Benthos

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Seaweed and two chitons in a tide pool

Benthos is the community of organisms which live on, in, or near the seabed, also known as the benthic zone.[1] This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools along the foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths. Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the water column. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one atmosphere for each 10 metres of water depth). Because light does not penetrate very deep ocean-water, the energy source for deep benthic ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column which drifts down to the depths. This dead and decaying matter sustains the benthic food chain; most organisms in the benthic zone are scavengers or detritivores. The term benthos comes from the Greek noun "depths of the sea".[1] Benthos is also used in freshwater biology to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, and streams.[2]
Contents
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1 Food sources 2 By size

o o o

2.1 Macrobenthos 2.2 Meiobenthos 2.3 Microbenthos

3 By type

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3.1 Zoobenthos 3.2 Phytobenthos

4 By location

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4.1 Endobenthos 4.2 Epibenthos 4.3 Hyperbenthos

5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links

Food sources[edit source | editbeta]

Effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life

The main food sources for the benthos are algae and organic runoff from land. The depth of water, temperature and salinity, and type of local substrate all affect what benthos is present. In coastal waters and other places where light reaches the bottom, benthic photosynthesizing diatoms can proliferate.Filter feeders, such as sponges and bivalves, dominate hard, sandy bottoms. Deposit feeders, such as polychaetes, populate softer bottoms. Fish, sea stars, snails, cephalopods, and crustaceans are important predators and scavengers. Benthic organisms, such as sea stars, oysters, clams, sea cucumbers, brittle stars and sea anemones, play an important role as a food source for fishand humans.

By size[edit source | editbeta]

Macrobenthos[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Macrobenthos

Macrobenthos comprises the larger, more visible, benthic organisms that are greater than 1 mm in size. Some examples arepolychaete worms, bivalves, echinoderms, sea anemones, corals, sponges, sea squirts, turbellarians and

larger crustaceanssuch as crabs, lobsters and cumaceans.

Seagrass growing off the coast

Echinoderms

A sea squirt being used as a substrate for a nudibranch's spiral egg

Microphotograph of typical macrobenthic animals, (from top to bottom) including amphipods, apolychaete worm, a snail, and achironomous midge larvae

Meiobenthos[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Meiobenthos

Meiobenthos comprises tiny benthic organisms that are less than 1 mm but greater than 0.1 mm in size. Some examples arenematodes, foraminiferans, water bears, gastrotriches and smaller crustaceans such as copepods and ostracodes.

Live foraminifera Ammonia tepida(Rotaliida)

Water bear Hypsibius dujardini

Gastrotrich

Copepod

Microbenthos[edit source | editbeta]

Microbenthos comprises microscopic benthic organisms that are less than 0.1 mm in size. Some examples are bacteria,diatoms, ciliates, amoeba, flagellates.

Marine diatoms

Ciliate stentor roeseli

Flagellate

By type[edit source | editbeta]

"A variety of marine worms": plate fromDas Meer by M. J. Schleiden (18041881).

Zoobenthos[edit source | editbeta]

Zoobenthos comprises the animals belonging to the benthos.

Phytobenthos[edit source | editbeta]

Phytobenthos comprises the plants belonging to the benthos, mainly benthic diatoms and macroalgae (seaweed).

By location[edit source | editbeta]

Endobenthos[edit source | editbeta]
Endobenthos lives buried, or burrowing in the sediment, often in the oxygenated top layer, i.e., a sea pen or a sand dollar.

Epibenthos[edit source | editbeta]

Epibenthos lives on top of the sediments, i.e., like a sea cucumber or a sea snail crawling about.

Hyperbenthos[edit source | editbeta]

Hyperbenthos lives just above the sediment, i.e., a rock cod.

Oceanic nekton[edit source | editbeta]

Oceanic nekton comprises animals largely from three clades Vertebrates form the largest contribution, these animals are supported by either bones or cartilage. Mollusks are animals such as squids and scallops. Crustaceans are animals such as lobsters and crabs.

There are organisms whose initial part of their lives are spent as plankton but when they grow and increase in body size they become nekton. A typical example is the medusa of the jellyfish.

