. iv. It is tile genetic material, so during meiosis, crossing over gives rise to new combinaLion of genes recombination. v. DNA gives rise to RNA.

MUTATION Introduction: The importance of continuous small variation was recognized by Charle's Darwin, in his theory 'Natural Selection'. The useful variations are selected by nature and play a role in evolution. The term mutation was introduced by Hugo-de Varies in 1901 for marked inheritable variation appearing suddenly in the plant named evening primose Oenothera lamarkiana. He noted 834 mutations (variations) among 54343 plants of Oenothera lmarkiana. However, now we find that all the variations noted by him were probably not mutation. Details about mutations were studied by T.H. Morgan in 1910, while working the fruit fly drosophila melanogester. "Mutation is defined, as sudden, heritable change in the structure of a gene on chromosome or number of chromosome." mutation brings about a change in the genetic message of the cell.

Classification: Mutations are classified into two types: 1. Gene mutation or micro mutation. 2. Chromosomal mutation or macro mutation.

1. Gene mutations or micro mutation: Since genes appear like a point in the chromosome, therefore, gene mutation is also called point mutation. During gene, mutation, a stable change occurs in the structure of gene or small functional fragment of DNA. Entire fragment of DNA (genes) need lot be altered but a change in only one pair or few pairs of Nitrogenous bases can amount to a mutation. They cannot be observed under a microscope. They are detected, when they cause a Noticeable change in the phenotype of the organism. Gene mutations are of three types on the basis of kind of change in the base sequence.

i. Deletion: In this type of gene mutation one or more base pairs are lost from a segment of DNA molecule. ii. Insertion: In this type of gene mutation one or more base pairs are introduced into segment of DNA molecule. iii. Substitutions: In this type of gene mutations one or more base pairs are changed with others. It is of two types: a) Transition: In these types of substitution one kind of purine base is replaced by another kind of purine base or one kind of pyrimidene base is replaced by another kind of pyrimidien base. b) Transversion: In this substitution, purine base is replaced by pyrimidine base of vice-versa.

2.

Chromosomal Mutation: A change in the structure or number of chromosomes is called chromosomal mutation. It is of following types: i. Morphological changes in chromosome. ii. Numerical change in chromosome.

A. Morphological Changes in Chromosome: The morphological changes in chromosome are brought about by following ways:

i.

Deletion: Loss of a fragment of a chromosome is called deletion. The affected chromosome losses certain genes and become shorter than normal. ii. Inversion: A segment of chromosome separates and rejoins it in inverted or reverse position. Inversion changes sequence of nitrogenous bases in the chromosomes. Both these changes affect a single chromosome. iii. Duplication: A fragment of chromosome breaks off and joins a homologous chromosome causing a duplication of certain genes. iv. Translocation: A fragment of chromosome breaks off and joins a non-homologous chromosome. Both the affected chromosomes get modified. The donor becomes shorter than normal due to deletion and the recipient becomes longer than normal and has an extra set of genes.

B. Numerical Changes in Chromosomes: Variation in chromosome numbers occurs in two ways: 1. Aneuploidy 2. Euploidy

Aneuploidy: Whenever there is addition or deletion of one or more chromosomes from the usual diploid of chromosomes, it is known aneuploidy, sometimes the two homologous chromosomes of a particular pair fail to separate in meiosis, so that gamete produced will have either particular chromosome missing or in excess. When these abnormal gametes fuse with normal ones during fertilization, the zygote will have abnormal number of chromosomes and is called Aneuploidy. The aneuploids are of fol1owing types: i. Trisomies: It is addition of one chromosome (2n+ 1) ii. Monosomies: It is a loss of one chromosome from a set of chromosomes of a diploid genome (2n-1) iii. Tetrasomies: It is an addition of two chromosomes (2n+2) iv. Nullisomics: It is loss of two chromosomes (2n-2)

Euploidys An alternation in the sets of chromosomes or addition of one or more complete sets of chromosomes is cal1ed euploidy. A triploid has three sets of chromosomes, tetraploid has four sets of chromosomes, and polyploidy has many sets of chromosomes, polyploids are common among plants and rare is animal kingdom. Common wheat with 42 chromosomes is hexaploid (6n).

ADAPTATIONS Organisms develop certain morphological, anatomical, physiological and reproductive features so as to make themselves fit to their habitat (environment). Any feature of an organism or its part, which enables it to exist under conditions of its habitat, is called adaptation. On the basis of water requirement and nature of soils, plants re classified as follows: 1. Hydrophytes: plants growing in or near water.

Adaptive features of hydrophytes: Roots are poorly developed with few or no root hairs. Body surface can absorb water and nutrients.

Mechanical and vascular tissues are poorly developed. Leaves have few or no stomata. Air chambers are developed in leaves and stem. Osmotic concentration of cell sap is equal or slightly higher than that of water. Most of them have broad leaves with long and flexible petioles. Body is generally covered with the cuticle.

2.

Xerophytes: plants growing under the condition of very poor supply of available water in the habitat. Xerophytes are further classified on the basis of their habitat Oxylophytes: plants growing on acidic soils. Halophytes: plants growing on saline soils. Lithophytes: plants growing on rocks. Psammophytes: plants growing on sand and gravel. Chersophytes: plants growing on waste land. Eremophytes: plants growing on deserts and steppes. Psychrophytes: plants growing on cold .soils. Psilophytes: plants growing on savannah. Sclerophytes: plants growing on forest and bush land.

Adaptive features of xerophytes: Roots are well developed. They have both, superficial and deep penetrating roots. Stems are covered with thick coating of wax and silica. In some, stems are modified into thrones. Most have succulent stem. Leaves are small and caduceus (falling early in the season). In some, leaves are modified into scales. In some, leaves are needle shaped. Xerophytic grasses have rolling leaves. Stomata are few and sunken. They have thick epidermis. Stomata are often covered with hairs, Cells have high osmotic pressure. Fruits and seeds are covered by very hard and impervious covering. [All these structural and physiological features are meant to increase absorption of water and to prevent loss of water.] 3. Mesophytes: plants growing in an environment that is neither very dry nor very wet.

Ecology: Study of plants in reciprocal relationship with their environment. Ecosystem: The term ecosystem was given by A.G. Tansley (in 1935). According to Fitzpatrick (1974) a group of organisms interacting among them and with environment is known as ecosystem. An ecosystem receives solar energy, mineral nutrients, water and gases from the environment and discharges heat, organic compounds, O2 and CO2. Thus any area of nature, in which living organisms and nonliving environment interact leading to flow of energy and cycling of material makes the ecosystem.

Components of Ecosystem:
Ecosystem is divided into two components: 1. Biotic components - On the basis of production and Consumption, the green plants are called producer components and other living organisms like animals are called consumer components. Consumers are of four types i. First consume E.g. Cow, goat, deer. ii. Second consumer e.g. frog eats grasshopper. iii. Third consumer e.g. bird eats fishes. iv. Top carnivores, g. Lion, vulture etc. The green plants are called primary producers and heterotrophic organisms are considered as secondary producers. The primary and secondary producers complete their life cycles and new generations of population develop while old ones die and decay.
2.

