R.H.

Bogue has identified four major compounds It is interesting to observe large influence of change in the
namely Bogue’s compounds, which are as follows: oxide composition on the compound composition of cement
and its properties. Some data of Czernins’s is given in table
Name of the formula Abbreviated
Percentage compound in cement formula Percent in different cements
by mass Oxide 1 2
3
Tricalcium silicate 3 CaoSi02 C3 S 30-
Cao 66.0 63.0 66.0
50 SiO2 20.0 22.0 20.0
Dicalcium silicate 2 CaoSioO2 C2 S A1203 7.0 7.7 5.5
20-45 Fe2O3 3.0 3.3 4.5
Tricalcium Aluminate 3 CaoA12O3 C3A Others 4.0 4.0 4.0
8-12 Compound
Tetra calcium Alumine4 CaOA12O3Fe2O3 C4AF
C3S 65 33 73
6-10 Ferrite
C2S 8 38 2
1.6 BASIC PROPERTIES OF CEMENT COMPOUNDS : C3A 14 15 7
The tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate which together C4AF 9 10 17
formulate 70-80 percent of cement are responsible for the
strength of cement. Tricalcium silicate gives faster rate of From the above table it can be seen that decrease in
reaction upon hydration and gives early strength. On the CaO by 3 percent with corresponding increase in other
other hand dicalcium silicate on hydration reacts slowly and oxides in sample(2) has resulted in larger influence on
is responsible for ultimate strength. The compound silicate compounds, which will have effect on development of
tricalcium alumiate reacts very fast on hydration and leads strength. Similarly change in A12O3 and Fe2O3 in sample
to immediate stiffening of paste called ‘flash set’. Gypsum is (3) has larger influence on silicate and aluminate compounds
added during the manufacture of cement to avoid flash- which inturn will have influence on strength and setting
setting. The amount of C3A in cement is very small and its prperties. Hence it can be seen that the control of oxide
role in the development of strength is vey less but it composition of cement has very important role on the
provides weak resistance against sulphate attack and is properties of cement.
responsible for the highest heat evolution. Tetra calcium
1.8 HYDRATION OF CEMENTS:
alumino ferrite also hydrates rapidly but its contribution to
Anhydrous cement compounds when mixed with water,
the overall strength of cement is insignificant. However it is
more stable than C3A. react with each other to form hydrated compounds of very
low solubility. At any stage of hydration, the cement paste
1.7 INFLUENCE OF COMPOUND COMPOSITION ON consists of gel, remanant of unreacted cement, calcium
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT : hydroxide, and water besides some other minor compounds.
The reaction of cement compounds and their products can
be represented as follows.
 for C3S: 2C 3S +6H C3S2H3 + heat of hydration depends upon the chemical composition of
3Ca (OH)2 cement, and the heat of hydration of cement is very nearly a
sum of the heats of hydration of the individual compounds
The corresponding weights involved are 100+24 75+49 when hydrated seperately. Typical values of heat of hydration
for C2S: 2C 2S+4H of pure compounds are given below:
C3S2H3+Ca(OH)2 Compound Heat of hydration (cal/g)

The corresponding weights are 100+2199+22 C3S 120

The composition of silicate hydrates is approximately C2S 62
C3S2H3 and they are some times referred as C-S-H gel or C3A 207
tobermorite because of structural similarity of a naturally C4AF 100
occuring mineral of this name. On weight basis both C3S and Wood, Steinour and Strake, tested a number of
C2S require approximately the same amount of water for commercial cements and calculated the contribution of
hydration, but C3S produces more than twice as much individual compounds to the total heat of hydration of
cement.The heat of hydration of one gram cement is given
Ca(OH)2 as formed by the hydration of C2 S. This calcium
by
hydroxide is responsible for leaching but maling porous. The
hydrated product of C2S is more stable than that of C3 S. 136(C3S)+62(C2S)+200(C3A)+30(C4AF)
where the figures in brackets denote the percentge by
The amount of C3A present in most cements is
weight of the individual compounds present in the cement.
comparatively small but its behavior and structural
relationship with other phases of cement is very interesting. The factors affecting heat of hydration are the
The reaction of C3A with water is very violent and leads to compound composition, the fineness of cement, the
temparature, the water/cement ratio etc. However there is
immediate stiffening of the paste known as 'Flash set'. To
no relation between the heat of hydration and the cementing
prevent this, gypsum, (CaSO4, 2H2 O ) is added to the
properties of the individual compounds.
cement clinker. Due to the hydration of C3A, a calcium
aluminate system CaO, A12O3, H2O is formed. On
hydration C4AF forms CaO-Fe2O3-H2O, a hydrated calcium Initial Setting Time :
ferrite which is comparatively more stable. The hydrated 500 grams of cement is taken and a paste is prepared by
aluminates do not contribute any thing to the strength of adding water equivalent to 0.85 times the water required for
paste. preparing a cement paste of normal consistency. The Vicat's
mould is filled with the paste within the gauging time. The
1.11 HEAT OF HYDRATION :The heat of hydration is the initial setting time needle is fixed to the Vicat's apparatus
quantity of heat,in calories per gram of unhydrated cement, and the needle is brought in contact with the surface of the
evolved upon at a given temperature. For ordinary portland paste and released, so that the needle penetrates into the
cements, as per BOGUE, about one half of the total heat is paste. Initially the needle will completely pierce through the
liberated between 1 and 3 days, about three quarters in 7 test block. But after some time when the paste loses its
days and 83-91 percent of the total heat in six months. The plasticity, the penetration reduces. The initial setting time is
the period elapsed between the addition of water to the surface area and the faster the rate of gain of strength.
cement and the needle penetrates the test block to depth of Fineness of the cement can tested in two ways.
33-35mm from the top. (a) By sieving
Final setting time : (b) By determining the surface area by the air
The initial setting time needle is replaced with the final permeability method.
setting time needle and the experiment is continued. The (a) Sieving:
cement is considered to have finally set when, upon, 100 grams of cement is taken on I.S. sieve No.9 (90
lowering the attachment with the final settingtime needle on microns). Air lumps if any are broken by fingers, and the
the surface, the central needle makes only an impression, sample is sieved continously for 15 minutes. The residue left
the circular edge fails to do so. on the sieve is weighed. This should not exceed the limits
Le-Chatelier test : given by the Indian Standards.
(b) Air Permeability Methods:
The le-chatelier apparatus consists of a cylinderof brass or
other suitable metal of 30mm diameter and 30mm height In this method, the specific surface area of cement is
with a split and two indicator arms of 165mm long with measured using either Lea Nurse permeability appaatus or
pointed ends attached on either side of the split as shown in Blaine's air permeability apparatus. The specific area
fig. 1.2. determined should confirm to the Indian standard
specifications.
TYPES OF CEMENTS :
Some of the widely used types of cements are as follows:
a) Ordinary Portland Cement
fig.1.2 Le-chatelier apparatus
b) Rapid hardening cement
Cement is mixed with 0.78 times of water required for
c) Sulphate resisting cement
normal consistency, and filled in the cylinder kept on a glass
plate in the standard manner. The mould is covered with a d) Low-heat cement
glass plate on the top and kept in water for 24 hours at a e) Portland Slag cement
temprature of 270-320C. After 24 hours the mould is f) Portland Pozzolona cement
removed from the water, and the distance between the g) High Alumina cement
pointers is measured. Then the mould is kept in a water- h) High strength cement
bath, brought to boiling temperature for three hours. After
i) Hydrophobic cement
three hours the mould is removed from the water-bath,
cooled and the distance between the pointers is measured j) Quick setting cement
again. The difference between two measurements represents 2.3.2. RAPID HARDENING CEMENT
expansion of cement.
This is similar to ordinary portland cement but develops
1.12.5 FINENESS : strength rapidly which is due to finer grinding and higher
The rate of hydration and hence the strength depends upon C3S and lower C2S contents. The one day strength of rapid
the fineness of cement. The finer the particle, the greater the hardening cement is equal to the 3 days strength of ordinary
portland cement. Higher fineness of cement particles given condition but fairly highly resistant to sulphates and alkali
more surface area for hydration and the higher C3S results in metals.
quicker hydration. This rapid gain of strength results in 2.3.6. PORTLAND - POZZOLANA CEMENT :
higher heat of hydration at an early age, and hence this can
This type of cement can be produced either by grinding
be used in cold-weather conditions but not in mass-concrete
together Portland cement clinker, gypsum and pozzolana or
works.
uniformly blending Portland cement and fine Pozzolana or A
2.3.3. SULPHATE-RESISTING CEMENT: pozzolana is a silicious material which, by itself doesn't
Ordinary portland cement is susceptible to sulphate attack. posses cementitious properties but in finely powdered form
Sulphates react with the free calcium hydroxide and the in the presence of water react with calcium hydroxide at
hydrate of calcium aluminate, to form calcium sulphate and ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing
calcium alumino-sulphate. This results in expansion and cementitious properties.
disruption. The sulphate attack is further acclerated in Pozzolanas may often be cheaper than portland cement that
alternate wetting and drying conditions. Cement with low they replace but their chief advantage lies in slow hydration
C3A and C4AF are less susceptible for sulphate attack and and therefore low rate of heat development. This type of
cement also show good resistance to sulphte attack and
are known as sulphate resisting cements. The limit for C3A is
some other destructive agents, and redudces the leaching of
generally 5 percent. These cements are useful concretes
calcium hydroxide, when used in hydraulic structures. The
used in marine conditions, foundations and basements with
portland-pozzolana cement can generally be used wherever
soil infested with sulphates, sewage treatment works.
ordinary portlandcement is usable under normal conditions.
2.3.4. LOW HEAT CEMENT : The compressive strength of portland pozzolana cements are
This type of cement produces less heat or same amount of specified at 28 days to enable pozzolana cements to be
heat at a low rate during the hydration process. Low heat used as substitute for ordinary portland cement in plain and
evolution can be achieved by reducing C3S and C3A and reinforced concretes.
increasing C2S. This results in the slow development of 2.3.7. HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT :
strength but ultimate strength will be the same. This cement is basically different from the ordinary
2.3.5 PORTLAND SLAG CEMENT : portland cement and is obtained by fusing or sintering, in
suitable proportions of Alumina and Calcareous materials
This cement is obtained by mixing not less than 35 percent
and grinding the resultant product to a fine powder. The raw
of ordinary portland cement clinker, gypsum and granulated
materials, lime stone or chalk and bauxite are crushed into
blast furnace slag in suitable proportions and grinding the
lumps not larger than 100mm, heated to the fusiion point
mixture, or grinding the clinker, slag, gypsum separately and
later mixing them intimately. This cement is as reactive than at about 16000C and solidified materials is ground to fine
the OPC, and the rate of gain of strength is somewhat powder. Becasue of the high hardness of aluminous cement
slower in the first 28 days but thereafter it increases. The clinker, the powder consumption is large apart from high
heat of hydration of this type of cement is less than that of prime cost of buxite and high fusion temparature. All these
the ordinary portland cement, and can be used in mass lead to a high price of aluminous cement, compared with
concrete works. This cannot be used in cold weather ordinary portland cement. The high alumina cement is
resistant to sulphate attack. Aluminous cement is not
attacked by CO2 dissolved in pure water and three fore 2.3.10. QUICK SETTING CEMENT :
suitable for manufacture of pipes. This cement is not acid- This type of cement is useful in under-water
resisting but it can withstand tolarably well, very dilute construction. This cement sets very early and this property
solutionsof acids of pH greater than 3.5. to 4. However of quick-setting can be achieved by reducing the gypsum
caustic alkalis, evern in dilute state, attack the aluminous content at the time of griding the clinker.The other types of
cement with great vigour. This cement is resistant to sea cements include extra rapid hardening cement, super
water. sulphate cement, coloured cement, expansive cement white
2.3.8. HIGH STRENGTH CEMENT : portland cement, coloured portland cement, etc.