Mangrove
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

World mangrove distribution

A mangrove forest in Palawan, Philippines

Pneumatophores penetrate the sand surrounding a mangrove tree.

Short video of a mangrove in Brazil

Mangroves are various types of trees up to medium height and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics mainly between latitudes 25 N and 25 S. The remaining mangrove forest areas of the world in 2000 was 53,190 square miles (137,760 km) spanning 118 countries and territories.[1][2] The word is used in at least three senses: (1) most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage ormangal,[3][page needed] for which the terms mangrove forest biome, mangrove swamp and mangrove forest are also used, (2) to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangrove swamp, and (3) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora. The term "mangrove" comes to English from Spanish (perhaps by

way of Portuguese), and is likely to originate from Guarani[disambiguation needed]. It was earlier "mangrow" (from Portuguese mangue or Spanish mangle), but this was corrupted via folk etymology influence of "grove". The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangroves dominate three-quarters of tropical coastlines.[4] The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (30 to 40 ppt(parts per thousand)), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt).[4][5] An increase in mangroves has been suggested for climate change mitigation.[6][7]
Contents
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1 Ecology 2 Biology

o o o o o

2.1 Adaptations to low oxygen 2.2 Limiting salt intake 2.3 Limiting water loss 2.4 Nutrient uptake 2.5 Increasing survival of offspring

3 Taxonomy and evolution

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3.1 Major components 3.2 Minor components

4 Geographical regions

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4.1 Africa 4.2 Americas

4.2.1 Continental United States 4.2.2 Central America and Caribbean

4.2.2.1 Belize

4.2.3 South America

4.3 Asia

4.3.1 Indomalaya ecozone

4.3.1.1 Indonesia 4.3.1.2 Pakistan

4.3.2 Middle East

4.4 Oceania

4.4.1 Australia and New Guinea 4.4.2 New Zealand 4.4.3 Pacific islands

5 Exploitation and conservation 6 Reforestation 7 National studies 8 In popular culture 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Ecology[edit source | editbeta]

This section needs attention from an expert in Ecology. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the section. WikiProject Ecology (or its Portal) may be able to help recruit an expert. (February 2009)
Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangal occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines.[5]

Mangrove forests of the world in 2000

The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation, and are then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well

as a number of other key environmental factors-thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community. About 110 species are considered "mangroves", in the sense of being a tree that grows in such a saline swamp,[5]though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem these trees create provides a home for a great variety of other organisms. Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as predation of plant seedlings by crabs. Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments scavenged from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and biota. Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis.[8][9] The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy.[10] Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.[11] In this way, mangroves build their own environments.[8] Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans.[9] However, mangrove swamps' protective value is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow,[12] so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods.[10] Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such as storm surges and tsunamis.[13] Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accruing.[citation needed] The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine region for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while

they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home.[14] Mangrove crabs mulch the mangrove leaves, adding nutritients to the mangal muds for other bottom feeders.[15] In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs. Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines and India host several commercially important species of fishes and crustaceans. Despite restoration efforts, developers and others have removed over half of the world's mangroves in recent times.

Biology[edit source | editbeta]

Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove [3] habitats. Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight. Plant [5] biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal. This is especially true in higher latitudes and in the [16] Americas. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia andMalaysia.

Adaptations to low oxygen[edit source | editbeta]

A red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle

Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal

Red mangroves, which can survive in the most inundated areas, prop themselves above the water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels). Black mangroves live on

higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised root-like structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are also covered in lenticels. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm, and in some species, over 3 m. The four types of pneumatophores are stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type, and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plant.

Salt crystals formed on grey mangrove leaf

Limiting salt intake[edit source | editbeta]

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly suberised, acting as an ultrafiltration mechanism to excludesodium salts from the rest of the plant. Analysis of water inside mangroves has shown 90% to 97% of salt has been excluded at the roots. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research suggests the older, [17] yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves. Red mangroves can also store salt in cell vacuoles. As seen in the picture on the right, white (or grey) mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (correlating with their namethey are covered in white salt crystals).