Abiotic components - The abiotic components are mainly of two types-the materials and the energy. The materials are like water, minerals, salts, atmospheric gases etc. and energy is he light, heat, stored energy in chemical bonds etc.

Types of ecosystem: For the sake of convenience ecosystem can be divided into 2 major categories: 1. Natural ecosystems: These function by theme-selves, under natural conditions without any interference by man. On the basis of particular kind of habitat, they are of following types: A. Terrestrial ecosystem - They are again of three types: a. Forest ecosystem b. Grassland ecosystem c. Desert ecosystem. B. Aquatic ecosystem - They are of three types: i. Fresh water environments - They may be lotic (running water e.g., rivers and streams) or lentic (standing water e.g., ponds, pools, lakes, swamp and ditches). ii. Marine water environment- This environment is characterized by its high concentration of salt and mineral ions. The salinity of the surface water at different depths and latitudes varies slightly. The sea environment can be further subdivided into distinct ecosystems both in abiotic and biotic composition. Other important determinants of marine ecosystems are depth of water, distance from shore and drainage of glaciers and rivers. The vertical zones of the ocean are determined by the availability of light for the process of photosynthesis. The lighted upper 200 meters part forms the photic or euphotic zone. The next zone up to the depth 200-2000 meters is called, aphotic zone which gets less light, insufficient for photosynthesis. Below 2000 meters is the area of darkness whirl, is called abyssal zone. There are three major environments in the ocean basin: (i) The Littoral zone - Which comprises of the sea floor from the shore to the edge of the continental shelf. (ii) The Benthonic zone -Which is formed of the sea fl90r along the continental slope and the aphotic and abyssal zones. (iii) The Pelagic zone - Which is constituted of the water of the ocean basin. Marine life can be classified into three groups: i. Plankton - It consists of slowly drifting or floating organisms. These are minute organisms,

with weak or no locomotary organs, and are confined to euphotic zone. The plankton includes phytopklankton (photosynthesising organisms e.g., Diatoms) and zooplankton (heterotrophic organisms e.g., small crustaceans). ii. Nektons - These consists of actively moving organisms well developed locomotary organs. They feed on plankton and smaller nektons. iii. Benthonic organisms - These are found along the floor of the seabed.

C. Estuarine environments - A semi-enclosed coastal part of water that has free connection with the open sea. This environment can be divided into littoral (substratum), Neretic (water) and intertidal.

2.

Artificial/ecosystems (Manmade ecosystems): These are maintained artificially by man various croplands (e.g. Maize, wheat, rice, sugarcane fields etc.) Are manmade ecosystems.

Limiting Factors: When the limits of tolerance for or a few factors are approached, those factors usually take on greater importance than all other' in determining where or how well an organism survives. i.e. more critical factors become Hello limiting factors because impose restraints on the distribution, health or activities of the organism.

This concept of limiting factors is summarized by the law minimum. Examples of this law are very common. Low amounts phosphate in a lake drastically reduce algae growth, which in turn is the growth of all consumers. The amount of zinc in soil is usually so scarce that it alone limits the yield of many agricultural crops.

Ecological Niche: Each organism in an ecosystem occupies a specific habitat, physical location in which the organism lives - the bottom of a lake, under a rock, inside another organism, and so on. But in addition to needing space to live and reproduce, organisms also need energy and nutrients. The process by which they acquire them determines their 'roles' in an ecosystem they may be producers, consumers, decomposers, predators, prey, parasites or competitors. All together, the habitat requirements for environmental resources tolerance ranges for each abiotic condition form organisms

Ecological niche: In other words, an ecological niche includes every aspect of an organism's existence where it lives, all its activities, requirements and effects Energy flow in ecosystem: Green plants fix solar energy in the form of complex chemical bonds. This energy is utilized by other organisms which pass it on to other organisms. During this process a good proportion of energy is lost out of the living system this process is called flow of energy. In any ecosystem, the number of organisms and the rate at which they live depend on the rate at which energy flows through the system and the rate at which materials circulate within the system and are exchanged with adjacent system or both. It is important to know that nitrogen, CO 2, water and other materials, of which living organism is composed, can rotate many times between living and non-living. While on the other hand, energy is used once by an organism of population and it is converted into heat and is soon lost from the ecosystem.

Food chains and food webs: Energy flows through ecosystems as the individuals of one population feed on those of another. The populations in an ecosystem form food chains in which the producers produce food for the other populations, which are consumers. Natural ecosystems have numerous food chains each linked to others to form a complex food web. Energy flow is better described in terms of trophic levels. The first trophic level in an ecosystem is occupied by plant producers (photosynthetic). The energy stored in food of green plants is consumed by the herbivores, which make the second trophic level. Herbivores are eaten by carnivores which occupy third trophic level. Carnivores may be eaten by other carnivores that occupy fourth trophic level. Decomposers occupy the fifth trophic level in the ecosystem. Green plant Herbivore Carnivore Top Carnivore Decomposers.

Ecological Pyramids: There is a relationship between the numbers, biomass and energy constants of primary producers, consumers of first, second, third orders to top carnivores in any ecosystem. These relationships are referred to as Ecological pyramids. The trophic structure of all ecosystems can be summarized in the form of an ecological pyramid. The base of pyramid represents producer trophic level; the apex is the tertiary or some higher consumer, and the other consumer trophic level is in between. There are three kinds of pyramids:

1.

Pyramids of Numbers: They show the relationship between produces, herbivores and carnivores (consumers) at successive trophic levels in terms of number. The shape of the pyramid may be upright or inverted. In grassland and crop ecosystem the shape of the pyramid may be upright where producers are maximum in number primary, secondary and tertiary consumers constitute the successive trophic levels, last level makes the apex. In a tree ecosystem shape of the pyramid is inverted if a single tree supports number of fruit eating birds and birds in turn support still large number of parasites like bug etc.

2.

Pyramid of biomass The biomass is the total fresh or dry weight of all living organisms in a certain unit area. The shape of the pyramid of mass may be upright or inverted. In terrestrial ecosystem the shape of tile pyramid may be upright where the mass of primary producers is maximum and biomass of top carnivores is minimum. In aquatic ecosystem the pyramid is inverted where the biomass of consumer is more than that of nary producers. Pyramids of Energy: The shape of the pyramid of energy is always upright. This type of pyramid shows pattern of energy accumulation at different trophic levels. Primary producers are characterized by maximum energy value and at each successive tires of consumers, the energy value is decreased. Therefore there is a gradual decrease in the content of energy at successive trophic levels from producers to consumers.

3.

Biomes: Large terrestrial ecosystems are called biomes. Plants form the bulk of the living mass in a biome. Each biome is therefore characterized by the predominant type of plant. Dense, tall trees form forest biomes. Short woody plants form shrub lands and grasses and herbs form grasslands. Since the prevailing climate (especially temperature and moisture) is the primary factor in determining the types of plants that grow in an area, the earth's terrestrial biomes tend to follow global climate patterns.