Some works, like prestressed concrete works requires

consistently high strength concrete. To meet this
requirement, special concretes with the strengths higher
than those given for ordinary portland cement are necessry.
Such cement known as high strenth portland cement is
produced from the same materials as in the case of ordinary
portland cement. This high strength portland cementis
different from the rapid hardening cement and the higher
strenghts are achieved by increasing C3S content and the
fineness; The use of this cement in 1:2:4 nominal mix with
awater-cement ratio of 0.60 to 0.65 easily gives M25
concrete.
2.3.9 HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT :
This type of cement is obtained by grinding ordinary
portland cement with substances like stearic acid, delic acid,
boiric acid which are water-repellant film-forming agents.
Due to this a water repellant, film is formed arround the
Admixtures
grains of cement which will prevent the entry of atmospheric
moisture into the grains of cement during transport and long Instead of using special cements, it is possible to modify
storage and the film breaks when cement is mixed with some of the properties of the cement by using suitable
aggregates and watger and the normal hydration takes additives. These additives other than the basic ingredients of
place. There will be some air entrainment due to the film concrete - cement, aggregate and water - added to the
forming repelling-material which improves the workability of
concrete immediately before or during the mixing are called
the concrete. The properties of this type of cement are
as 'Admixtures`. Admixtures ranging from chemicals to
almost the same as that of the ordinary portland cement
except air entrainment. The advantge with the cement is waste materials are used to modify properties like setting
that deterioration doesn't takes place in high humidity areas times, rate of hydration, workability, dispersion, air
due to transportation and storage. entrainment etc.
3.3 ACCELERATORS : 3.5 WATER-REDUCING ADMIXTURES :
These admixtures are used to speedup the initial set of Water reducing agents are those which will help in
cement/concrete either to increase the rate of hydration of reducing the water/cement ratio without effecting the
cement or to reduce the setting time. The most widely used workability and strength. There are some admixtures which
accelerator is calcium-chloride (CaCl2). The addition of act as water reducing agents only, whereas there are some
calcium chloride to the mix increases the rate of others which will act as both water reducing and set-
development of strength. The addition of 2 percent of controlling admixtures. They are as follows:
calcium chloride by mass of cement reduces the setting time (a) Lignosulphic acids and their salts
by one third and raises the one to seven day strengths by 3
to 7 N/mm2. Addition of 1 percent calcium chloride raises (b) Modifications and derivities of lignosulphonic acids and
their salts.
the temperature by 600c. A calcium chloride content of 1 - 2 (c) Hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their salts
percent is sufficient. However is : 7861 _ 1981 (Part II)
(d) Modifications and derivitives of hydroxylated carboxylic
recommends a maxium of 1.5 percent of calcium chloride
acids and their salts.
both for plain and reinforced concrete works at low
temperatures. Large does of calcium chloride result in flash- What is the necessity of adding aggregate in
set of concrete and increases shrinkage. Calcium chloride concrete? How do the particle shape and texture
should not be used for concretes subjected to alkali - affect the workability and strength of a given
aggregate reaction or exposed to soils or water sulphate concrete?
attack. This cannot be used for prestressed concrete to As aggregates occupy 70-80 percent of the volume of
avoid the possibility of stress corrosion. concrete, it is very essential to know more about the
3.4 RETARDERS : aggregates which constitute major volume of concrete and
contribute a lot to the strength and durability of concrete.
Delaying or prolonging the setting of the cement-paste Aggregates are cheaper than cement and it is therefore,
can be achieved by using retarding admixtures. These are economical to put into the mix as much of the aggregates
useful in concreting in hot weather as the normal setting and little of the cement paste. However, economy is not the
time is shortened due to high temperature and in preventing only consideration but also as already told it confers
the cold joints or discontinuties in the structural unit by condidereble advantages like higher volume, stability,
durability than cement paste.
keeping the concrete workable so that the succeeding lifts
can be placed. Retarding action is exhibited by sugar, SHAPE AND TEXTURE :
carbohydrate derivatives, soluble Zinc salts, soluble borates
The shape and texture of aggregate particles influence
etc. Great care is necessary while using retards as incorrect
the properties of concrete, in particular fresh concret, like
quantities may totally inhibit the setting and hardening.
workability etc. Depending upon the shape, the aggregates
Small quantity of sugar (about 0.05 percent by weight of are classified as rounded, irregular, angular, flaky, elongated,
cement) will act as an acceptable retarder. Whereas large flaky and elongated. From the point of economy, the
quantities of sugar i.e., o.2 to 1 percent by weight will rounded aggregates requires lesser amount of cement-
virtually prevent the setting of cement. paste as it gives minium ratio of surface area to the volume,
and gives minium voids. However, the interlocking between bulking of ordinary sands varies between 15 and 30 percent.
the particles is poor in round aggregates making it The bulking of sand increases with finesss as shown in fig.
unsuitable for higher strength and greater durability. The For extremely fine sand the bulking may be of the order of
irregular particles requires more cement paste, have more 40 percent. In the case of coarse aggregate, the increase in
percentage of voids and better interlocking between volume is negligible.
particles. The angular aggregate will have sharp, angular
and rough particles with maxium void ratio. This gives good
interlocking between particles, thereby giving good bond
strength and can be used for high strength concrete. The
flaky particles are those whose thickness is small relative to
the width and length or its least dimension is less than three
fifths mean dimension. The elongated particles are those
whose greatest dimension more than ninefifths of average
dimension. The flat and elongated particles are
objectionable as they will adversly influence workability,
cement requirement, strength, durability and more voids.
The shape and texture of aggregate will influence the
characterstics like workability and strength largely. The
particles with smooth surface requires less water/cement Due to the bulking, the fine aggregate shows completely
ratio with higher compressive strength and lesser flexural unrealistic voulem when measured by volume batching, in
strength whereas particles with rough surface will require the manufacture of concrete and it no allowance is made for
more water/cement ratios and the flexural strengths are bulking, the mix will be richer than the designed one
higher due to better interlocking between particles. because for a given mass, moist sand occupies a
considerabley larger volume than the same mass of dry
4.10 BULKING OF FINE AGGREGATE : sand, increasing chances of segregation and honey-combing.
The percentage bulking can be obtained in accordance with
Free moisture content in the fine aggregate results in IS 2386 (Part III) - 1963.
increase of volume known as bulking. The extent of bulking
depends upon the percentage of moisture in the fine 5.5 GRADING CURVE :
aggregate and its finesess.
The results of a sieve analysis can be understood more
Free moisture content forms thin film around each easily if represented graphically. By using a grading chart, it
particle and this exerts surface tension and the forces is possible to see at a glance whether grading of a given
exerted by surface tensions around different particles keeps sample confirms to that specified or is too coarse or too fine,
away one from each other resulting in increase of vclume. or deficient in particular size. The curve showing the
The bulking of aggregate will depend upon the moisture cumulative percentage of the materials passing the sieves
content and fineness of aggregate. The bulking increases represented on the ordinate with the sieve opening to the
gradually with moisture content upto a certain point and logarithmic scale represented on the abscissa is termed the
then begins to decrease with the further addition of water 'Grading Curve'.
due to the merging of films until when the fine aggregate is
saturated and at this stage the bulking is practically nil. The
 Aggregate graded to maximum density makes a harsh
and unworkable mix. The workability is improved when
there is an excess of paste above that required to fill the
voids in the sand and also a paste above that required to fill
the voids in the coarse aggregate.
The water/cement ratio of a mix is generally fixed from
considerations of strength. The cement paste must be
suficient to cover the surface of all the particles, so that the
lower the surface area of the aggregate, the less the paste
and hence less water is required.

5.6 GRADING REQUIREMENTS : The application of the surface area calculations breaks
down for particles smaller than 150 microns and for cement.
The suitability of any particular grading has to be These particles, and some larger sand particles act as
determined. The coarse and fine aggregate need be lubricant and do not require wetting similar to that of coarse
combined to produce a desired grading. In the first instance aggregate particles.
grading is of importance as it affects the workability of
concrete, as the strength of fully compacted concrete with a An increase in the specific surface of the aggregate for a
given water/cement ratio is independent of grading. constant water/cement ratio leads to lower concrete strength
which may be due to the reduction in the density of the
a. The surface area which determines the water content concrete consequent upon increase in the fineness of the
needed to wet all solids. aggregate.
b. Cement requirement should be reduced to a minimum. In practice, when approximating type grading, the
c. The concrete should be workable without tendency to properties of the mix will remain largely unaltered when
segregate and harshness and be compactable. compensation of small deficiency of fines by a somewhat
larger excess of coarser particles is applied, but the
It is easier for the particles of different sizes to pack, departure must not be great. The deficiency and excess are
while it is equally easier for the smaller particles to mutually interchangeable.
segregate in the dry state. Actually it is the mortar, that
should be prevented from freely passing out of the voids in The important characterestics of fresh concrete affect
the coarse aggregate. The voids in the combined aggregate also its properties in the hardend state such as strength,
should be sufficiently small to prevent the cement paste shrinkage and durability. If grading is not kept constant,
from passing through and seperating out. Segregation should variable workability results and hence variable strength
be avoided for the concrete to be satisfactory. concrete.
In harsh mixes, one size fraction is present in 5.8 GAP GRADING :
excess,indicated by a steep step in the middle of gradingl So far we have discussed about the grading of
curve with resulting particle interference. For this reason, aggregates, in which all size fractions are present in certain
minimum contents of particles passing 300 microns and proportion in a sample which is called as continuous grading.
some times 150 microns are needed. Gap grading is one in which one or more intermediate size
fractions are absent. The gap grading is represented by a
horizontal line over the range of size ommited in a grading type. Since the gel is confined by the sorrounding cement
curve. paste,internal pressure is developed which leads to
Generally, it is assumed that the voids presnet in higher expansion, cracking and disruption of cement paste.
size of aggregate are filled up by the next lower size and so The alkali aggregate reaction can be controlled by use
on. But the voids created by one size of aggregates may be of corrective admixtures such as pozzolanas, selection of
too small to accomodate the very next lower size and which non- reactive aggregates,use of low alkali cement, by
will result in creation of more voids. By skipping to next controlling moisture condition and temperature etc. It is
lower size, i.e. by omitting some sizes of aggregate, it may generally recomened that 20grams of reactive silica be
be possible to produce a dense concrete resulting in least added for each gram of alkali in excess of 0.5 percent of the
voids requiring least matrix. Some important features of gap mass of the cement. IS: 2386 (Part VII) - 1963 describes
graded aggregate are: methods for determination of reactivity of aggregates.
(a) For a given aggregate-cement and water-cement ratios, GRADING LIMITS OF FINE AGGREGATS IS: 383-1970
higher workability can be obtained with lower sand
content, in gap graded aggregate than continuously I.S. Sieve Percentage passing by weight
graded aggregate. The sand requirement is assumed to for
be 14 percent less than continously graded aggregate. Designation Grading Grading Grading
Grading
(b) Specific surface area of gap graded aggregate is low in
Zone I Zone II Zone III
gap-graded aggregate resulting in less cement and
Zone IV
lower water/cement ratio.
(c) Because of the lower matrix content and point contact 10 mm 100 100 100
between coarse aggregates, the drying shrinkage is 100
reduced. 4.75 mm 90-100 90-100 90-100
(d) Gap grading will not affect compressive and tensile 95-100
strengths. 2.36 mm 60-95 75-100 85-100
95-100
1.18 mm 30-70 55-90 75-100
5.9 ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTION: 90-100
600 micron 15-34 35-59 60-79
For a long time aggregates have been considered as
80-100
inert but it is not actually so. Some of the aggregates
300 micron 5-20 8-30 12-40
containing active silica will react with the alkalies present in
15-50
cement. The reactive forms of silica will occur in opaline or
150 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10
chalcedonic cherts, silicious limestones,rhoyolites and
0-15
rhylotic turffs andestite and andesitetuffs,phyllites etc. The
6.4 FACTORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY :
reaction starts with the attack on the siliceous minerals in
the aggregate by alkaline hydroxides derived from the 6.4.1 WATER CONTENT :
alkalis(Na2O and K2O) in the cement. As a result of this an Water content added to concrete, will have significant
alkali-silicate gell is formed and alteration of the borders of influence on workability. Fluidity of concrete increases with
the aggregates takes place. The gel is of ultimate swelling increase in water content but it may affect other factors.
Increase in water content is the last resource to be used to because of more surface area and more interparticle
improve workability and the cement content has to be fricition.
changed to meet the strength requirement. 6.4.4 TIME :
6.4.2 GRADING AND MIX PROPORTIONS : With time, the workability of fresh concrete decreases
Concrete contains 70-75 percent of aggregates, and because of loss of moisture due to evoparation, absorption
economy demands that the volume of aggregates should be by aggregates and due to the hydration of cement. The
as large as possible. For a given volume, the smaller the workability in terms of compacting factor decreases by about
surface area of the aggregates, less amount of water and 0.10 during the first hour after mixing, and the loss of
paste are required for wetting and lubricating and this can workability with time is more pronounced in concretes with
be achieved by proper choice of the size, shape and grading admixtures like plasticizers. The effect of time on workability
of fine and coarse aggregates. The grading and the is showin fig 6.1.
water/cement ratio have to be considered together, as a
grading producing the most workable mix for one
water/cement ratio may not be the best for another value of
the ratio. In fact, for a given value of water/cement ratio, for
the given material, there is one value of coarse/fine
aggregate ratio that gives highest workability. In practice,
prediciting the influence of mix proportions on workability
requires care since, of the three factors, water/cement ratio,
aggregate/cement ratio and water content, only two are
independent. For instance, if aggregate cement ratio is
reduced, but the water cement ratio is kept constant, the \
water content increases and consequently the workability. If
on other hand the water content is kept constant when the Effect of placing time on the workability
aggregate/cement ratio is reduced,thewater/cement ratio 6.4.4.1 MIXING TIME :
decreases but the workability is not seriously affected.
For proper mixing, the mixer has to run at a speedof 25
6.4..3 SIZE, SHAPE AND SURFACE TEXTURE OF
to 30 revoluatioins per minute. In the field, generally the
AGGREGATES :
mixing time is shortened to increase the output of concrete
If the size of the aggregates is big, its surface area is resulting in poor quality of concrete. On the other hand if the
less and hence it requires less water and paste for wetting concrete is mixed for a long time it becomes un-economical
and lubricating the surface. Angular, elongated and flakey interms of the energy consumed, and output, and also
aggregate gives a harsh concrete mix when compared with mixing over long periods results in the reduction of
the concrete with rounded aggregates. For a given volume or water/cement ratio due to the absorption of water by
weight, the rounded aggregates will have less surface area aggregate and evaporation. Some times the improvement in
and less frictional resistance than angular aggregates. strength and workability may be observed due to excess of
Similarly a rough textured aggregates will give less fines resulting from the abrasion and attrition of coarse
workability than smooth or glassy texture aggregates aggregate in the mix the coarse aggregate becoming round
shaped. But this may not be true for all cases and all
conditions. The excess fines formation may lead to greater 6.5 MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY :
shrinkage. The effect of mixing time on strengthof concrete
is shown in Fig.
I.S:457-1957 has stipulated minimum mixing time for
different capacities of mixes
6.4.5 TEMPERATURE :
Workability of concrete mix is affected by the ambient
temperature of concrete. Fig.6.3 gives the effect of
temperature on the slump of laboratory mixed concrete. It is
apparent that on a hot day water content of the mix would
have to be increased for a constant workability to be
maintained.
Even though number of different emperical test are
available for the measurement of workability, no fully
satisfactory test is known that will measure the workability
as defined, although, they may provide useful information
within a range of variation in workability. The tests that are
commonly employed to measure workability are the
(a) Slump test
(b) Compaction factor test
(c) Flow test
(d) Vee-bee consistometer test
6.5.1. SLUMP TEST :
This test is simple, most widely used and can be
employed either in the laboratory or at the site of work. It is
not suitable for measuring workability of very wet or very dry
mixes and also doesnot measure all the aspects of
workability.
The apparatus for conducting slump test is a slump
cone in the form of a frustum of a cone with botton diameter
as 200mm, top diameter of 100 mm and a height of 300mm
as shown in Fig.6.5. For tamping the concrete, a steel
tamping rod of 16mm diameter and 600mm long with bullet
end is used.
 6.5.2 COMPACTION FACTOR TEST :
This test can be used both in the field and in the
Laboratory. This is developed by the Road Research
laboratory UK. The compaction factor test measures the
inherent characeristics of the concrete which relates very
close to the requirements of workability. This test is more
precise than the slump test and can be used for concrete
mixes of low and medium workability when concrete is
compacted by vibration. The sketch of the ompaction factor
apparatus for use with aggregate not exceeding 40mm
Typical mould for slump test nominal size is shown below.
The internal surface of the mould should be thoroughly
cleaned. The mould is placed on a smooth horizontal, rigid
and non absorbent surface and is filled with concrete in four
equal layers, tamping each layer 25 times by the tamping
rod evenly over the cross section. After the top layer is
rodded, the concrete is struck off and surface is made level
with at rowel or the tamping rod. The mould is removed
slowly vertically. This allows the concrete to subside which is
referred as 'Slump' of concrete. The difference in heights of
the slump cone and the highest point of the subsided
concrete is measured as slump in mm.