Limiting water loss[edit source | editbeta]

Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during photosynthesis). They also vary the

orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author, observed anecdotally a red mangrove in captivity only grows if [18] its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating the frequent tropical rainstorms.

Nutrient uptake[edit source | editbeta]

The biggest problem mangroves face is nutrient uptake. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacterialiberate nitrogen gas, soluble iron, [citation inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which make the soil much less nutritious. needed] Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Increasing survival of offspring[edit source | editbeta]

Red mangrove seeds germinate while still on the parent tree.

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove) are viviparous, whose seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food viaphotosynthesis. The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.

Taxonomy and evolution[edit source | editbeta]

The following listing (modified from Tomlinson, 1986) gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is

limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove [19] lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.

The word 'Mangroves'' refers to a group of plants which may actually belong to several families (species that distinctly belong to their own evolutionary group). The term therefore indicates an ecological rather than a taxonomical (scientific classification) grouping - the species are not related. They are unique plants because of their ability to grow in unstable tough environments. Mangroves are unique because they are able to thrive in areas where the water is poor in oxygen content, in salt water, in fresh water and in brackish water (a mixture of salt and fresh water). Mangroves are fast-growing trees taking several years to reach up to 25 meters when they are fully grown. Of the seven types of mangroves, three are most dominant, the red, black and white types.

Black Mangroves or 'Courida' (Avicennia germinans) Description Easily identified by its roots which are specialized to take in oxygen. Roots look like tubular bristles which stick out vertically and trap oxygen for its oxygen-starved root systems. These bristles are known as pneumatophores. The Black Mangrove is tolerant of high saline conditions and the trees grow in isolated groups or woodland formations. Individual trees are fairly large and may grow up to 20-25 meters in height and 40 centimetres in diameter at breast height.

Roots of the Black Mangrove

Black mangroves produce seeds in abundance which occur throughout the year. The seeds are viviparous in nature, meaning their seeds germinate while still being attached to the parent tree. This species regenerates and coppices well and can therefore be managed under a coppice system, which is an even-aged silvicultural system for which the main regeneration method is vegetative sprouting of either suckers (from the existing root systems of cut trees) or shoots (from cut stumps).

Leaf and Flower of the Black Mangrove

Uses The Black Mangrove is the most important and dominant mangrove species in the open mud flats of Guyana . The seeds are actually edible and can be prepared into a delicious mealbut caution! Unless prepared in a certain way, your meal can be toxic!

Red Mangrove or 'Red Mango' ( Rhizophora mangle )

Description This is an evergreen tree, which grows to about 25 meters in height and 40 centimetres in diameter at breast height. These are immediately recognized by their elaborate prop and aerial root system which stabilizes the trees. The roots contain a waxy substance that helps keep salt out. Where salt gets through, salt is deposited in older leaves and the tree then sheds them.

Tree and root system of the Red Mangrove

The seed-like parts - the propagules - are large pre-germinated 'seedlings' known locally as 'monkey whistles'. A single seed germinates inside the conical fruit forming a long narrow first root (radicle), which is green except for the brown enlarged and pointed end up to 1.25 centimetres in diameter. It can grow up to 30 centimetres in length before it detaches from the mother tree and falls. They need a longer period from 16 to 30 months to mature from flower bud to mature seedlings. Red Mangroves does not respond well to cutting, and are very sensitive. If 50% or half the leaves are removed from the tree then it will die.

Uses The wood can be converted into good quality charcoal and the bark produces high quality tannin which is suitable for leatherwork. White Mangrove ( Laguncularia racemosa )

Description These are the shortest of the three species (reaches 5.6 meters and a diameter of 30 centimetres) and have un-buttressed roots. This species normally grows in the back portion of mangrove swamps, which remains unaffected by tidal inundation, except during spring tides. The bark is light brown to reddish dark brown, and the leaves are ovate. The leaves have adapted to their salty environment by developing special openings (glands) that allow salt to pass from inside the tree to the outside. The leaves are then coated with speckled white salt crystals which are what gives this species its name- white mangrove. Leaf and seed of the White Mangrove Germination is epigeous (the cotyledons - part of the embryo of the seedof the germinating seed expand, throw off the seed shell and become photosynthetic above the ground) and un-opened seeds are carried up to 4 - 8 centimetres on a slender green stalk. Further, the roots are fibrous, and this species coppices reasonably well. It normally grows in the back portion of mangrove swamps, which remains unaffected by tidal inundation, except during spring tides. The soil is generally clayey to silty clay.