BIOSPHERE: The entire part of the earth including the biotic and abiotic components constitutes the biosphere. The global environment Consist of three parts. (i) Hydrosphere - It includes all the water components of the earth e.g., oceans, seas, rivers and other island water bodies. (ii) Lithosphere - It comprises the solid components of the earth crust, rocks etc. (iii) Atmosphere - It consists of gaseous -cover which envelope the entire earth. Thus the biosphere is the combination of the entire inhabited part of the earth and its atmosphere. All the elements and compounds forming the bodies of the living organisms are derived from the upper portion of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. All these elements constantly return into the non-living world during the life and death of the organisms. This Exchange of material between the living and non-living world is called cycling of matter. Thus cycling of materials is a continuous process of absorption of mineralntltrier.lts for the purpose of production, by the organisms and the release and conversion of organic matter into inorganic form. The circular paths of chemical elements passing back and forth in living and non-living system are known as Biogeochemical Cycles. Important roles in mineral cycles are played at one end by green plants which take up the material and at the other end by decomposers, which release the materials for reuse. There are two kinds of cycles of material: (A) Gaseous cycles - These are represented by carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. (B) Sedimentary cycles: These are represented by phosphorus, sulphur and calcium

1.

Carbon Cycle: The main sources of carbon in nature are: (i) The carbon dioxide of the air which is the main source of carbon for the living beings (ii) The fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. Green plants fix the carbon dioxide mainly through photosynthesis to form complex organic food. Plants are eaten by animals. Some proportion of organic matter of green plants contributes to the formation of coal deposits, rocks etc, which return the carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as a result of weathering and combustion. Plants and animals through respiration also return carbon to the atmosphere as free carbon dioxide. In water, gaseous carbon dioxide must first dissolve in water before it can be incorporated into organic compounds by aquatic autotrophs. However, not all the carbon dioxide dissolved in water is used in photosynthesis. As a result, carbon containing bicarbonates and carbonates compounds settle to the bottom of Oceans, streams and lakes. Under certain conditions dead organisms and organic matter are not decayed by the decomposers. Non-decayed organic material may eventually form deposits that turn into fossil fuels, producing a carbon reservoir within the earth. As we burn fossil fuels, we return this carbon to the atmosphere. Therefore the main pathway in carbon cycle is from the air or water of earth into living system and back.

2.

Nitrogen Cycle: Although the earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen gas (N2) only a few microorganisms are able to trap this huge reservoir. These "nitrogen-fixing" microorganisms include some bacteria and cyanobacteria. Nitrogen-fixers convert atmospheric nitrogen gas to ammonia (NH3) in a process called nitrogen fixation. Once nitrogen is converted nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (N0 2) and then nitrate (N03). Plants absorb nitrates and incorporate the inorganic nitrogen into organic molecules-nucleotides and amino acids the fundamental building blocks of DNA, RNA and proteins. When the producers are eaten or die, nitrogen is passed to the consumers or decomposes in a food chain. The decomposers convert nitrogen-containing organic molecules into inorganic ammonia. Ammonia is converted into nitrites and then into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria making nitrogen available again for absorption by plant. Some nitrogen is lost from absorption by plants. Some nitrogen is lost from the cycle during denitrification by Denitrifying bacteria. The nitrogen cycle shows the critical role microorganisms play in the biosphere. Without bacteria there would be insufficient nitrogen recycled and without bacteria-dependent nitrogen fixati0!1, there would be no source of nitrogen usable by producers and by the consumers they support. Without bacteria, life on earth would cease.

Zoology

1. Phylum protozoa.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Porifea Coelenterata Platyhelminthes Nemathelminthes Annelida Earthworm 7. Arthropoda

Plasmodium vivax Paramecium-

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Periplaneta americana

Ecoriomic importance of insects to man. Types of mouth parts of insects. Life cycle of mosquito. Disease transmitted by insects. Mollusca Echinodermata Chordata

Rana tigrina 15. Human Nervous system

16. Human endocrine system 17. Evolution

(protos =first or primitive; zoon = animal) General characters of phylum Protozoa 1. Protozoans are acellular or unicellular and microscopic. 2. They may be free living found in fresh water, marine or live in damp soil. Some are parasites and few are saprophytes. 3. These are simplest and most primitive organisms with protoplasmic grade of organization. 4. Protoplasm is differentiated into an outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. 5. Locomotion takes place by pseudopodia or cilia or flagella. In some, locomotary organ is absent. 6. Nutrition may be holozoic, holophytic, saprophytic or parasitic. 7. Respiration takes place by general body surface by the process of diffusion. 8. Excretion by general body surface and contractile vacuoles. 9. Reproduction mainly asexually by budding, binary fission or multiple fission and sexually by conjugation. 10. Encystment occurs to overcome unfavourable conditions.

PHYLUM: PROTOZOA

Classification Phylum Protozoa is c1assfied in four classes on the basis of locomotary organs:
Class 1 Rhizopodea

Locomotary organ is psedopodia. Examples - Amoeba, Entamoeba

Class 2 Ciliata

Locomotary organ is cilia. Examples - Paramecium, Vorticella

Class 3

Flagellata Locomotary organ is flagella. Example - Euglena, Trypanosoma

Class 4

Sporozoa Locomotary organ is absent. Examples - Plasmodium, Monocystis

Plasmodium Vivax
Systematic position
Kingdom Phylum Sub-phylum Class Genus Species Common name : : : : : : : Protista Protoqoa Plasmodoroma Sporozoa Plasmodium vivax Malarial parasite

Historical background: Charles Laveran (1880) discovered the malaria caused by protozoan parasite, the Plasmodium in the RBCs of some people suffering from malaria. Sir Ronald Ross (1897) for the first time observed oocysts of Plasmodium in the gut wall of female Anopheles, for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1902. Later on Grassi in 1900, Short in 1949, Jeffrey in 1952, Gamham in 1954, and -Bray in 1960 worked on the life cycle of various species of Plasmodium. Species of Plasmodium: It is a protozoan parasite of man and other vertebrates. About 60 species of Plasmodium are known to be malarial parasite. But there are only four species known to infect human beings causing different types of malarial are: (i) P. vivax (ii) P. falciparum (iii) P. malariae (iv) P. ovale

The intermediate host or vector is the female Anopheles mosquito (A. culicifacies, A. fluviatilis, A. Philippinensis). Distribution: widespread in topical and temperate countries. Habitat: In man Plasmodium is found in the liver and blood cells, such as RBCs" .whereas female Anopheles mosquito it is in alimentary canal and salivary glands. Life cycle: The life cycle of P. vivax is very complicated in two hosts- man and female Anopheles mosquito. A) Life cycle in Man: Plasmodium passes asexual reproduction in man B) Life cycle in female Anopheles mosquito.

A) Asexual cycle P. vivax in Man (Schizogony)

When an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a healthy person, infective stage of parasite i.e. sporozoite is introduced into the blood stream along with the saliva.