compaction factor apparatus

The dimensions of the apparatus are as follow.
Compacting factor apparatus
Upper hopper A: Dimension in mm
Top internal diameter 254
Bottom internal diameter 127
Internal height 279
Fig 6.6 Slump:True, Shear and Collapse. Lower hopper B:
Fig.6.6 shows different types of slumps. If the concrete Top internal diameter 229
slumps evenly it is s called true slump.If one half of the Bottom internal diater 127
coneslides it is called shear slump and in this case the slump Internal height 229
is measured as the difference on theheights of slump cone
and the average height of subsidence. Shear slump shows Cylinder C:
that the concrete is non cohesive and with characteristics Internal diameter 152
of segregation. Collapse indicates higher water/cement raio. Internal height 305
 Clear distances between hoppers and cylinder 203
The sameple of concrete to be tested is placed in the
upper hopper completely filling it. Then the clamp of the
upper hopper trap door is released so that concrete falls into
hopper B whose door is closed. If the concrete is dry and
some of the sample doesnot fall through the door and slight
pocking by a rod may be necessary. After the concrete is
completely filled up in hopper B, thetrap door of hopper B is
released such that concrete falls into the cylinder. The
excess concrete remaining above the surface of the cylinder
is cut off with the help of a plane blade to maintain a
horizontal surface. The outside surface of the cylinder is
cleaned and weighed to the nearest 10 grams. This is the
weight of partially compacted concrete. The cylinderis then Fig.6.8. Flow table apparatus
emptied and refilled with concrete from the same sample in
different layers heavily ramming or vibrating to obtain full The flow test apparatus is as shown in Fig 6.8. It consits
compaction. the surface of the fully compacted concrete is of a flowtable, about 760 mm in diameter. A mould in the
struck off and madehorizontal and weighed to the nearest 10 form of frustum of cone as shown in the figure is used for
grams. This is the weight of fully compacted concrete. conducting the test. The table top is cleaned of gritty
material and wetted. The mould is kept at the centre of the
Weightofpartiallycompac tedcontrete
table and the concrete is filled in the mould in two layers,
compacting factor(CF) = Weightoffullycompactedconc rete
rodding each layer 25 times with a tamping rod rounded at
the lower end. After rodding, excess concrete above and
surface of the mould is removed and the mould is lifted
vertically upward. The table is then given 15 jolts in about
15 seconds, each jolt being 12.5mm. Then the average
spread diameter of the concrete is noted and the flow
percent is calculated as follows.
6.5.3. FLOW TEST :
Spreaddiameter in cm-25 x100
This is a laboratory test in which flow spread of the Flow percent: 25
concrete is measured in terms of flow percent which is
related to workability. This test gives an indicatioin of the The range of flow per cent may be anything from 0 to
quality of concrete with respect to its consistency, 150 percent. A careful observation of concrete on the table
cohesivenes and proneness to segregation. gives indication of the characteristics of concrete such as
tendency for segregation etc.
6.5.4. VEE-BEE CONSISTOMETER TEST :
This is a laboraty test to meaure the workability of stiff
concrete mixes. Here the workability is measured in terms of
time i.e. in seconds. The apparatus consists of a vibrating Table 6.2. Suggested ranges of values of workability
table, cylinder, cone, standard iron rod as shown in Fig6.9. of concrete for different placing conditions(SP:23 of
BIS)
Placing conditiion degree of Values of
Workability Workability
1) Concreting of shallow Very low 20-
10 Sec; Vee-Bee time: or
sections with 0.75-0.85 compacting
factor
vibration

2) Concreting for lightly Low 10-

5 Sec; Vee-Bee time:
reinforced sections or
with vibration. 8.80 to 8.85 compacting
factor
3) Concreting for lightly Medium 5-2
sec; Vee-Bee time
reinforced section or
without vibration; or 0.85-0.92; compacting
Fig 6.9 Vee -Bee apparatus: factor
heavily reinforced or
The metal cone is kept inside the cylinder on the table 25-75 mm Slump for
and the cone is filled with concrete as in the slump test. The 20mm
cone is lifted veritically and the glass disc attached to the aggregate
swivel arm is turned and placed on the top of concrete in
cylinder and the vibrating table is operated. The vibration is 4) Concreting of heavily High
continued till such time as the conical shape of the concrete Above 0.92 compacting factor
disappers and the concrete assumes a cylindrical shape. The reinforced sections or
time required for the shape of the concrete to change from 75-125mm slump for
conical shap to cylindrical shape in seconds is known as Vee- for 20mm*
Bee time. The Vee -Bee time for different works as per IS aggregate
standards is given in table:6.2.
* for smaller aggregate the values will be lower
 generally results in segregation, it is advisable to vibrate a
concrete cube for about 10 minutes and then to strip it and
observe the distribution of aggregate so that any
segregation will be easily observed.
6.7 BLEEDING :
Bleeding, also known as wager gain, is a form of
segregation in which some of the water in the mix tends to
rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete. This is due to
the inability of the solid constituents of the mix to hold all of
6.6 SEGREGATION : the mixing water when they settle downwards. Bleeding
A workable concrete is one that should not easily causes formation of a porous, weak and non durable
segregate i.e. it ought to be cohesive. Segregation can be concrete layer at the top of the placed concrete. In the case
defined as separating out of the ingredients of the concrete of lean mixes bleeding may create capillary channels
mix so that the mix is no longer in a homogenous condition. increasing the permeability of concrete. When concrete is
In the case of concrete, it is the differences in the size of placed in different layers, the top of every lift may become
particles and in the specific gravity of the mix constituents too wet and if the water is trapped by superimposed
that are the primary causes of segregation, but this can be concrete, porous, weak and non durable concrete will result.
controlled by suitable gradation of aggregates and careful If bleeding water is mixed during finishing of the top
handling. There are two types of segregation. surface, a weak wearing surface will be formed. This can be
avoided by delaying the finishing operations until the
a) The coarser particles tend to separate and since they bleeding water has evaporated, and also by the use of wood
tend to travel further along the slope or to settle more floats and avoiding over working of surface. On the other
than the finer particles. This is more in the case when hand, if evaporation of water from the surface of the
the gravity of coarse aggregate differs appreciable to concrete is faster than the bleeding rate, plastic shrinkage
that of the fine aggregates. cracking may result.
b) This occurs in wet mixes where separations of cement When concrete is placed in different layers and each
paste from the mix takes place layer is compacted after allowing certain time to lapse before
The tendency to segregate can be minimised by the nest layer is laid, bleeding may also result in a plane of
weakness between two layers. Any laitance, (which is a layer
(a) Using air entrained concrete. formed by the particles raising along with water formed.)
(b) Reducing the height of drop of concrete. should be removed by brushing and washing before a new
layer is laid.
(c) Not using vibration as a means of spreading heap of
concrete over a larger area Bleeding need not necessarily be harmful. If it is
undisturbed and the water evaporates the effective
(d) Reducing he continued usage of vibrator for longer
water/cement ratio may be lowered with resulting increase in
times as the coarser particles try to settle at bottom.
the strength. The tendency of bleeding depends largely on
Segregation is difficult to measure quantitatively, but the properties of cement. Bleeding is decreased by
easily determined when concrete is handled on the site in increasing the fineness of cement, using cements with high
any of the undesirable ways listed above. As over vibration alkali content, high C3A, adding calcium chloride,
Pozzolanas, aluminum powder and by air entrainment. c, e and a are the absolute volumes of cement, water
Physical properties of fine aggregate and temperature may and air respectively.
also affect bleeding.
Actually the water/cement ratio and the degree of
7.3 WATER/CEMENT RATIO : compaction, both effect the volume of the voids in the
The strength of the concrete depends upon the strength concrete and that is why the volume of air in concrete is
of cement paste and degree of compaction at a given age. included by Feret in his expression.
The strength of the pate depends upon the water and air The relationship between the strength and the
content present. If we consider fully compacted concrete, water/cement ratio show in Fig.7.1 is hyperbolic and as it is
which means that hardened concrete contains about 1 difficult to interpolate the intermediate values, If a linear
percent of air voids, its taken that its strength is inversely relationship is drawn, it is more convenient to use Fig.7.2.
proportional to the water/cement ratio. Accordingly a 'law' shows the linear relationship between strength and
was presented by Duff Abrams in 1919. According to him water/cement ratio
strength of concrete is equal to
K1 7.3 GEL SPACE RATIO :

S=
Kx2 not
The influence of water/cement ratio on strength does
truly constitute a law and it does not take into
consideration many factors. In fact the strength at any time
Where x=water/cement ratio of the mix by volume, and depends upon the degree of hydration of cement, its
for 28days results K1 and K2 are 14000 lb/sq in and 7 properties, temperature at which the hydration is taking
respectively. place, air content of the concrete and also the change in the
effective water/cement ratio and the formation of fissures
due to bleeding.
As the cement hydrates, it occupies space more than
twice the original volume and on the calculations that follow
it is assumed that 1 ml of cement will occupy 2.06ml, on
hydration, even though not all the material hydrated is gel;
but as an approximation it is considered as such.
Let c= Volume of the cement
Abrams law although established independently, it was VC = Specific volume of cement=0.319 ml/gm
Feret who in 1896 formulated a general rule of finding the
wo= Volume of mixing water
strength of concrete by the equation.
2 = Fraction of cement that was hydrated
∪ c then volume of gel= 2.06 * cvc
S=K
∈
c +e+a
=2.06*0.319 c*
Where S=Strength of concrete Total space available to the gel:cvc + wo
 = 0.319*c* +wo Accourding to Griffth, the presence of flawslead to high
stress concentrations in the material under load so that a
0.657*cα very high stress is reached in very small volumes of the

Gel space ratio x=

0.319cα+ wo
specimen with consequent microscopic fractures, while the
average stress in the whole specimen is comparatively low.
The flaws vary in size and it is only the few largest ones that
If complete hydration take place, the above equation cause failure. This situation leads to failure of the material at
can be written a much lower stress intensity considering the whole
0.657*c process.

as x =
0.319c+ wo The cement paste in concrete contains many
discontinuities such as voids, fissures, bleeding channel,
Powers' experiment showed that the strength of rupture of bond due to drying shrinkage and temperature
concrete bears a specific relationship with the gel/space etc. It is difficult to explain how exactly the flaws contribute
ratio and the relationship is given as: to the reduction on the actual strenght of concrete. However
Griffth's hypothesis has been acepted to satisfactorily
= 234x 3 MN/m 2 explain the failure of brittle materials such as concrete.