Benefits/Uses of Mangroves
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Flowers of the White Mangrove

Perhaps the most important role of mangroves is that they protect vulnerable coastlines from wave action because they hold the soil together and prevent coastal erosion. Mangroves shield inland areas during storms and minimize damage. For example, learning from the 2005 tsunami in Asia, there were no deaths in the areas which had mangrove forests, compared to those areas without, which suffered massive causalities.

Ecologically speaking, mangroves are exciting systems in their own right. Mangrove forests provide homes for several species of plants and animals. Migratory shorebirds and waders forage the mudflats for food. Birds like the cattle egrets and scarlet ibises establish large roosting and nesting sites in mangroves. Great-Horned Owls, BloodColoured Woodpeckers, Antshrikes, Mangrove Cuckoos and Rufous-Crab Hawks are all treats for any avid birdwatcher. Several species of fish, monkeys, and turtles find refuge there. The beaches along more mature undisturbed mangroves also serve as nesting sites for endangered sea turtles. The Leatherback and Green Turtles are most common of the five species found within Guyana . Mangroves are fish nurseries as they serve as a source of food for fish, shrimp and crabs that live in rivers and the shallow areas of the sea/ocean, and provide a safe haven for juvenile fish, shrimp and crab located on Guyana 's coastline. Mangroves therefore contribute significantly to Guyana's fishing industry and provide us with our fish resource. Mangroves break down pollutants and play a large role in carbon sequestration (the capturing and storing of carbon ). Did you know that just one hectare of mangroves is capable of neutralizing 17 metric tonnes of carbon per year?

A mature mangrove forest acts as a sediment trap, thereby assisting in the accretion of coastal sediments and further adding to the protection of low-lying inland areas. Usually land grows trees but in the case of mangrove forests trees grow land Unsustainable use of mangroves: 1. The Black Mangrove is used for fishing poles, charcoal, and in the production of honey, as the mango blossoms give the honey a unique flavour. Because the wood gives off an intense heat, it is especially prized for burning clay from which bricks are produced and used in road building. 2. The Red Mangrove is also used for fuel wood but its most common and important use is in the leather industry as its bark is peeled and tannin is extracted, which is used as a dye. Presently, there are synthetic alternatives being used in countries such as Brazil , in order to preserve their mangroves which are an important part of their own sea defence. In Guyana , the Guyana Forestry Commission will develop a harvest management plan to ensure this species is conserved and used in a sustainable manner. 3. The main use of the White Mangrove is for fishing poles, tool handles and as wood for fences.

ARIEL (Maybe he's right. Maybe there is something the matter with me. I just don't see how a world that makes such wonderful things could be bad.) Look at this stuff Isn't it neat? Wouldn't you think my collection's complete? Wouldn't you think I'm the girl The girl who has everything? Look at this trove Treasures untold How many wonders can one cavern hold? Looking around here you think Sure, she's got everything I've got gadgets and gizmos a-plenty I've got whozits and whatzits galore You want thingamabobs? I've got twenty! But who cares? No big deal I want more I wanna be where the people are I wanna see, wanna see them dancin' Walking around on those - what do you call 'em? Oh - feet! Flippin' your fins, you don't get too far Legs are required for jumping, dancing Strolling along down a - what's that word again? Street Up where they walk, up where they run Up where they stay all day in the sun Wanderin' free - wish I could be Part of that world What would I give if I could live out of these waters? What would I pay to spend a day warm on the sand? Bet'cha on land they understand Bet they don't reprimand their daughters Bright young women sick of swimmin'

Ready to stand And ready to know what the people know Ask 'em my questions and get some answers What's a fire and why does it - what's the word? Burn? When's it my turn? Wouldn't I love, love to explore that world up above? Out of the sea Wish I could be Part of that world