Structure of sporozoites: Each sporozoite measures about 11-12mm spindle shaped, and uninucleate

The sporozoites pass three phases. a) Pre-erythrocytic phases: b) Exo-erythrocytic phase c) Erythrocytic phase a) Pre-erythrocytic Phase: The sporozortes after inoculation into blood reach to the liver and invade the liver cells. Inside the liver cells, sporozoite becomes round to form schizont. They divide by multiple fission to form large number of cryptozoites. They are released when liver cells burst. This stage of multiplication is known as liver schizogony. b) Exo- erythrocytic phase: These cryptozoites again infect the other fresh liver cells, become round to form schizont and divide by multiple fission to form large number of metacryptozoites. When liver cells burst, these metacryptozoites are released. The period between infection and appearance of first malaria symptoms is the incubation period which is about 10-17 days (average being, 14 days). c) Erythrocytic phase: Metacryptozoties infect RBCs of eivercell through the blood stream. Immediately, each parasite becomes rounded structure. A contractile vacuole appears in the cytoplasm of the parasites which is ring like appearance called signet ring stage. Later on the vacuole disappears and the parasites take an amoeboid form, so this stage is known as amoeboid stage. In this stage parasites feed on haemoglobin. Small red eosinophilic granules appear in the blood known as Schuffner's granules. After feeding amoeboid stage increases in size to form schizont. Yellow black granules of excretory substances known as haemozoin, toxic substances are appeared in cytoplasm. The schizont divides by multiple fission to form 6-24 daughter nuclei. These nuclei migrate toward to periphery to form rosette appearance. Each of the nucleuses takes its cytoplasm to form two types of gametocytes. The micro gametocytes (male) and mega gametocytes (female). They do not divide further but remain as intracellular parasite until they die or ingested by the primary host. When a healthy female anopheles bites an infected person, mosquito receives gametocytes along the blood and reach to the stomach where the Plasmodium reproduces sexually. The sexual life cycle can be discussed under three phase. 1. Maturation of gametocytes 2. Fertilization
3. Sporogony

1) Maturation of gametocytes: Male gametocyte: It is small spherical having central nucleus. Female gametocyte: It is large spherical having excentric nucleus. 2) Fertilization: The male gametes with the help of lashing movement reach to the female gametes and enter inside the female gamete through receptacles cone, as it is the weakest region. Thus fertilization or syngamy takes place resulting in the formation of zygote. It takes place inside the stomach of mosquito. 3) Sporogony: The round zygote soon becomes elongated, vermiform and motile known as ookinete. It measures about 15-22 mm in length. It penetrates through wall of mid gut and gets attached to its sub mucosal layer. Then becomes round to form oocytes that grow at its maximum. Each oocyst multiplies asxually known as sporogony. Its nucleus divides into several nuclei. All the nuclei develop in slender, sickle shaped bodies called sporozoites. About 10,000 sporozoites are formed in each oocyst. Being motile, they penetrate salivary glands.

In mosquito whole sexual cycle is completed within 10-20 days depending upon temperature. When this mosquito bites a healthy person, these sporozoites pass into blood along with saliva ' and life cycle of Plasmodium is thus continued. Types of malaria Three type of malaria are classified on basis of period of recurrence of fever. These are 1. Tertain malaria or Benign Tertian Malarial of vivax malaria

It can cause by Plarraodiuni vivax, P. falciparum and P. ovale. Recurrence of fever is after every 48 hours. P. vivax and P. ovale cause Benign Tertian Malaria. This disease does not result in the death of patient .

2. Quartan malariaIt is caused by P. malariae recurrence of fever occurs at intervals of about 72 hours. It generally leads to secondary complication because of large scale destruction of young RBCs. 3. Quotidian malariaIn this, recurrence of fever is irregular and almost daily. It may result from secondary complications due to multiple infections by mere than one species of Plasmodium. Table: Major Human Diseases Caused by Protozoa

Dis.eases Amoebiasis Giardiasis Kala-azar (Visceral leishmaniasis Oriental xore African sleeping sickness Chagas' Disease Trichomiasis . Malaria

o Mode 0f Principal infecdtion f host Entamoeba Ingestion of o Man histjolytica maturecyst f Giardia Ingestion of o Man intestinlis maturexyst f Leishmania Sandfly bite Man I kinovani Protozoan L. tropica Sandfly bite Man Man

vector None None Sand fly (Pheleb otomus) Sandfly (Pheleb otomus) Tsetse fly (glossin asp) Reduvii d bugs None Female

Trypanosoma Fly bite

T. cruzi

Fly bite

Man Women

Trichomiasis Sexual

Vaginalis intercourse Plasmodium Mosquito Man sp. bite

Paramecium:
Classification Phylum Sub- Phylum Class Genus : : : : Protozoa Ciliophora Ciliata Paramecium

Habitat Aquatic; fresh water; abundantly found where organic matter is in plenty: its one species found in brackish salt water. Habits Locomotion by cilia; holozoic nutrition; respiration through general surface: excretion contractile partly by general surface and partly by contractile vacuoles; moregulation by contractile vacuoles only; reproduction asexual as well as sexual; asexual reproduction by binary fission, sexual reproduction by conjugation.

Structure Shape - Slipper shaped Size - Variable, ranging from 0.06 mm - 0.3 mm long. P. candatum - 0.15-0.3 mm long. P. aurelia - 0.12 - 0.25 mm long. P. richium -0.06 mm long.

Reproduction Asexual by binary fission; sexual by conjugation. Binary fission - Single individual divides into two daughter individuals by transverse fission; completed in steps (i) Macronucleus divides amitotically (ii) Micronucleus divides mitotically (iii) One contractile vacuole goes to one half, another goes to another half and other is developed by each daughter. (iv) Oral groove disappears each daughter develops its own (v) Transverse fission in the body;daughter individuals are called Proter if formed from antcrior part of parcnt body and opistbe, if formed from posterior part of the parent body.

Sexual reproduction by conjugation is studied in Paramecium caudalum which has one macro and one micronuclei. Cunjugation involves (i) Temporary union of'two adult individuals through their ventral surfaces. (ii) Pellicle divides twice, one of the division being meiotic division,. as a result 4 nuclei are

(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (xi)

formed. Out of these 3 degenerate one perists This divides unequally to form pronu~lei (male pronucleus small and motile), female pronculeus large but stationary. Male pronuclei are exchanged through cytoplasmic bridge. Synkaryon or zygotic nucleus is formed. Conjugants separate and become exconjugants. In each exconjugant, nucleus divides thrice to form 8 nuclei, 4 are transformed into macro and 4 into micro. 3-micro nuclei disintigrate only one persists. Each exconjugant divides and two daughter individuals are produced each having two macronuclei and one micronucleus. Now each daughter individual again divides and micronucleus also divides simultaneously forming two daugher Paramecia-each with one macro and one micronucleus.