The figure234 MN/m2 represents the intrinsic strength

of gel for the type of cement and the specimen used. Fig.. 7.8 RELATION BETWEEN THE COMPRESSIVE AND
shows the relation between the strength and Gel space TENSILE SPRENGTHS :
ratio.
While in the design of reinforced concrete sections, the
compressive strength of the concrete alone is taken into
consideration, the design of concrete pavements, etc.,
requires the flexural strength also which necessitates finding
out the tensile strength. The compresssive strength and
tensile strengths are epected to be closely related. But there
is no direct proportionality, but the ratio of the two
strengths depends on the general level of the strength of
concrete i.e. when compressive strength increases, tensile
strength also increases but at a decreasing rate. A number
of factors affect the relation between the two strengths.
Some of them include.
(a) The properties of the coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate.
(b) The grading of the aggregate
(c) The age of concrete
7.4 STRENGTH IN TENSION - GRIFFTH'S HYPOTHESIS :
(d) Curing
(e) Air entrainment
(f) The use of pozzoalanic material 7.11 CREEP :
A number of empirical formulae connecting the Creep can be defined as the increase in strain under
compressive and tensile strengths have been suggested, sustained stress. Since this increase can be several times as
many of them of the type large as the strain on loading, creep has considerable
importance.
n
t = K ( c) Where K and n are constants All materials undergo creep under some conditions of
Comite European du Biton has assumed that the loading to a greater or smaller extent. But concrete creeps
modulus of rupture is related to the compressive strength of significants at all stresses for a long time. Creep of concrete
cylinders by is approximately a linear function upto about 40 to 50
percent of stress. Under normal conditions of loading the
r = 9.5 ( c) 1/2 instantaneous strain recorded depends upon the speed of
application of the load and includes not only the elastic
the strengthsbearing expressed in pounds per square strain but also some creep but this is not of practical
inch. University of Illinois has suggested the relation as importance as it is the total strain induced that matters.
3.000 Since the modulus of elasticity of concrete increaes with age,
the elastic deformation gradually decreases and strictly
4+ 12 .00 speaking creep should be taken as strain in excess of elastic
t= σ c strain at the time creep is determined. Further, if a
specimen is drying while under load, it is assumed that creep
where t, c are in pounds per square inch determined and shrinkage are additive; creep is thus calculated as the
on standard test cylinders. difference between the total time deformation of the loaded
The Central Road Research Laboratory (CRRL) hs specimen and shrinkage of a similar unloaded specimen
carried out extensive studies and the folowing statistical stored under the same conditions for the same period.
relationship betweenm tensile strenth and compressive However this is a convenient simplification and shrinkage
strength were established. and crep are not independent phenomena to which this
principal of superposition can be applied. The terms and
(1) -y=15.3x-90.8 for 20mm Maximum size definitions involved are illustrated in fig.7.6.
aggregate
(2) y=14.1x-104.6 for 20mm maximum size natural
gravel
(3) y=9.9x-5.5 for 40mm maximum sized crushed
aggregate
(4) y=9.8x-25.2 for 40mm maximum size natural
gravel
where y is the compressive strength of concrete
(kg/cm2) and x is the flexural strength of concrete (kg/cm2)
.
 It is generally assumed that creep continues to assume
a limiting value after infinite time under loading. It is
estimated that 26 per cent of 20 years creep occurs in 2
weeks, 55 percent in 3 months and 76 percent in one year. If
creep after one year load is taken as unity, then the
average values of creep at later ages are
1.1.4 after 2 years
1.20 after 5 years
1.26 after 10 years
1.33 after 20 years
1.36 after 30 years
Number of mathematical expressions relating creep and
time have been suggested. Ross has suggested creep, c
after time, t, as
t
c= a + bt
Where a and b are constant. If a graph is drawn with t
on the x-axis and t/c on the y axis, it shows a straight line of
slope'b' with the intercept t/c equal to 'a'
The US Bureau of Reclamation has given an expression
 c = F(K) loge(t+1) improved by surface treatment with different materials like
chlorinated rubber paints, dryingoils,Expoxy paints,
where K is the age at which the load is applied.
impregnation of concrete member with silico flouride under
f(c) is a function representing creep deformation with pressure and by using polymner impregnation.
time t is time under load in days
10.4 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE CHOICE OF
The factors that affect creep are age, aggregate and
mix proportions. CONCRETE PROPORTIONS:
10.4.1 STRENGTH:
7.13 DURABILITY :
Apart from the strength of the concrete, the durability of This is one of the most important properties of
concrete is very important as it has efect on economy, concrete. The water/cement ratio is determined from the
servicebility and maintance. The lack of durability may be
due to external reasons or causes with in the concrete itself, mean compressive strength at a specified age. In most of the
one of the things being the volume change. The volume mix design methods water/cement ratio required to produce
change may be due to many factors. The progress of
hydration results in the volume change of gel, shrinkage of the design compressive strength is determined from curves
concrete, permeability, leaching of calcium hydrioxide,un or tables which are based on the water/cement ratio law. In
soundness of constituent materials. Action of aggressive
chemicals, freezing and thawing, thermal aspects, creep, the case of high strength concrete mixes over 40MN/m2, the
rusting of reinforcement, will all come under the purview of aggregate/cement ratio also influences the strength, and the
durability and therefore probing into all these reasons will
give an interesting study of concrete. design of such mixes is considered separately.

One of the important aspects to be considered is the

permeability characteristics of concrete. Aggressive
chemicals attack concrete in solution form and penetration
of solutions depend upon the degree of permeability of the
concrete. The extent of frost action and steel corrosion also 10.4.3 DURABILITY:
depend upon the permeability of concrete. It can be
observed that even with as high water cement ratio as0.7, Durability of concrete can be interpreted to mean its
the cement paste is imervious with a coefficient of resistance to deteriorating influences which may through
permeability of about 5.35x10-11m/sec. However the use of inadvertance or ignorance reside inside the concrete itself or
pozzolanic materials in optimum proportions reduces the
permeability of concrete. Though air entrainment makes which are inherent in the environment to which the concrete
concrete porous, when used upto six percent makes concrete is exposed. The absence of durability may be either caused
impervious. High pressure steam curinin conjuction with
pozzolana reduces permeability. by external agencies like weathering, attack by natural or
Apart from the above the concrete must be resistant to industrial liquids, bacterial growth etc. or internal agencies
abrasion, erosion, cavitation, and construction joints be paid
proper attention. The durability of concrete can also be
like alkali aggregate reaction which was already discussed in that the nominal maximum size of aggregate itself makes a
the earlier units. difference in the degree of workability that may be suitable
Concrete of reasonable strength, when placed for a particular placing condition.
properly, is durable under ordinary conditions, but when high
durability conditions are vital, it is the durability conditions ACI METHOD:
that determine the water/cement ratio in the mix design. Step by step procedure adopted for the selection of
When a concrete is to be subjected to chemicial attack, a mix proportions:
suitable type of cement has to be used, but of resistance to (a) The required slump and the maximum size of
freezing and thawing is the requirement, choice of the aggregate are selected from table 10.13 & 10.14.
cement is governed by considerations such as development (b) Whether to use air entrained or non-air entrained
of early strength, heat of hydration etc. Since the type of concrete is determined based upon the exposure conditions
cement affects the early development of strength, it may be from table 10.15.
necessary with some cements to use a low water/cement (c) The water/cement ratio is selected based on the dual
ratio to ensure satisfactory strengths at early ages. Thus consideration of durability and strength from tables 10.15
strength, type of cement and durability determine between and 10.16.
them the water/cement ratio required. (d) The water content is selected from table 10.19 for the
10.4.4 WORKABILITY: desired workability and the maximum size of aggregate.
The concrete has to staisfy the requirements not only (e) The quantity of cement required is calculated from the
in the hardened state, but also the properties when being water content and the water cement ratio.
handled and placed. A satisfactory workability is essential at (f) The coarse aggregate content is estimated from tables
this stage. The choice of workability depends upon the type 10.20 & 10.21 having a knowledge of the max. size of
of compacting equipment available, the size of the section aggregate, fineness modulus of the fine aggregate and the
and congestion of reinforcement. When the section is narrow workability.
and complicated, or when there are numerous corners or (g) Knowing the amount of cement, water, coarse
inaccessible parts, or for heavily reinforced sections, aggregate and entrapped air, the quantity of fine aggregate
concrete should be fully workable for full compaction to be required is calculated. Suitable adjustments are made for
achieved with reasonable amount of effort. It may be noted moisture content in the aggregates, and trial batches are
tested and the final proportions are obtained by adjustments in water content and percentage of sand in total
adjustments. aggregate are made as per table 10.11.
(f) The cement content is calculated from water-cement ratio
and the final water content arrived after adjustment. The
cement content so calculated is checked against durability
THE INDIAN STANDARD (IS)METHOD requirements (Tables 10.5 and 10.5(a)) and the greater of
Step-by-step procedure adopted for the selection of the two values is adopted.
concrete mix proportions: (g) With the quantities of water and cement per unit volume
(a) The target mean strength is determined by using the of concrete and percentage of sand in the total aggregate
relation already determined, the coarse and fine aggregate content
σt = σck+K*S (K* and S values are given in tables) per unit volume of concrete are calculated as:
(b) The water-cement ratio for the target mean strength is C 1 fa 1
V=W+ + ×
determined from fig 10.1 &10.2. The water/cement ratio so S c p S fa 1000
chosen is checked against the limiting water/cement ratio for C 1 ca 1
V=W+ + . ×
the requirements of durability ( Tables 10.5 and 10.6). More S c 1 − p S ca 1000
precise estimate of the preliminary water-cement ratio V = absolute volume of fresh concrete i.e., the gross volume
corresponding to the target mean strength can be made (1m3) minus volume of the entrapped air.
from fig 10.2 using the 28 day cement compressive strength C = Mass of cement (kg) per m3 of concrete.
curves. Sc = Specific gravity of cement
(c) The (entrapped)air is estimated from table 10.8 for the W = Mass of water (kg) per m3 of concrete
maximum size of aggregate used. p = Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute
(d) The water content and the precentage of sand in total volume.
volume are selected from tables 10.9 and 10.10 for the fa,ca = Total masses of fine and coarse aggregates(kg) per m3
medium and high strength concretes respectively. of concrete respectively.
(e) For other conditions of workablility, water-cement ratio, Sfa,Sca = Specific gravities of the saturated dry fine and
grading of fine aggregate and rounded aggregates, coarse aggregates respectively.
 direction or simply dip direction. And the amount of
inclination along it is called as True dip amount or simply
dip amount. Close observation reveals that this dip amount
gradually decreases on either side of true dip direction
towards the strike direction. Along strike direction the
inclination of bed (i.e. dip amount) is zero i.e. the bedding
plane will be perfectly horizontal. The innumerable directions
which lie in between strike direction and true dip direction
are known as apparent dip directions and the inclinations
along them are called as apparent dip amounts. Naturally
the apparent dip amount is more towards or near the true
dip direction and lesser towards the strike direction. Strike
direction and true dip directions are always mutually
perpendicular as shown in the following figure:

6.3 Strike and dip: When strata are affected by tectonic

forces and structures have developed, they can be studied
by their attitude. Attitude gives us the details of position of
occurrence or orientation of rocks (three dimensional) in
place. Attitude comprises two factors known as strike and
dip. Strike refers to the direction in which a geological
structure (such as a bed, a fault plane, a joint plane etc.) is
present. When an inclined bed is suitably exposed on the Fig
surface its direction of occurrence, its direction of inclination 6.4.Folds - Introduction: When a set of horizontal layers
and amount of inclination can be actually measured directly are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either
by clino meter ( a magnetic compass like instrument). The upwards or downwards.
strike direction may be defined as the direction of trace of
intersection between the bedding plane (or any similar
structure such as fault plane, joint plane, axial plane of fold
etc) and a horizontal plane. Dip literally means slope or
inclination. In structural geology dip is expressed both as a
direction and amount. Dip direction is the direction along
which inclination of bedding plane etc., occurs. Dip amount is
the angle of inclination between bedding plane and a
horizontal plane. As regards to an inclined strata, in a This kind of bends noticed in rocks are called folds.
direction perpendicular to strike direction, inclination of
bedding planes will be maximum and it is called as True dip
6.4.1. Parts of a fold: Limbs, crest, trough, axial plane, folds, the two halves will be only nearly equal. Like a bedding
axis, wave length, plunge etc which are the important parts plane, the axial plane also can be expressed by strike and
of a fold are shown in the following three figures: dip.
Axis: It is the trace of interesection between the axial plane
and the crest (or trough) of the fold. Depending on the
nature of fold, it may be inclined or horizontal or vertical.
When it is inclined, the angle between the axis and
horizontal plane is called as plunge or pitch. In general an
axis is undulatory and its height changes along the trend of
the fold.
Wave length: The distance between the successive crests
or troughs is called as wave length or λ .
6.4.2 Common types of folds:
Anticline and Syncline: When the beds are bent upwards,
the resulting fold is called as anticline. This fold is convex
upwards

Fig.2 Fig.3
In these diagrams A is an upward bend and B is a downward
bend; M and N are limbs of fold ‘A’ x = crest y = trough; τ
=wave length; c = axial plane; D = axis; σ = plunge.
Limbs or flanks: These are the sides of a fold. There will be
two limbs for every fold and one limb will be common for the
adjacent folds as shown in the figure 1. In it limb “ N “ is the
right side of fold “A” and at the same time it is left side of
fold “B” i.e. a limb extends from the axial plane of one fold to Figure
the axial plane of adjacent fold. In monocline type of fold,
there will be only one limb.
Crest and trough: The curved portions of fold at the top
and bottom are called as crest and trough respectively. In
general these are smoothly bent, but in chevron folds these
are sharp and angular. Some refer the crests and troughs as
hinges.
Axial Plane: It is the imaginary plane which divides the fold
in two equal (or early equal) halves. It passes through either Figure
crest or trough i.e. in between the limbs. Depending upon Symmetrical and asymmetrical folds:
the nature of fold, the axial plane may be vertical, horizontal When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal
or inclined. In case of symmetrical folds, axial plane divides halves in such a way that one half is the mirror image of
the fold into exactly two equal halves. But in asymmetrical another, then such a fold (whether anticline or syncline) is
called as symmetrical fold. If the two halves are not mirror
images, then the fold is called as asymmetrical fold. If the
compressive forces responsible for folding are not of same
magnitude, asymmetrical folds form.
Fig.
Symmetrical Anticline Asymmetrical
Anticline
Plunging and non Plunging folds: The plunge of a fold
has already been described as the inclination of fold axis to
the horizontal plane. Based on this i.e. whether the axis of a
fold is inclined or horizontal (i.e. with or without plunge), the
folds are grouped as plunging folds or nonplunging folds.
In geological maps, when strike lines are drawn for
both the limbs, for a non-plunging fold they will be mutually
parallel and for a plunging fold they will be either converging
or diverging but not parallel. On a horizontal plane the
outcrops of non plunging and plunging folds appear as
shown in the figure.
Over turned fold: Usually in simple folds, the limbs show
order of superposition. But when one of the limbs is
overturned, the order of super position (order of
superposition means successively younger beds overlie the
older beds) of beds in that limb will be in reverse order and
such a fold is called over turned fold.
Normal type of fold Overturned
fold.
Domes and basins: Usually a fold will have two distinct
limbs. But some folds do not have any such specific limbs
and appear as beds locally pushed up or down i.e. their
shapes appear as domes or basins. In dome, which
resembles an upper hemisphere, the dips are found in all
sides from common central top point. Thus they are a type of
anticlines. The basins which are like bowls, the slopes are
just opposite i.e. the dips are found towards a common
central bottom point from all sides. These are a type of
synclines.
Monocline: (Mono = One ; cline = inclination or slope)
As already learnt, usually every fold will have two
limbs, each one of which will be common for the adjacent
folds. But when beds show a simple bend with similar
attitude on either side of it, such a fold (bend) appears to
have only one limb. Such a fold is called as monocline.