(poros = pore; ferre = to bear)

General characters of phylum Porifera 1.Body possesses numerous minute pores called ostia. 2.They are all aquatic, mostly marine and few freshwater. 3.They are sessile (attached to the substratum). 4.They are multicellular organisms with cellular grade of organisation. 5.Body wall is diploblastic (two cellular layers i) Outer layer - pinacoderm or ectoderm layer ii) Inner layer - choanoderm or endoderm layer 6.Water canal system is well developed. It helps the sponge in nutrition, respiration, excretion etc.. 7.Nutrition is holozoic type. 8.Body is supported by spicules which are made lip of CaC03 or silica or spongin fibres, 9.Reproduction' is asexual by budding or gemmules and sexual by gamete (ova aild sperms) fonnatioil. 10.Cross Fertilization takes place. Classification Phylum Porifera is classified into three classes on the basis of chemical nature of spicules:

PHYLUM: PORIFERA

Class 1

Calcarea Spicules are made up of calcium carbonate (CaC03) Examples - Sycon, Leucosolenia

Class 2

Hexactinellida Spicules are made up of silica. Examples - Euplectella, Hyalonema

Class 3

Demospongia Spicules are made up of spongin fibres. Examples - Spongilla, Euspongia

PHYLUM: COELENTERATA (koilos = hollow; enteron = intestine)

General characters of phylum Coelenterata I. Body possesses an internal hollow cavity or gastrovascular cavity known as coelenteron. 2. They are all aquatic, mostly marine and some freshwater 3. They are sessile and radially symmetrical. 4. They. are multicellular organisms with tissue grade of organization. No organs. 5. Body wall is diploblastic (two cellular layers)i) Outer layer - ectroderm ii) Inner layer - endoderm Both layers are separated by a gelatinous acellular mesogloea. 6. Nutrion is holozoic type. 7. Mouth is encircled by tentacles which bear nematocysts. 8. They reproduce asexually by budding or fission and sexually by gametes (ova and sperms). 9. They exhibit polymorphism or two forms of individualsi) Asexual form - polyp ii) Sexual form -'medusa 10. Life cycle illustrates an alternation of generation or metagenesis. II. Development is indir7ct with a free-living planula larva.

Classification Phylum Coelenterata is classified in three classes on the basis of presence and absence of reproductive forms (polyp and medusa).

Class 1

Hydrozoa Both polyp and medusa forms are present. Example - Hydra

Class 2

Scyphozoa Medusa form is dominant. Polyp stage is reduced or absent. Example- Aurelia (jelly fish)

Class 3

Anthozoa Only polyp form is present. Medusa form is absent Example- Metridium

PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES
(platy = flat; helminthes = worm)

General characters of phylum Platyhelminthes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Body is dorsoventrally flattened and soft. They are mostly parasitic and some are free living. They are triploblasitic and bilaterally symmetrical. Coelom is pseudocoelom type. Nutrion is holozoic type. Digestive system is incomplete or absent. Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent. Excretory organ is flame cell. They are hermaphrodite, or bisexual.

10. Reproductive system is w.ell developed and complex. 11. Fertilization is internal, may be cross or self.

Classification Phylum Platyhelminthes is classified into three classes on the basis of both habitat and segmentation.

Class

Class

Class

Turbellaria Free living forms and unsegmented body Example - Planaria Trematoda Parasites and unsegmented body Example - Fasciola hepatica (Liver fluke) Cestoda Parasites and segmented body like tape Example - Taenia solium (Tapeworm)

PHYLUM: NEMATHELMINTHES (Gr-nematos = thread; helminthes = worm)

General characters of phylum Nemathelminthes 1.These are cylindrical, elongated and usegmented. 2.These are mostly parasitic and some are free living. 3.They are triploblasitic and bilaterally symmetrical. 4.Coelom is pseudocoelom type. 5.Nutrion is holozoic type. 6.Alimentary canal is complete and straight. 7.Respiratory and circulatory systems are absent. 8.Excretory system consists of lateral excretory ducts. 9.These are unisexual (male and female individuals are separates). Females are comparatively longer than

males. 10.Fertilization is internal, may be cross or self. Classification Phylum Nemathelminthes is classified into only one classClass - Phasmida Example - Ascaris

PHYLUM: ANNELIDA
(Annulus = ring; eidos = form) General characters of phylum Annelida 1. These are elongated and metamerically segmented. 2. These are mostly aquatic and some are terrestrial. 3. These are triploblasitic and bilaterally symmetrical. 4. Coelom is true coelom type. 5. Locomotion takes place by setae or parapodia or suckers. 6. Nutrion is holozoic type. 7. Alimentary canal is straight and well developed. 8. Respiration through body surface by diffusion. 9. Excretion takes place by nephridia. 10. These are hermaphrodite (male and female organs found in one individual). In some it is unisexual. 11. Fertilization is cross and internal. Classification Phylum Annelida is classified into three classes on the basis of locomotary organs .. Class 1 Polychaeta Locomotary organs are parapodia. Example - Nereis (Sandworm) Class 2 Oligochaeta Locomotary organs are setae. Exampel - Pheretima (Earthworm) Class 3 Hirudinea Locomotary organs are suckers.
Example-Hirudinaria (Leech) Class 4Archiannelida Locomotary organs are parapodia Example- Polygrandus

Earthworm
Kingdom Phylum Class Genus Species Species Animalia Annelida Oligocheata Pheretima

Pheretima posthuma

1. Habit & Habitat: They are cosmopolitan: and commonly found in soil of garden, irrigated farm having rich supply of decaying organic matter. During rainy' season, they come out of soil. These are poikilothermic and nocturnal animals. They breed during rainy season. It eats soil and organic contents are digested and absorbed in gut. The residual soil is discharged by its anus as castings

2. External feature: It is bisymmetrical animal. The body is elongated and symmetrical. The anterior end is tapering and posterior end is more or less blunt. It is about 150 mm long and 3 to 5 mm wide. Dorsal side has dark mid-dorsal line ventral surface is pale yellow in colour. It has porphyri'n pigment in its body wall. It has 100-120 small segments called metameses or somites. It has metameric segmentation or metamerism. The 14,15 and 16 segment has glandular thickening called clitellum.

The body can be divided into 3 regions. a. Pre-clitelar region- belongs to first 13 segments. b. Cleiellar region- .Formed by.14, 15 and 16 segment th c. Post- clitellar region- starts from 17 segment up to the last segment of the body.

Except first, last segment and c1itellum, there is row of setae. They are minute and s-shaped structure. They are about 80 to 120 per segment in number. They help in locomotion

3. External apertures: Following apertures are found in it. i. Mouth- It is found in first segment called peristomium and prostomium dorsally overhangs upon it. II. Anus- It is found in last anal segment. iII. Genital openings. a. Male genital pores- It is situated ventrolaterally upon 18th segment. b. Female genital pore- It is situated in mid ventral line of 14th segment. iv. Spermathecas pores- these are situated inter segmantally in 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 segment. They store sperm during copulation. v. Genital papillae- Situated in 17th and 19th segment. They help in copulation. vi. Dorsal pores- They are found often 12th segment to all segments except last segment. vii. Nephridiopores- A large no. of very minute nephridiopores is found situated throughout the body except anterior first six segment.