Figure
Normal fold with two limbs Monocline
Drag folds: These are the minor asymmetrical folds with in
major folds but confined only to incompetent beds which are
sandwiched between competient (or strong) formations.
These develop because of the dragging effect.
Fig: Confined to incompetent bed. Drag
folds
When the stronger or competent beds slide past the weaker
or incompetent beds in opposite directions, these drag folds
develop with in the incompetent formations. In view of their
mode of origin, the orientation of drag folds bear definite
relation with the major folds in which they occur. Thus the
study of drag folds can reveal the attitude of major folds. For
example the axial planes of drag folds tend to be parallel to
the axial planes of the larger folds tend to be relatively
uniform in direction and plunge through out. They will be sub
parallel to the axes of the major folds.
6.6.2. Classification and common types of joints: Joints
are mainly classified based on relative attitude of joints and
origin of joints.
Based on relative attitude of joints: This classification is
similar to that faults where in the strike direction of the
structure (joint or fault plane) is compared with strike and dip common and abundant. Basalts are nearly twenty times
of adjacent strata. When joints are parallel to strike direction
or dip direction of adjacent beds, they are called as Strike
joints or Dip joints respectively. If the strike direction of joints
is neither parallel to strike nor dip direction of adjacent beds,
then such joints are called as Oblique joints. If the attitude
of joints (i.e. strike direction, dip direction and dip amount
coincides completely with the attitude of adjacent beds, then
they are called Bedding joints.
Based on origin of Joints: Most of the joints form either
due to tensional forces or due to shearing forces. Accordingly
they are described as Tension Joints or Shear joints.
Columnar joints which may occur in basalts are typical
examples of tension joints. Their mode of formation is
already explained under primary structures of volcanic
igneous rocks. Mud cracks also form under tensional forces.
In this case tensional forces developed due to shrinkage in
volume of mud which inturn is due to escape of enclosed
moisture content. Escape of moisture is because of
evaporation. Tension joints develop perpendicular to the
direction of tensional forces, which pull apart the rock
masses. Both columnar joints and mud cracks are polygonal
in plan. As referred under influence of erosion in folded areas
the crest and trough portions are highly fractured. Since
these wedge shaped fractures form due to tensional forces
they also represent tension joints.
Shear joints develop in those contexts where shearing
forces prevail. Faults and limbs of folds are the places where
shearing forces occur and create shear joints.
Figs.
Joints in igneous rocks:
It is stated under petrology that among different
varieties of igneous rocks, basalts and granites are the most
greater in quantity then all other volcanic rocks put together.
Granites are five times greater in quantity than all other
plutonic rocks put together. Thus it will be interesting to
know types of joints that occur in them.
The basalts and other volcanic rocks may have
columnar joints, which have been already described.
The granites and other similar rocks are some times
characterised by the presence of a joint system known as
‘Mural Joints’. These are three sets of joints of which two
are vertical sets and the other set is horizontal (resembling
cubic cleavage found in galana mineral). All these three sets
are mutually perpendicular and when developed well, the
granite body (as observed in a quarry) appears to be made
up of a number of rectangular or cubic blocks (mural =
cubical block). The quarry face then, looks like a giant wall of
a fort. Mural joints are often accompanied by two other sets
of micro fractures, which are known as rift and grain. From
civil engineering point of view the mural joint fecilitate easy
quarrying while rift and grain are helpful in dressing of the
rocks.
7.2. Geological time Scale: It is believed that the earth has
come into existence nearly 4500 million years back.
Therefore it has history spreading over all this lengthy
period. For the sake of convenience of study, reference and
also for relative comparison of ages of different sequences of
rocks scattered over different places on earth’s surface, it is
necessary to have a proper frame work of geological time.
This need is fulfilled by “ Geological time scale”, which is
internationally accepted. It is like calender of an year. We
know, an year is devided in to different months, each month
into weeks, each week in to days, each day into hours and so
on. Geological time scale is also similarly subdivided into
smaller and smaller units to suit better for stratigraphical
study and correlation.
The geological time scale is subdevided into number of
“ERAS”. Each era comprises number of “ PERIODS”, which
inturn are subdivided into “ EPOCHS”. A number of “AGES”
make up an epoch. The subunits of an age are called some
times as “HEMERAS” or “ PHASES”.
Under fossils it is already stated that the record of
fossils provided an authentic evidence of evolution of life
(from most elementary or primitive to most modern) through
the geological ages. To reflect this, the above referred six
eras are given other names also. They are as follows:
1. Archaean era =Azoic era (Zone = life; Azoic = life less
meaning an era without life)
2. Precambrian era = Proterozoic (Protero = very early,
meaning an era with very early life, which is not recorded as
fossils).
3. Primary era = Palaeozoic era( Palaeo = ancient or old,
meaning are era with very first important life which is
recorded as fossils.
4. Secondary era = Mesozoic era. (Mesos = middle,
meaning an era with life, which is neither old nor recent).
5. Tertiary era = Cenozoic era or Kainozoic era (ceno or
kaino = recent, meaning an era with recent life).
6. Quarternary = Psychozoic era ( Psycho = reasoning or
thinking, meaning an era with life which has reasoning or
thinking capacity i.e. final form of evolution as on today).
The terms eras, periods etc refer to the subdivisions of
time of geological history. Sedimentary rocks have been
forming all this time. In otherwords different subdivisions of
time have corresponding geological formations (i.e.
sedimentary rocks). The rocks formed during an era are
called as GROUP of rocks, rocks belonging to a period are
called as SYSTEM of rocks. Similarly rocks representing an
epoch, age and hemera are respectively called as SERIES,
STAGE and ZONE. These details may be known at a glance
from the following:
Geological time (corresponding)
Geological formations
Era --------------> Group
| |
Period ------------->
System
| |
Epoch ------------>
Series
| |
Age ------------> Stage
| |
Hemera (Phase) ------------> Zone
Same proper name is given both for time unit and rock
unit with appropriate suffix. Thus for example. The first
geological era is called as Archaean era and the
corresponding geological formations are called as Archaean
group.
7.4. Major stratigraphical units of India:
Before commencing the description of stratigraphical
units of India, a general outline shall be useful. It is as
follows:
More than half of peninsula is occupied by gneissic and
schistose rocks of the Archaean times . The rocks of
Cuddapah system, Vindhyan system, Gondwana group
and the Deccan Traps occupy the rest of the area except
parts of the coastal regions.
In the Extra peninsula, marine sedimentary formations
predominante though parts of the Sub-Himalaya and the
main axis of the Himalaya are occupied by ancient
metamorphic rocks and intrusive igneous rocks.
The Indo - Gangetic plains which lie in between
Peninsula and Extra Peninsula consists of alluvium of recent
times; which means it has no important geological history of
its own.
From civil engineering point of view also, it is
proper to avoid more details of stratigraphical study. To suit
our purpose in the coming pages we may further limit the
discussion of these major stratigraphical units only to the
sailent details of lithology, fossil content, structures,
succession of type area and economic mineral occurrences in
addition to a brief mention of a few other relevant details.
This will be the proper line of approach for us to this
otherwise major branch of geology.
ARCHAEAN GROUP
Occurrence or distribution: In India Archaeans occupy
nearly 2/3 of the peninsula (comprising the states of
Tamilnadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
parts of Madhya Pradesh) spreading from cape Camorin to
Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. These probably continue below
Indo Gangetic alluvium and occur in Assam. Similarly these
continue below Deccan Traps and extend in to some parts of
Gujarat and Rajasthan. They also occur along the whole
length of Himalayas, but are studied only at some places.
Thus the Archaeans represent the most widely distrubuted
group of rocks in our country.
These are the best developed in Karnataka state at Dharwar
(Type area). The Archaean rocks of Kashmir - Hazara area
are called as “ Salkhala series”, while those of Kumaon and
Spiti valley are called as “Vaikrita system”. In Simla and
Garhwal, the schistose Archaean rocks are described as “
Jutogh” and “ Chail “ series. Similarly these rocks of other
places are given different names.
Succession (Order of super positions or formation of rocks):
As mentioned in previous para Dharwar of Karnataka
state is the type area of Archaeans, i.e. the place where they
are best developed. It was first studied by R.Bruce Foote in
1880s and later by W.F. Smeeth (1915) and B.Rama Rao
(1940).
Economic importance: In India Archaeans have many rich
economic mineral deposits. Therefore it is appropriately
described as our “Store house of mineral wealth”. It is not an
exaggeration to state that except coal, oil and gas and a few
other minor deposits all other mineral wealth of our country
belongs to Archaeans. It will be naturally interesting to know
about these deposits. But as these are not of concern from
civil engineering point of view, only very important ones are
mentioned below: (inside brackets names of districts are
given).
Mettallic ore deposits:
1. Gold : Karnataka (Kolar Gold Fields), Andhra Pradesh
(Anantapur).
2. Copper : Bihar (Singhbhum), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur),
Sikkim etc.
3. Iron Ore: Bihar (Singhbhum), Orissa (Keonjhar) Madhya
Pradesh (Bastar, Chanda and Durg), Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh etc.
4. Lead-Zinc Ores: Rajasthan (Zawar) deposits.
5. Chromite : Orissa (Keonjhar, Dhenkanal, Mayurbhanj),
Bihar (Singhbhum), Tamilnadu (Salem), (Andhra
Pradesh)(Krishna) Balaghat.
6. Manganese Ore: Madhya Pradesh (Nagpur, Balaghat,
Chindwara etc)., Orissa (Keonjhar), Bihar, Andhra Pradesh.
Non metallic minerals:
1. Diamonds: Andhra Pradesh (Anantapur)
2. Gemstones : Kashmir, Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu.
3. Mica : Bihar, (Hazaribagh, Gaya, Manghyr), Rajasthan
(Ajmer, Jaipur, Mewar) (Muscovite) Andhra Pradesh
(Nellore)
4. Kyanite : Bihar (Singhbum ) - Lapsa baru deposits)
5. Magnesite : Tamilnadu (Salem), Karnataka (Hasan, Mysore)
6. Graphite : Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput etc), Andhra Pradesh
(Vizag, Godavari).
7. Apatite: Bihar (Singhbhum), Orissa (Mayurbhanj).
Building Stones: Archaean provide inexhaustible reserves
of best quality building stones of different kinds. Granites,
gneisses, charnockites, quartzites, marbles, limestones are
of this kind. Of course schists, khondalites which also occur
in plenty, are not durable, hence unsuitable.
Following are a few popular examples of temples,
monuments etc. constructed out of Archaean rocks:
1. Hampi temples = Pink gneisses
2. Mahabalipuram temples = Charnockites.
3. Bhubaneswar, Puri and Konark temples = Khondalites,
Schists.
4. Tajmahal Agra = (Makrana) Marble
5.  Bombay and Madras harbours = Granites and
Charnockites
6.  Victoria Memorial Hall = Marble
PURANA GROUP
7.4.2 Purana Group : The end of Archaean era was
marked by large scale diastrophism, Orogenic (i.e. mountain
building) activity, igneous activity etc. The result was the
formation of a large scale wide spread unconformity. As it
occurs above the Archaean group of rocks, it is appropriately
called as Eparchaean (Epi + Archaean) unconformity. Over
this, rest the rocks of succeeding era i.e. Precambrian (or
Proterozoic) era. This group of rocks are called, in Indian
Stratigraphy, as Purana Group of rocks. Two distinct sets of
rocks make up this group. The older set are called as
“Cuddapah system” and the younger set are called as
“Vindhyan system” of rocks. Though both these sets are
well developed and suitable to bear fossils, they are
unfossiliferous. The Cuddapah system of rocks are relatively
more disturbed, structurally. But the Vindhyan system of
rocks are nearly undisturbed.
CUDDAPAH SYSTEM
7.4.2.1 Occurrence and distribution: The name
Cuddapah system has been derived from the Cuddapah
basin where it is best developed. This is the type area of this
system This basin is crescentic (i.e. half moon) shaped with
concave side facing the east. It is 340 km long, between
Singareni Coal field in the north and the Nagari Hills (near
Madras city) in the south. It has a maximum width of 145 km
about the middle and occupies an area of 42000 sq.km.
Near the eastern concave margin, the strata have maximum
thickness of 3000 to 4000 meters.
In addition to this type area, rocks of this period also
occur in many other parts of peninsula and Extra Peninsula.
Such places and the names given to those local formations
are as follows:
1. Rajasthan - Delhi system
2. Parts of Madhya Pradesh - Gwaliar system
Chandrapur series,Raipur series
3. South of Bombay - Kaladgi series.
4. Singhbhum, Bihar - Kolhan series.
5. Central Himalayas - Hemanta System.
In addition to these, equivalent rocks of Cuddapah
system also occur in Simla Hills, Parts of Kashmir, Punjab etc.
Lithology: Quartzites and shales are the main rock
formations of this system. In addition to them sand stones,
limestones and Conglomerates also occur. Some of the
formations are intruded by basic sills, and along the contacts
of such intrusion in some places economic minerals like
asbestos, barytes, steatite, Lead - Zinc ores etc have formed.
The alternating arrangement of quartzites and shales
in the type area, perhaps indicates that at the beginning of
each series the depositional basin was shallow and later Economic importance: Cuddapah system of rocks contain
became deeper. some important economic mineral deposits which are listed
Succession (in type area): Cuddapah system of rocks an below. Deposits like talc, asbestos, barytes occurring in
nearly 20000 feet in thickness and are subdivided into four vempalle lime stone owe their origin to the basic intrusions.
series. Each series is separated by others by the presence of 1. Talc: excellent type occur in Andhra Pradesh in Kurnool,
unconformity. The out line of geological succession of this Anantapur districts.
system in Cuddapah basin, as worked only by W. King, is It also occurs near Beawar and Ajmer in Rajasthan.
given below. 2. Asbestos: Good chrysotile asbestos occurs in A.P. in
Kurnool system of rocks of Vindhyan age Cuddapah district.
---------------------------------Unconformity-------------------------------- 3. Barytes: In A.P. : Cuddapah, Kurnool and Anantapur
SERIES STAGES districts, also occurs in Alwar of Rajasthan.
Krishna series Srisailam 4. Copper and cobalt ores: In Rajasthan (Alwar and
quarzites Jaipur)
2000’ Kolamnala shales In A.P. Cu-Pb-Zn ores occur in Guntur district.
Irlakonda The lead ore occurs in Cuddapah district.
quartzites 5.  Building stones:
-------------------------------Unconformity----------------------------------- 1. Quartzites : As building stones.
Cuddapah System ----> Nallamalai Series Cumbum 2. Lime stones : as building stones and also for manufacture
shales of cement.
3400’ Bairenkonda 3. Slates : School slates produced in Markapur (Kurnool
quartzites district of Andhra Pradesh) and in kund (Alwar of
-------------------------------------Unconformity----------------------------- Rajasthan)
Cheyair Series Pullampet (or 4. Refractory clays: useful in ceramic industry.
Tadpatri) shales Vindhyan System
10,500’ Nagari (or Lithology: The lower part is mainly made up of calcareous
Pulivendula) quartzites and argillaceous sediments which were deposited under
------------------------------------------ marine environment. On the other hand, the upper part of
Unconformity------------------------- Vindhyans are mainly made up of arenaceous rocks of
Papaghni Series Vempalla lime fluviatile origin.
stones and shales Structure: From the structure point of view, the Vindhyan
4500’ Gulcheru quartzites system exhibits no signs of remarkable diastrophism. Based
---------------------------Eparchaean on structure and lithology, this system has been divided in to
unconformity------------------------- lower and upper parts. The lower Vindhyans which are
Gneisses and schists of Archaeans. mainly calcareous and argillaceous have been subjected to
Fossil content: The thick beds of limestones and shales of folding. The upper Vindhyans which are arenaceous are
this system are particularly suitable to contain fossils. But undisturbed and hence they are more or less horizontal. Both
they are completely unfossiferous. This may indicate that the these divisions are separated by unconformity.
life was either not existing at that time, or they were too Fossil content: Like Cuddapahs, these rocks also though
minute and without any hard parts. highly suited to contain fossils, they are unfossiliferous. But
F.Chapman and M.R.Sahni however have described some
doubtful organic remains (two genera of primitive Outside our country, Gondwanas are extensively
brachiopods i.e. Fermoria and Krishnania) from Suket developed in Australia, South America, South Africa, and
shales of Lower Vindhyan age. Further, shales and even in Antarctica.
limestones of lower Vindhyans are said to contains spores, Lithology and structure: The Gondwana group of rocks
thalluses etc. of ancient plants. are of fluvitile or lacustrine nature and were deposited in a
Occurrence and distribution: The Vindhyan system of series of large river or lake basins which later sank along
rocks are well developed in the Sone valley. In most of the trough faults amidst the ancient rocks. It is to this faulting
parts only upper Vindhyans is present. But in some valley, that we owe the preservation of the Gondwana strata along
both Lower Vindyans and upper Vindhyans occur and hence with their rich coal seams in our country. Similar to the
it is considered as type area. lithology of Cuddapah system of rocks (which reflects
Some of the other places where equivalents of periodical sinking of Cuddapah basin giving rise to repetition
Vindhyans occur are as follows: of cycles of sediments), Gondwanas also show cycles of
1. Karauli and Chitor areas of Rajasthan | of sediments. In these, each individual cycle commenced with
lower Vindhyan age coarse sands, followed by the deposition of clay and ending
| with the accumulation of plant remains on top of the
2. Kurnool system, Bhima series etc of A.P. | sequence. It means sandstones, shales and coal seams occur
3. Jeypore - Bastar - Raipur area of M.P. and Orissa. in repeatition in Gondwanas. Grits, Conglomerates are two
4. Ralam series of Kumaon | other rock types.
| Classifications: There are two different
5. Haimanta system of spiti | of classifications of Gondwana group of rocks i.e. two fold
Extra Peninsula. classification and three fold classification.
| Based on the evidence of plant fossils (i.e. flora) the
6. Jaunsar series of Garhwal | Gondwanas are subdivided into lower and upper parts. The
Lower Gondwanas are characterised by the presence of
GONDWANA GROUP Glossopteris and Gangomopteris flora and comprise the
7.4.3 Introduction: The name Gondwana was introduced earlier three series i.e. Talchir series, Damuda series and
by H.B. Medlicott in 1872. It was named after the Gond Panchet series. The upper Gondwanas, on the other hand,
Kingdom of Madhya Pradesh, where these formations were are characterised by the presence of ptillophyllum flora
studied by him. Later this was extended to all equivalent which represent more advanced group of plants. These
rocks in the different parts of the world. comprise the later three series i.e. Mahadeva series,
Occurrence or distribution: The Gondwana rocks Rajamahal series and Jabalpur series. Further the occurrence
are mainly developed along two sides of a great (inverted) of a clear unconformity between Panchet and Mahadeva
traingular area, the third side of which is the northern part of series also supports this two fold classification.
east coast of peninsula. The northern side corresponds The three fold classification is based on the evidence
roughly to Damodar, Sone and Narmada valleys, trending of animal fossils (fauna) and the prevailing climatic
nearly E - W. The southern side runs along the Godavari conditions. In this, lower Gondwanas represents upper
valley with NW - SE trend. In the interior of this traingle is a carboniferous and permean period. It was a period of warm
subsidary belt along Mahanadi valley. These long and narrow and humid climate. The Middle Gondwanas represents
tracts are actually a series of faulted troughs. Triassic period with warm and dry climate. These have
characteristically the remains of amphibians and reptiles.
The Upper Gondwanas represents Jurassic and lower used to some extent in famous Orissa temples (in
creteceous period. This was again a period of warm and Bhubaneswar, Puri and Konark). The Khandagiri caves, near
humid climate. Bhubaneswar are carved out in Athgarh sandstones only.
Gondwana sand stones are also used as mill stones
and abrasive stones.
Fossil content: The Gondwana group of rocks are rich both Iron Ore: The beds of sideritic, limonitic iron ore, occurring
in plant fossils (flora) and animal fossils (fauna). The Lower in Raniganj coal field were used in blast furnaces of Bengal
Gondwanas have relatively more of plant fossils and are Iron company. Their reserves are estimated to be 2000
particularly characterised by the presence of Glossopteris million tons. These are relatively low grade iron ore only,
flora and Gangamorpteris flora. Pteridosperms, cordaitates, because they contain about 40 - 45% of iron and 16 to 19%
equisetales and sphenophyllales are typical of these earlier of silica. These occur in Barren Measures.
Gondwanas.
The upper Gondwanas are marked by the advent of
ptillophyllum (or Rajmahal) flora. It is dominated by the DECCAN TRAPS
advanced groups (or more developed forms) of plants like 7.4.4. Introduction: The end of Mesozoic era was marked
ferns, Cycades, conifers etc. by unique outpouring of enormous lava flows which covered
A good number of animal fossils, both vertebrates and extensive area in Peninsula. These lava flows occurred
invertebrates, have been found in Middle Gondwanas. These mainly through long and narrow fissures. Therefore they are
include crustacea, insects, fishes, amphibia and reptiles. called as “fissure erruptions”. At a few places like Girnar
Economic importance: Hills, Ranpur etc, however, the erruptions were of “central
1. Coal:- The main economic importance of Gondwana type” Based on the fact that these lava flows occur in
Group centres around rich coal deposits. They are not only Deccan (i.e. South India) and produce step like appearance
extensive but also are of high quality. All of them are rich of their outcrops, they are called as “Deccan Traps”.
bituminous coals. Coking and steam coals are abundant in Similarly as these are basaltic in composition and have
Barakar series. The reserves of workable seams are produced flat topped Plateau like features, these are also
estimated to be around 35000 million tons, of which six called “Plateau basalts”.
thousand million tons are said to belong to good quality. Occurrence or distribution: The present area occupied by
West Bengal, Bihar, Madhy Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Deccan traps is over 300,000 square kilometres. They are
Pradesh are the states which have rich deposits of found in the Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Gondwana coal. Among these Bihar is the most productive. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kutch. They occur more or
Coalseams also occur in Himalayan area. less as a single huge patch. They extend up to Belgaum ( of
Clays: Rich fire clay beds occur in association with coal Karnataka) in south , Rajahmundry (of Andhra Pradesh) in
seams. They are useful in making refrectory bricks. Suitable south east, Amarkantak in east and Kutch in the north west.
clays to make pottery, bricks, terra cotta and china ware also From the following facts, it appears that the present
occur in Gondwanas. White clay and moulding sand are Deccan Traps represent only a small relict of what they were
obtained from Mangalhat and Rajmahal hills. Bentonitic clay, originally: 1) The traps are the thickest near west coast and
used for bleaching also occurs plenty. thin down towards east. This indicates that the fissures of
Sand stones: Gondwana sand stones are not as good as eruptions were near western coast and the (westernly
Vindhyan sand stones, but they are used as building stones, flowing) lava flows would have covered large areas in the
commonly. The Athgarh sand stones (Upper Gondwanas) are Arabian side too.
2) The occurrence of Deccan traps in the floor of Arabian sea
and nearly straight nature of western coast line indicate that
due to faulting the western part of Deccan Traps have been
down thrown below the sea.
3) The effect of erosion of Deccan Traps right from their
formation, (for a pretty long period of more than 66 million
years) also would have reduced considerably their areal
extent. Thus the present extent of Deccan Traps, though very
great as it is, still represents only a relict of their much more
extensive original formations. It is believed that they
originally had extended over an area of more than 1.5 million
square kilometers.
Lithology: The Deccan Traps are essentially basalts. They
are either vesicular or amygdaloidal. Some times they occur
intercalated with Inter trappeans and ash beds. The Inter
Trappeans are fluviatile or lacustrine sedimentary formations
and have rich fossil content. They have formed during the
intervals of successive eruptions.
Deccan Traps have some other varieties (ultrabasic or
acidic) of igneous rocks also, but they are rare.
The upper Gondwanas in Madhya Pradesh are intruded
by sills of Deccan Traps. The traps themselves are intruded
by numerous but haphazardly distributed dykes.
Deccan Traps are known for their unique uniformity in
chemical and mineral composition. The variation is very less.
Hence they exhibit consistency in their colour (dark greenish
grey with brownish or purplish tint.)
Fossil Content: Many animal and plant fossils have been
found in the Inter Trappeans which occur in between the
Deccan Traps: The remains of algae, palm and
dicotyledonous trees occur as important plant fossils. The
animal fossils include those of gasteropods, frogs, tortoise
and crustacea.
Structure: The important topographic and structural
features of Deccan Traps are as follows: 1) These have
produced characteristic flat topped hills and step like
terraces. 2) The traps are either massive or vesicular or
amygdaloidal. 3) They are at some places mutually
separated by intercalating Inter trappeans or Volcanic Ash
beds 4) Columnar jointing occurs in these rocks in Malwa and
at Andheri of Bomay 5) Individual flows vary in thickness
from a few feet to over 120’ 6) Some of these lava flows
have spread over 100 km and it is attributed to high degree
of super heat at the time of eruption. 7) Deccan Traps occur
generally horizontal but at places they show dips of 5 to 20o.
8) Gentle folding of traps occurs in Satpura region of Madhya
Pradesh. 9) Traps exhibit faulting in some places of Madhya
Pradesh. 10) The Deccan Traps are the thickest near Bomaby
(over 7000’) but are thin towards east.
8.1.1.Classification of eathquakes: Earthquakes are
variously grouped based on different principles 1) For
example, based on the depth of their origins, the
earthquakes are described as shallow or intermediate or
deep earthquakes. The earth quakes with focus depths less
than 60km are called as shallow earthquakes. If the depth is
more than 60 but less than 300 km, they are called as
intermediate earthquakes.
Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence,
the earthquakes are described is Tectonic or Nontectonic.
Tectonic earth quakes: Tectonic earthquakes are
exclusively due to internal causes i.e. due to disturbances or
adjustments of geological formations, taking place in the
earth’s interior. Generally they are less frequent but more
intensive and hence more destructive in nature.
Nontectonic earth quakes: The non tectonic earthquakes,
on the other hand, are generally due to external or surfacial
causes. (Ofcourse earthquakes which occur due to volcanic
erruptions are also termed as nontectonic earthquakes). This
type of earthquakes are very frequent, but minor in intensity
and hence generally not destructive in nature. These occur
due to a variety of reasons, some of which are as follows: 1)
Due to huge water falls: (when such huge quantity of
water pounds the place of their fall, tremors develop in the
ground, there).
2) Due to the fall of availanches: Avalanches are
generally the terminal parts of valley glaciers which get
detached from the main body under certain circumstances
and hence roll down with considerable momentum along the
steep slopes of mountains. When they forcefully hit the
ground minor tremors are produced in the ground 3) Due to
fall of meteorites: Meteorites are heavenly bodies of
various sizes wandering in the space. When they come under
the influence of earth’s gravity field, they fall suddenly on
earth’s surface. Ofcourse, most of them do not reach earth’s
surface because they get totally burnt and vapourise due to
intense frictional heat produced at the time of their passage
through the atmospheric zone which envelopes the earth.
However some larger meteorites may survive this process
and reachthe earth’s surface. Their forceful fall creates
tremors in the ground 4) Due to the occurrence of
sudden and major landslides: The impact of such land
slides will be capable of causing eathquakes. ( Ofcourse, in
some instances the landslide occurrences themselves may
be due to earth quakes). 5) Due to volcanic erruptions:
Some volcanoes like stromboli erupt calmly with out any fan
fare and quietly pour out lava. But some erupt very violently
with thunderous noise, throwing tongues of fire, smoke,
phroclasts etc to great hights, accompanying the terrific blow
up of crater. It is particularly so in the Pelean type of
volcanoes. Such violent eruptions, some times cause
earthquakes. Earthquake occurrence of 1883 in Indonesia
due to the eruption of Krakatoa volcano is a celebrated
example of this kind 6) Due to Tsunamis:Tsunamis are the
giant sea waves formed due to submarine earthquakes. They
move shorewards and dash the coast line violently causing
earthquakes. sometimes. Lebanon earthquake of 1755 is a
very good example of this type 7) Due to man made
explosions: In mining the ore deposits and in quarrying the
building material many explosions are carried out. These
poroduce, naturally tremors locally. 8) Minor tremors may
also develop due to collapse of caves, tunnels etc. 9) Due to
dams and reservoirs: This is a strange phenomenon
noticed in recent times. The reservoir areas which were
aseismic, started showing signs of earthquake occurrence
when the reservoir was filled up with water. This may be due
to 1) great lateral thrust due to reservoir water contributing
to stress imbalances or 2) due to reactivation of sub
terranean faults by the newly developed stresses or 3) due
to increased pore pressure in the adjoining rocks which
lowers their shearing strength resulting in earthquake
occurrence. Koyna earthquake is a typical example of this
kind.
8.1.2 Seismic belts and shield areas Seismic belts are the
places where earthquakes occur frequently where as shield
areas are those places where eathquakes occur either rarely
or very mildly.
Occurrence of an earthquake in a place is an indication
of underground instability there. In other words all such
places which are unstable are prone to earthquake
occurrences. Generally the tectonically formed mountainous
regions and steep coasts are the places of subterranean
unstability. Hence earthquakes occur frequently there.
Statistics have revealed that nearly 50% of earthquakes
have occurred along mountain ridges and 40% of
earthquakes along steep coasts.
The study of recorded earthquakes shows that they
take place on land most frequently along two well defined
tracts i.e. seismic belts. One belt is Circum Pacific belt
which accounts for 68% of earthquake occurrences. The
other belt is called Mediterranean belt, which extends
eastwest from west Portugal, through central Europe, Asia
minor, the Himalayas and Burma to East Indies with a branch
through Tibet and China. This belt accounts for 21% of
earthquake occurrences. A minor belt of epicentres occurs
along Mid Atlantic ridge. The following figure shows the
occurrence of the three seismic belts on the World map:
(For figure see at the end of this unit) Fig.A
In these belts orogenic forces are still active and the crust is
therefore still in unstable condition. Consequently crustal
adjustments are still taking place and occassionally stresses
are relieved by movement of rock masses giving rise to earth
quakes.
In India the entire northern part of the country
consisting of the Himalayan ranges and a major portion of
Indo-Gangetic Plains are prone to the occurrence of major
earthquakes. The Peninsular area is a stable shield area,
though some occassional intense earthquake like Koyna
earthquake of 1967 have occurred.
8.1.3. Effects of earth quakes and their Civil
Engineering Importance:
Most of the earth quakes are minor and go unnoticed.
But the major ones, though occassional are responsible for
heavy loss of life and property. Some of their effects are as
follows: 1) Destruction of various civil constructions like
dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, railway tracks etc. 2) Creation
of irregularities (i.e. ups and downs), cracks (open fissures)
on ground contributing problems for communication
systems, 3) causing land slides and unstable conditions
along hill slopes. Landslides may cause blocking of roads and
railway lines in some places 4) Changes in courses of rivers
due to faulting across them 5) Formation of new lakes,
springs, water falls etc due to disturbances caused in surface
and subsurface conditions. The same conditions may cause
disappearance of old lakes, springs etc. 6) Submarine
earthquakes cause tsunamis, which are giant tidal waves.
When they dash the shores they will lead to destruction of
coastal lines, occurrence of land slides, earthquakes, floods
etc. 7) Subsidence of land mass. The vibratory movement in
ground causes compaction, closure of fissures leading to
subsidence of ground some time. 8) Heavy loss of life and
property: Instances of this are many,but we may quote just
two causes now: 1) In Shensi province of China, in 1556 an
earth quake had caused death of eight lakh people 2) In
1923, an earth-quake in Japan caused death of 140,000
people and a property loss of three billion dollars.
The above details indicate that earth quakes cause
heavy loss of life and property directly due to failure of
multimillion projects like dams, tunnels etc. By causing
sudden floods (due to dam failures), by causing fires (either
due to short circuiting of electric wires during earthquakes
disturbance) etc. earthquakes also increase the misery
indirectly.
Civil Engineering considerations in seismic areas:
Seismic areas are the places which experience
earthquakes frequently. When an earthquake occurs, it
causes vibratory motion, to the mass of the earth through
which the energy waves pass and this motion is transmitted
to the engineering structures standing on the earth’s
surface. As a result they get severe jolts both in horizontal
and vertical direction. These in turn cause additional shears
and moments in the structure leading to their failure unless
they are suitably designed to withstand them. These
complications do not rise in places where earthquakes do not
occur. Therefore constructions in seismic and aseismic (i.e.
stable) areas differ in terms of their design.
The civil engineering constructions can be saved in
seismic areas either if the earthquakes can be stopped or if
the constructions can be made strong and earthquake proof.
Of these two alternatives earthquakes cannot be stopped
because they are natural and represent inherent crustal
adjustments of the earth. Therefore a civil engineer should
only think of making his constructions immune to
earthquakes. The achieve total success or perfection in this
regard is obviously impossible. But the possible harm can be
effectively minimised by taking suitable precautions keeping
economical aspects involved in mind. The difficulties to
achieve this are due to the fact that it is not possible to
predict crucial factors like 1) exact place of earth quake
occurrence (It is important because the epicentral region will
be the worst affected and hence needs maximum
protection). 2) magnitude of earthquake (it is important
because cost of construction increased steeply with the
increase in safety measures required). 3) duration of
earthquake (it is also important because, extent of damage
will be more if duration of earthquake is more). 4) direction
of movement of the ground at the time of earth quake.
Safety factor: In seismic areas, a structure is assumed to
be subjected to lateral stresses during earthquake which
would depend on ground acceleration due to an expected
shock, the weight of the structure and nature of the
structure. The horizontal force acting at the base of the
structure during an earthquake is assumed as the same
acting on the ground beneath. This force is called base
shear force, F. It is calculated by the formula F= a/g.W
where ‘a’ is the acceleration due to an expected earthquake
‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity, and ‘W’ is the weight of
the structure. The ratio a/g is called as seismic factor
Generally it varies from 0.1g to 0.001g. After knowing F, the
over turning moment ‘M’ of the structure is obtained by the
formula M = FY, where Y is vertical distance of centre of
gravity of structure above the horizontal section. Based on
this value of M, the safety factoris incorporated in to the
design.
To make suitable constructions in seismic areas I S
codes 1893 - 1970 give guidelines. However these are highly
simplified solutions and not fully satisfactory. But they should
be followed strictly to reduce the harm during future
earthquake in the given seismic region. A few such guide
lines in designing buildings, dams etc are as follows:
Construction of buildings - precautionary measures:
In addition to the safety factor considered, there are
other precautionary measures which help in increasing
stability of buildings in seismic areas. They are briefly as
follows:
Buildings should be founded on hard bed rock only
and never on loose soils or fractured rocks. It is so because
loose ground settles due to earthquake vibrations. Further
foundation should be of same depth through out for