Coelom- A true coelom lies between the body wall and alimentary canal. Coelom is filled with an alkaline, colourless coelomic fluid containing water, salts, proteins and coelomic corpuscles of various types. These corpuscies are amoebocytes, mucocytes

PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
(arthron = jointed; podos = legs) General characters of phylum Arthropoda 1. Body consists of jointed appendages or legs. 2. This is the largest phylum. The animals are found in all the habitats. 3. These are triploblasitic and bilaterally symmetrical. 4. Body is covered externally by hard chitinous exoskeleton. 5. Head bears a pair of compound eyes and antenna. 6. Coelom is haemo-coelom (coelom is filled with blood). 7. Locomotion takes place by jointed appendages. 8. Alimentary canal is straight and well developed. 9. Respiration takes' place by trachea or gills or book-lungs, etc. 10. Excretory organs are malpighian tubules. 11. Male and female sexes are separate, i.e. unisexual. 12. Development is indirect Classification Phylum Arthropoda is classified into four classes on the basis of number of locomotary organ. Class 1 Crustacea Five pairs of walking legs. Examples - Prawn, Cyclops, Daphnia, etc. Insecta or Hexapoda Three pairs or six walking legs. Examples - Cockroach, Butterfly, Moth, etc. Arachnida Four pairs or eight walking legs. Examples - Spider, Scorpion, etc. Myriaoda Many pairs of walking legs. Examples - Centipede, Millipede, etc.

Class 2 Class 3

Class 4

Periplaneta
Systematic position: Phylum Class Genus Species Arthropoda Insecta (Hexapoda) Periplaneta americana

Common name- cockroach Habit and habitat Cockroaches are found in warm, damp places like dumps, outbuildings and woodpiles. They are the common pests of kitchens, latrines, hotels god owns etc. They are nocturnal. They destroy the material and causes great loss. External Morphology: Shape, size and colour: Body is narrow, elongated dorsoventrally flattened. The adult measures from 28 to 44 mm in length and 8-10 mm in width. It is shining reddish brown in colour. Divisions of body: The body is distinctly divided into three regions: I) Head- It consist a pair compound eyes and antennae. 2) Thorax- It consist 3 pairs of jointed legs & 2 pairs of wings which helps in locomotion. 3) Abdomen - 10 segmented, last segment consists of pair of cerci.

Economic Importance of insects to Man

Although a large number of insects are injurious to crops and other material, there are a number of insects which are of use to man in a number of ways. 1. 2. In pollination: Bees, wasps, moths, butterflies and beetles carryout pollination in many crops like apples, pears, oranges, lemon, tomato, pumpkins, cucumbers, pea, cotton, soybean etc. In destroying other harmful pests: Many insects feed on the eggs, larva, and adults of other pest insects which cause harm to the crop. A large number aphids, moths etc. are destroyed by other insects. The lady bird beetles destroy plant lice bugs and scale which infest various crops. Insect enemies of weeds: Some insects feed in weed and destroy them and destroy them and thereby free the land for cultivation or pasture. Insects yielding products of commercial value: Honey bee, lac insect and silkworm produce wax, honey. Lac and silk which is of much economic value.

3. 4.

Types of Mouth Parts in insects

1. 2.
3. 4. 5.

Biting and chewing types: These are used for biting off, chewing and swallowing small pieces of food. They are found in cockroach, termites dragon flies grasshoppers etc. Chewing and Lapping type: These are used for collecting nectar and moulding wax. They are found in worker bees.
Piercing and sucking type: They are used to pierce plant and animal tissues and a suck sap of blood from them. This types of mouth parts is found in bugs,mosquitoes, fleas etc. Sponging type: They are suited for absorbing liquid food after it has been dissolved in saliva. These are found in fruit-flies, house flies etc. Siphoning type: These are used to draw nectar from the flowers. Such mouth parts are found in butterflies and moths etc.

Life cycle of Mosquito

Staees Eggs Culex Usually 200-400 eggs are laid in dirty water eggs lie vertically on the surface of water Cigar-shaped and light brown Bottom feeder. Relatively larger and lighter in colour During in taking of air the head lies at an angle of 45 to the surface of water. A comb plate present on 8th abdominal segment Largest and colourless Anopheles Usually 40- I 00 eggs are laid in fresh and clean water Eggs lie horizontally and singly on surface of water boat-shaped and dark brown or black Surface feeder Relatively smaller and darker in colour During intake of air, the head lied horizontally, parallels to the surface of water Comb plate absent.

Larva

Pupa

Adult

Smaller and green. Abdomen more curved No plamate hairs in With palmate hairs of abdomen Abdomen. Body well built Legs body slender Legs stouter without hairs Delicate with hairs. At rest, body lies parallels When at rest, the body is to the surface and both inclined at an angle of 45 ends of body deflexed to the surface Wings of uniform colour. Wings spotted Canno fly t Can fly for long. For long. Female Culex transmits Female Anopheles transmits filarial parasite malarial parasite.

Diseases transmitted by insects

Insect Vector Mosquito Anopheles Mosquito Mosquito, Culex Tsetse fly Glossina palpalis Sandfly, Phlebotomus Flea, Xenopsylla Body iouse pediculus Housefly, Musca Bedbug, Cimex Diseases Malaria Yellow fever filariasis African sleeping sickness Kala-azar Bubonic plague Typhus fever Cholera Relapsing fever Host Man Man Man Man Causative organism Plasmodium Virus Wuchereria bancrofti Trypanosoma ganmbiese Leishmania donovani Pas~urella Rickettsia Giardia intestinalis

Man Man Nam Man Man

Mosquito - Borne Diseases Mosquitoes causes following diseases1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Malaria - Caused by species of Plasmodium carried by female Anopheles. Dengue fever- Caused by virus and carried by Culex fatigues and Aedes. Elephantiasis- Causes by Wuchereria bancrofri carried by Culex fatigans Yellow fever- Caused by virus and carried by Aedes. Elephantiasis - Caused by virus and spread by culex and Aedes.

PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA
(molluscus = soft) General characters of phylum Mollusca 1. Body is soft and unsegmented. 2. They are mostly freshwater or marine, few are terrestrial. 3. Body is divisible into four parts - head, mantle, foot and visceral mass. 4. Locomotion takes place ventral muscular foot. 5. Digestive system is well developed. 6. Respiration by gills or ctenidia. 7. Excretion by paired metanephridia (kidney). 8. Sense organs include eyes, tentacles, osphradium, statocysts. 9. Sexes are usua)ly separate but some are hermaphrodite. 10. Fertilization may be external or internal.

Classification Phylum Mollusca is classified into five classes mainly on the basis of nature and type of muscular foot. Class 1 Gastropoda Foot is large and flat, used in creeping. Body covered by a hard shell. Example Pila, Slug Seaphopoda Foot is pointed, used in burrowing. Example - Dentalum Pelecypoda or Bivalvia Foot is often hatched - shaped, laterally compressed, extending between mantle lobes, used for burrowing.Body is covered by shell of two valves. Example - Unio Cephalopoda Foots are modified into arms with suckers. Example Octopus, Sepia Amphineura Foot is ventral, large and flat like sole, used for creeping. Example- Chiton

Class 2

Class 3

Class 4

Class 5

PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA
(echinos = spine; derma = skin) General characters of phylum Echinodermata 1.Body is covered by numerous spines. 2.They are exclusively marine, not found in Nepal. 3.They are triploblastic, radials symmetrical and coelomate. 4.Distinct head is absent. Body has distinct oral & aboral surfaces. 5.A peculiar water vascular system is present. This system helps the animal in feeding, locomotion, respiration, excretion, etc. 6.Alimentary canal is coiled. 7.Locomotion takes place by tube feet. 8.Respiratory organs are respiratory trees. 9.Excretory organ is absent. 10.Sexes are separate (unisexual). Fertilization is external. Classification Phylum Echinodermata is classified into following classes on the basis of number and type of arm and form of the body. Subphylum -1, Eleutherozoa (free, swimming stemless echinoderms)

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Class 4

Asteroidea Body is star-shaped having five arms, which are not sharply marked off from the central disc. Example - Asterias (Star-fish) Ophiuroidea Body is star shaped having five arms, which are sharply marked off from the central disc. Example - Ophioderma (Sea-urchin) Echinoidea Body is spherical or oval withoutarins. Example - Echinus (Sea-urchin) Holothuroidea Body is elongated without arms. Mouth surrounded by tentacles. Example - Holothuria (Sea-cucumber)

Subphylum -2, Pelmatozoa (attached to substratum by stalk) Class 5 Crinoidea Usually stalked anima. Many arms with pinnules. Example - Antedon (Sea-lily)

PHYLUM: CHORDATA General characters of phylum Chordata I. Presence of notochord at some stage of development. 2. Presence of dorsal tubular nerve cord. 3. Presence of gill slits (gill opening) on either side of the pharynx at some stage of the development. 4. A well developed coelom. 5. A ventrally situated heart.

Classification Phylum Chordata is classified into following subphyla on the basis of development of notochord: Subphylum 1 - Cephalochordata (cephalic:= head) Notochord is present throughout life, which remain inconstricted. Example - Amphioxus Subphylum 2 - Hemichordata (hemi = half) Notochord is present in the anterior region of the body. Example - Balanoglossus Subphylum 3 - Urochordata (uro= tail) Notochord is found in larva and is confined only to the tail Example - Herdmania Subphylum 4 - Vertebrata Notochord is present extending throughout the . body length. It is replaced by vertebral column. Subphylum vertebrata is divided into two divisions. Division 1 Agnatha i) Without jaws and paired apendages. ii) Primitive vertebrates Example - Petromyzon

Division 2 -

Gnathostomata i) With jaws and paired appendages ii) Developed vertebrates The division Gnathostomata is divided into two super classesSuper class 1 - Pisces It has two c1assesClass - I Class - 2

Osteichthyes Chondrichthyes

Super class 2 - Tetrapoda It has four c1assesCIass. 1 - Amphibia - Living both in water and on land.like frog. Class 2 - Reptilia - Animals show creeping mdvement like lizards. Class 3 Aves - Animals having feathered body like birds. Class 4 - Mammalia - Animals have hair, pinna & mammary gland.

Rana tigrina
Position of frog Phlyum : Chordata Subphylum : Vertibrata Class : Amphibia Order : Anura Genus : Rana Species : Tigrina Common name-Bull frog Habit and habitat: Frog is an amphibious, mostly live in an aquatic medium such as pond, pools, ditches, etc. They are also adapted to live partly on land. They are active during rainy deacon which is also their breeding season. Frogs are poikilothermic i.e. body temperature varies with the temperature of environment. The body temperature is not fixed. But during extreme hot and cold, it is difficult for the frogs to survive. Therefore, during that condition they undergo sleeping periods, hibernation (winter sleep al time of extreme cold) a1id aestivation (summer sleep al lime of the extreme hot). During both hibernation and aestivation, frogs undergo deep into the soil and remain there till favorable condition comes. During that period, frogs (i) stop feeding, (ii) respire through skin, (iii) use energy stored in form of glycogen and (iv) remain sluggish. Frogs are insectivorous. They are active during daytime called diurnal.

External Structure of Frog:

The body of frog is bilateral symmetrical. Body is divided into head and trunk, Neck is absent.

A) Head: It is triangular and somewhat flattened with its blunt snout directed forward. On either side or head there are two external nares. There are two large prominent eyes situated on the top of the head due to absence of neck, eyes can look in all possible directions. Upper immovable and lower movable eyelid's protect each eye. Besides, third eyelid known as nictitating membr.ane also protects the eyes from dirt of water. In frog external ear i5' absent but there is an oblique placed tympanic opening or the tympanum behind each eye.

B)Trunk: Besides head, all body part is trunk. It has two pairs of limbs, fore and hind limb. The forelimbs are shorter and consist of three parts namely, the upper arm, forearm and hand. The hind limbs are linger and consists of thigh, shank and foot. All the five digits of fingers of hind limbs are webbed that aid in swimming and Jumping. During breeding season, the first or the index finger of forelimbs of male frog swells due to the thickening of glandular portion of skin forming copulatory of nuptial pads. These pads enable male frog to hold the female firmly during copulation. Similarly male frog has vocal sacs that produce a croaking sound to attract females during breeding season. These two modification exhibit sexual dimorphism.

Digestive System of Frog:

Digestion is process of broken down the complex food materials into simpler food materials by chemical and mechanical processes. The digestive system comprises of all those organs, which are concerned with ingestion, digestion, absorption and ejection of food. It includes alimentary canal, associated digestive glands and mechanism of digestion.

Human Nervous System

Table: Showing the cranial nerves, the organ innervated. The type of fiber and the function of the twelve cranial nerves of man.

No I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Cranial nerves Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducens Facial Audiotary I. Vestibular II. Cochlear Glossopharyngeal Vagus

Types of fibre Sensory Sensory Motor Motor Mixed Motor Mixed Sensory

Organs inverted Olfactory Mucosa in nose Retina of eye Eye ball muscles, ciliary muscles Superio oblique muscles of eye ball Skin, Teeth, Mucosal Memb. Of mouth Eyeball Muscle Taste bud of salivary glands, facial and neck muscles Internal ear cochlea

Function Smell Vision Eye ball movement Sensation of head face Sensation of head face Eyeball movement Facial expression, Saliva secretion, taste Equilibrium, hearing

IX X

Mixed Mixed

Pharynx, tongue, salivary glands Pharynx, Oesophagus, Larynx, Trachea, Thoracic and abdominal viscera Thoracic and abdominal viscera Muscles of tongue

Taste, sensation, saliva secretion, swallowing. Visceral reflexes

XI XII

Spinal Accessory Hypoglossal

Motor Motor

Visceral reflexes, shoulder Movement

Human Endocrine System

Table: Summary of different endocrine glands, their hormones and action. Gland Thyroid Hormones Thyroxin Thyrocalcitonine Parathrmone Insulin Glucagon Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Noradrnine (Tonus) Thysmosin, thymin I, and thyminII Melatonin testosterone estrogen Progesterone Action Regulation of BMR, oxidation of carbohydrates, physical and mental growth. Decrease blood calcium level, increase calcium level. Increase blood calcium level Decrease blood sugar level, conversion of glucose to glycogen Increase blood sugar level breakdown of glycogen to glucose Metabolism of Na+ and K+ ions and water balance Synthesis of enzymes involved with gluconeogenisis, metabolism of carbohydrates. Circulatory regulation. It regulates blood pressure. Influence the growth of onset of sexual maturity Coloration of skin Growth and development of the secondary sexual characters of male Development of secondary sexual characters at the time of puberty Maintains pregnancy and assists in child birth, promotes the thickening of uterine wall for implantation of fetus and develops mammary glands to full maturity during pregnancy Influences maturation of follicle of ovary to produce egg in females and spermatogenesis in males. Induction of progesterone hormones Induction of testosterone hormones Initiates milk production in pregnant females Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete adrenocorticosteroid hormones Stimulates the thyroid gland Control the growth of body Effects on uterine contractions during child birth Causes increase blood pressure and also regulate tubular reabsorption of water by the kidneys, decreasing the production of urine

Parathyroid Pancreas Adrenal cortex

Thalamus gland Pineal Gland Testis Ovary

Anterrior pituitary

Follicle stimulating hormone Luteinizing hormone (LH) in the female Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) in male Lactagenic hormone of prolactin (PL) Adrenocorticotropin harmone Thyroid stimulating hormone (THS) Growth stimulating hormone (GSH) Oxytocin (pictocin) Vasopressin (petressin) or antidiurretic hormone (ADH)

Posterior pituitary

Evolution
Concepts of Organic Evolution : The doctrine of organic evolution states that the complex structure of present living forms is the outcome of gradual orderly and step-by-step unfolding and branching process from simple and unorganized forms that lived in past. The process of evolution is still continuing. One of the major trends in the evolution of organisms has been towards increased adaptations complexity of structures and efficiency of functioning. It illustrates that those thriving today, are likely to become modified gradually and slowly into still modified forms.

1. Evidences of organic evolution : The occurrence of evolution is well-established fact the convincing proofs of evidences on support of this belief are circumstantial and are drawn from the study of different branches of biology. These are Evidences from morphology, comparative anatomy and vestigial organs 2. Evidences from paleontology 3. Evidences from embryology 4. Evidences from geographical distribution of animals 5. Evidences from biochemistry and comparative physiology 6. Evidences from genetics.

1. Evidences from morphology and comparative anatomy: A comparative study of various structures in different groups of vertebrates reveals a basic plan of organization indicating that animals have arisen from some common ancestral form by modifications. Occurrence of homologous analogous and vestigial organs in different animal groups provides evidences.

a)

b)

c)

Homologous Organs- These organs have a common origin and are built of the same basic pattern but perform different functions e.g. fore- limbs of whale (flippers), bat (wings) bird (wings) horse, cat, frog and man. The forelimbs of whale are modified for swimming of bat and bird for light, of horse for running of frog for leaping and forelimbs of man for grasping. Thus, the function of forelimbs in these animals is entirely different. But these are constructed on the same pentadactyle pattern, consisting of almost the same bones (humorous, radius ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges), muscles, nerves and blood vessels arranged of the same pattern. Analogous Organs- these organs have almost similar appearance and perform the same function but they develop in totally different groups as totally different structures. Examples, the wings of a butterfly, bird and bat. These perform the same function of assisting in flight but differ considerably in their structures. Vestigial Organs- many structures in our body and in other animals are non functional and have practically of no use but might have been large and functional in their ancestors. Such degenerate and non functional organs are known as vestigial organs. About 90 such structures are present in the vertebrate body Vestigial Organs in human body are: Vermiform appendix, wisdom tooth (third molar), pointed canines, caudal vertebrae coccyx, nictitating membrane, hair coat on body, segmental muscles on abdomen, ear muscles to move pinna.

2. Evidences from paleontology or fossil evidences: life originated on earth 3300 billion years ago, from the time of its origin, life evolved into more and more complex forms. The history of evolution of life on the earth is constructed by the study of fossil plant and animal from various strata of the earth. A fossil may be defined as any traces, impressions or remains present in the earth strata. Paleontology is the study of fossils or animals plants of past geological ages. This offers a direct proof of evolution. The most abundant fossils are formed by petrifaction on which hard parts like bones, teeth and exoskeleton of organisms are preserved in the rock strata. Their studies can tell when and where the major group of organisms arose, flourished and either passed the extinction or evolved into new forms. In many cases it is possible to determine the environment in which those organisms lived. Significance of study of fossils i. Distribution of fossils in the rocks ii. Missing links or connecting links -

3. Evidence from Embryologya. Similarity in the early development of animals- The early developmental stages of all the multicellular animals are similar. All start their life from single cells called zygote. It develops into morula, blastula and gastrula. These form genial layers i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm which give rise to the various organs in these animals. b. Similarity in vertebrate embryos - The embryos of fish,frogs, tortoise, pigeon, rabbit and man appear to be all alike in appearance and it is even difficulty to distinguish them during their early stages of development. Moreover, the development of different organs (like kidney, heart, arteries etc.) in all vertebrate embryos follows the same basic plan similarity in the embryos of divergent forms of vertebrates indicates their common ancestry.

4.

Evidences from connecting links

Some living animals or animal groups exhibit structural similarities with two different groups. These are called connecting links a. b. c. Peripatus is connecting link between annelida and arthropoda. Neopilina Galathea is connecting link between annelida and mollusca Lung fishes (living) : between fishes and amphibians

5. Evidences from geographical distribution of Animals- Sometimes animals similar in structure and belonging to the same group occur in geographically distinct places widely separated or widely different animals occur in places with similar climatic conditions I. Lung fishes occur in three different continentsi) In Australia- Neoceratodus ii) In South America - Lapidosiren iii) In Africa - Protopterus

Theories of Evolution Lamarckism: Jean Bpitste de Lararck, a French biologist in 1809 postulated the firs theory of evolution entitled "Inheritance of acquired character" Lamarck considered that there had been a progressive development in from and structure. According to him the environment was important not as a direct causes of evolution but merely as an occasion for evolutionary changes effecting, the shape and organization of animal organization" of animals. Lamarck published his ideas of evolution in famous journal Philosophie Zoologique in 1809. This theory is known as 'Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters) this theory consists of following four facts: I. Tendency to grow: 2. Formation of new organs: 3. Use and disuse of organs and structures

Darwinism This is also called theory of Natural selection. This theory was given by Charles Robert Darwin. He published a book called origin of species. , His theory is based on following propositions if offspring of every organism have enormous power to reproduce. If this tendency is not checked, in very short time, the earth will be full of organism but such growth is not found. For e.g. one housefly can give 191xlOl8 progenies in one year. From a single pair of elephant there will be 19x 106 progeny in 750 yrs. I. Constant population 2. Struggle for existence 3. Survival of the fittest 4. Variation and Heredity5. Origin of species -