continuity. To prevent sliding, foundation and super structure
should be thoroughly tied up by incorporating keys or
reinforcements. Buildings situated in cuttings in hill sides,
near steep slopes, on undulating ground, on marshy ground
always suffer more when an earthquake occurs . Therefore
these situations should be avoided. For large buildings raft
type of foundations are desirable. Square foundations are
more stable.
Buildings should have light walls. Different parts of
buildings should be well tied together so that the whole
structure behaves like a single unit to the vibrations. Rich
cement mortar, reinforced concrete should only be used.
Doors and windows should be minimum and they should not
be in vertical rows but preferably along the diagonals. The
building should have uniform hight and parapets, cantilevers,
domes, arches etc are undesirable. Buildings with irregular
shapes with wings, protruding varandahs, porches etc and
tall structures should be avoided.
Building should have flat R.C.C. roof and it should be
designed not to yield to lateral stresses. Slates, tiles,
corrugated sheets are unsuitable as roofing material..
Projections above the roofs are undesirable
Construction of dams - precautionary measures:
Dams being very costly projects, their construction in
seismic areas, needs careful study to ensure their safety.
When an earthquake occurs, a dam is subjected, particularly
to two types of forces which affect the stability of the dam.
They are forces due to dam and forces due to reservoir
water.
Forces due to the dam include those due to the effects
of horizontal and vertical ground acceleration on the weight
of the dam. The horizontal inertia force, Ve of the concrete
dam to the horizontal acceleration is given by the formula Ve
= w.c where ‘w’ is the concrete load and ‘c’ is the seismic
factor i.e. a/g. This force acts in a direction opposite to the
earthquake acceleration and develops an overturning effect
which must be counter balanced by introducing additional
stress in the design of dam, in the directions in which over
turning is most likely to occur.
Forces due to reservoir water: When the dam is vertical
on upstream face, at the time of earthquake the effect of
water immediate to the wall will also be in horizontal
direction and will involve additional force on the dam, which
when sufficiently strong may lead to sliding or overturning of
the dam. This is called hydrodynamic force and can be
calculated by the formula Pe = C a,w,h, where ‘Pe’ =
Pressure at depth; C is coefficient for shape of dam at
various depths ‘a’is seismic factor, ‘w’ is unit weight of water
and ‘h’ is maximum depth of reservoir. If the dam is sloping
on the upstream face, then the water load will have a
vertical effect in addition to horizontal component. A change
in vertical component will also be caused during an
earthquake and this factor should also be taken into
consideration to overcome the risk.
The designing of an earth dam is more difficult
because the failure of such dams during an earthquake may
be due to the vibration effect or due to shearing forces or
both. If the failure is due to vibration effect, it will be
because during an earthquake the material of the dam or its
foundation is likely to get compacted due to very quickly
repeated vibrations caused by short period earthquake
waves. Consequently such compacted dams may slump or
may be overtopped by the reservoir water. In case of shear
failure, it may slide alojng its base or it may be seperated
from its abutments. In these dams it is very essential to
provide the clay core with in the structure which makes dam
impermeable and stable.
The general considerations for all types of dams are: 1)
dams should be designed in such a way that during an
earthquake they move along with the foundations
below. 2) Dams should not ordinarily be built along or
across the faults because possible slippage along these
planes during earthquakes will introduce additional
complications. 3) The resonance factor should also be given
due consideration because a coincidence in the periods of
vibration of dam and the earthquake vibrations can produce
cumulative effects.
Reservoir related earthquakes and preventive
measures:
In several dams of the world which are situated in
places of no seismic activity, earthquakes are found to
appear when their reservoirs were filled up. The magnitude
of the earthquakes increased when reservoir was full. In all
such cases the epicentre was inside or around the reservoir.
Koyna earthquake in Maharashtra is a typical example
of this kind. The Koyna dam rests over stable rocks of very
ancient times and the area was never active in terms of
earthquake occurrences. As the reservoir commenced to
take in water, seismic activity increased in the area. In 1967
a severe earthquake of 6.5. magnitude shook the region
greatly. Since then earthquakes are not uncommon there. In
all such cases the epicentres lied with in the reservoir area.
Landslides
8.2. Introduction: The term land slide is self exaplanatory
and refers to the down ward sliding of huge quantities of
land masses. Generally such sliding occurs along steep
slopes of hills or mountains. It may be sudden or slow in its
occurrence. Also in magnitude, it may be major or minor.
Often loose and unconsolidated surfacial material undergoes
sliding. But sometimes huge blocks of consolidated rocks
may also be involved. In general landslides are viewed as
slope failures resulting in sudden slipping of enormous
volumes of material along downward slope.
Importance of Land slides: Land slides are of no concern
and can be just ignored if they occur in uninhabited places
and polaces of no human interest. But if they occur in places
of importance such as high ways, railway lines, valleys,
reservoirs, inhabited places, agricultural lands etc. obviously,
such instances lead to blocking of traffic, collapse of
buildings, harm to fertile lands etc apart from heavy loss of
life and property. In this respect they resemble earthquakes.
8.2.1. Causes of land slides : Land slides occur due to
various causes. Broadly they may be grouped into two types
i.e. inherent or internal causes and immediate causes. Of
these, the internal causes are responsible to the extent of
creating favourable or suitable conditions for land slide
occurrence.
Internal causes:
The cause which are inherent of land mass concerned,
are again of various types such as influence of slope,
influence of associating water, influence of constituent
lithology, influence of associating geological structures,
human factors etc.
Effect of slope: It is a very important factor which provides
favourable conditions for landslide occurrence. It is both
directly and indirectly responsible for land slips.
Effect of water: This is the most important factor which is
mainly responsible for land slide occurrence. It is so because
it adversely affects the stability of the loose ground in
different ways as follows: 1) The presence of water greatly
reduces the intergranular cohesion of the particles of loose
ground. This makes the ground inherently weakened and
therefore prone to land slide occurrence. Frequent land slide
occurrences soon after the rain falls support this observation,
2) On hill slopes, water on percolation through the overlying
soil zone may flow down as film or thin sheet of water above
the underlying hard rocks.
Effect of human factor: Interference of man with nature
by virtue of his activities also causes landslide occurrence.
Thus for example it may happen so when he makes under
cuttings along the hill slopes, for laying roads or railway
tracks. Such an activity eliminates lateral support which
means gravity will become more effective leading to land
slide occurrence. Ofcourse it is not always so as inferred from
the following figures.
8.2.3. Effects of land slides: From civil engineering point
of view if land slides occur at vulnerable places, they may
cause 1) disruption or blocking of communications such as
roads and railways. 2) Obstruction to the river flow in valleys,
leading to their overflow and floods. 3) damage to sewer and
other pipe lines. 4) burial or destruction of buildings and
other constructions. In addition to these problems, they may
cause earth quakes too.
8.2.4. Preventive measures of land slides: To prevent
the occurrence of land slides, it will be logical to take up such
steps which will counter the effects of those factors which
are responsible for land slide occurrence. We have learnt that
the main factors which contribute to land slide occurrence
are slope, water content, structural defects, unconsolidated
or loose character of over burden, lithology and human
interference. These are tackled as follows.
1) To counter the effect of slope: 1) Retaining walls may
be constructed against the slopes, so that the material rolled
down is not only prevented from further fall but also reduces
the slope. 2) Terracing of the slope is another effective
measure in this regard.
2) To counter the effect of water: Proper drainage system
is the suitable measure. This involves the quick removal of
percolated moisutre by means of surface drainage and
subsurface drainage. Construction of suitable ditches and
water ways along slopes; trenches at the bottom and
drainage tunnels help in draining off the water from the
loose over burden.
3) To counter the structural defects: The different
structural defects such as weak planes and zones may be
either covered or grouted suitably so that they are
effectively sealed off. These measures not only prevent the
avenues for percolation of water but also increases the
compaction or cohesion of material concerned.
4) Not to resort to reduce the stability of existing slopes: This
is done by not undertaking any under cutting on surface
slope and not to undertake any construction at the top of
hills.
5) To counter the loose nature of over burden: Growing
vegetation, plants, shrubs etc on loose ground helps in
keeping the loose soil together.
6)  Avoiding heavy traffic and blasting operations near the
vulnerable places, naturally helps in preventing the
occurrence of land slides.
GROUND WATER
8.3.3. Ground water exploration:
Ground water does not occur every where below the
surface. Further as its occurrence is below the surface it is
not possible for direct check up. Hence suitable studies are
necessary to make the attempts of tapping groundwater,
successful. Otherwise time money and energy spent may
become useless. To augment the general shortage of surface
water and growing demands of water, huge funds are spent
to explore and to locate places where ground water occurs in
plenty.
These are two different ways of approach: One by
water devining and the other by scientific studies. Water
devining is a simple, inexpensive and instantaneous method
in which some people endowed with some extrordinary sixth
sense are capable of pin pointing the places where ground
water occurs. They do not make use of any instruments
except a small Y shaped twigs sometimes. Their findings,
even if they are true, do not stand for any logic or reason. It
is purely personal ability which is beyond questioning or
analysis. Thus as it has no scientific basis it is improper, not
authentic and liable for cheating too.
The other method is scientific which stands for scrutiny
and reasoning. Standard equipment, procedure and
interpretation techniques enable it to be followed by any one
in ground water exploration. Ofcourse one should be aware
of various guiding principles to carry out investigation work
with advantage. This investigation is of three kinds.:
geological, geophysical and hydroilogical.
9.2: Geological considerations in the selection of a
dam site:
In a way the success of a dam is not only related to its
own safety and stability but also related to the success of
associating reservoir. In other words, on construction if a
dam stands firmly but if its reservoir leaks profusely (as in
the case or Cedar lake dam or Malpasset dam) then such a
dam is to be treated only as failure because the purpose for
which it (i.e. dam) was constructed is not served. In such
case, the dam may be successful structurally but virtually
(i.e. indirectly) it is a failure. Therefore utmost care is
needed to plan for the success of both dam and reservoir.
First we shall consider the various factors responsible for the
success of a dam alone and later will know the factors
responsible for the success of a reservoir.
Careful geological studies bring out inherent
advantages or disadvantages or a site and it goes a long way
either in reducing or in increasing the cost of dam
considerably. The important geological requirements which
should be considered in the selection of a dam site are as
follows:
1. Narrow river valley
2. Occurrence of bed rock at shallow depth
3. Competent rocks to offer stable foundation
4. Proper geological structures.
9.2.1: Narrow river valley:
At the proposed dam site if the river valley is narrow,
only a small dam is required which means the cost of dam
construction will be less. On the other hand, if the valley is
wide, bigger dam is necessary which means the construction
cost will be very high.
9.2.2: Bed rock at shallow depth:
To ensure the safety and stability a dam has to
necessarily rest on (physically) very strong and (structurally)
very stable rocks (i.e. bed rocks). If such competent bed
rocks occur near the surface or at shallow depth, the
foundation cost of dam (which comprises excavation of cover
of loose over burden and refilling that space with rich
concrete) will naturally be less. At the site of Bhakra Dam
on Sutlej river, the sound bed rocks were at a great depth
below the ground and walls of gorge and as a consequence
excavation for the foundation was one of the major items of
work of that project. Another example is Koyna Dam. Here
in the valley , below 6 to 7 meters of excellent competent
basalt, there was weak volcanic breccia. To remove this
breccia part, the foundations in this part were taken 20
meters below the general level. This naturally means
tremendous rise in the construction cost of dam.
The general occurrence of loose material like clay, silt,
sand, gravel etc. along river bed, naturally makes it too
difficult to assess the thickness of loose over burden by mere
surfacial studies. Therefore, to know the bed rock profile (i.e.
the depths at which bed rock occurs at different places along
a particular direction) in the river valley along the axis of a
proposed dam, geophysical investigation such as “ Electrical
resistivity studies” or “Seismic refraction studies” are carried
out carefully.
9.2.3: Competent rocks for safe foundation:
Under petrology, we have learnt that the sedimentary
rocks are in general weaker and igneous rocks are stronger.
It means if igneous rocks occur at selected dam site, they
will offer safe basis. And , weak sedimentary rocks
particularly shales, poorly cemented sand stones, cavernous
lime stones shall naturally be undesirable to serve as
foundation rocks.
The suitability or otherwise of rock types to serve as
foundation for major dams depends on : 1) existing rock type
at dam site 2) extent of weathering it has undergone 3)
occurrence of intrusions 4) extent of fracturing 5)
occurrence of geological structures if any, and their influence
6) mode and number of rock types concerned etc.
Suitability of Igneous Rocks:
Coming to the rock types, occurrence of massive
plutonic and (or) hypabyssal igneous rocks is most desirable
at dam site because they are very strong and durable. It is
so because of their dense character, interlocking texture,
had silicate mineral composition, absence of porosity and
permeability, absence of any inherent weak planes (like
bedding, foliation, lineation, resistance to weathering and
their tendency to occur over wide areas. Ofcourse it is
necessary that such rocks should not have been affected by
any intense weathering or fracturing or dykes or adverse
geological structures like shearing, faulting, jointing, etc.
Suitability of sedimentary rocks:
In the case of sedimentary rocks, bedding, nature and
extent of compaction and comentation, grain size, leaching
of soluble matter etc. influence porosity, permeability. This
along with the composition of constituents (i.e. sediments,
cementing material etc.) influence the strength and behave like their parent rocks i.e. lime stones in terms of
durability of different sedimentary rocks. their response to carbondioxide bearing waters. Hence
marbles too may become highly porous due to the
development of solution cavities and channels. Such cavities
will render the rocks physically weak. Further, sole
constituent mineral of marble, calcite, is relatively very soft
(H=3) and has three sets of very well developed cleavages.
Suitability of Metamorphic rocks: Naturally such a rock will be undesirable at dam site. Even
Coming to the metamorphic rocks: (1) The “gneisses” as building stone it is unsuitable to bear heavy loads. The
are generally competent like granites, unless they possess cracks developed in the marble walls of Tajmahal are
very high degree of foliation and richly accompanied by mica evidence to this fact. In addition to these draw backs,
like minerals. High degree of foliation and micaceous marble is susceptible for weathering too and therefore looses
mineral content not only induces weakness along that shining when exposed to chemically polluted environment.
direction of rocks but also increases tendency of rock to (5) The Slates which are argillaceous and bear typical slaty
weathering. Porosity also will be relatively more in such cleavage (due to the presence of minute flakes of mica).
rocks. However since such instances are not common, by Hence this rock is soft and weak. Therefore it is undesirable
and large we can consider gneiss as tolerably good at dam at dam site. (6) The khondalites which are feldspar rich are
sites. (2) The “schists” are undesirable because : a) their to some extent heterogeneous in terms of their mineral
constituent minerals are mainly soft and possess very well composition. They often contain soft graphite, hard garnet
developed cleavage, b) the schistose structures results etc. in addition to other minerals. Generally they are highly
because of excellent foliation (i.e. alignment of minerals in weathered and hence unsuitable at dam site.
one direction of minerals present in the rock c) the Influence of Weathering:
constituent minerals which are ferro magnesium, have Weathered rock, irrespective of its original virtues (like
tendency to weather quickly, d) porosity will be relatively high competence, high compactness, good appearance,
more due to the nature of minerals present and associating good colour etc.) becomes unfit and unsuitable for any civil
texture, e) they comprise some very hard soft and cleavage engineering purpose. But it has to be remembered that
bearing minerals (like chlorite, talc, mica etc.), along with however much harmful the weathering process may be, it is
very hard and cleavage free minerals (like garnet, quartz, not a very rapid process in rocks particularly those bearing
magnetite etc.). (3) The quartzites are highly resistant to silicate minerals. Thus, for example, granites though have
weathering. It is not porous and not permeable too. It is more than 60% of feldspars (which are prone or vulnerable
very hard, nearly monomineralic which is also devoid of or susceptible to decay and disintegration by virtue of their
cleavage. Because of the granulose structure, it is very alkali content and cleavage character) are durable for many
compact too. Thus the rock is very strong, hard, durable and centuries even when exposed outside. When used internally
hence it is desirable at dam sites. But it is difficulty workable they last still longer. Of course highly poluted environment
and rarely porous (like pitted quartzites of Srisailam dam and intense fluctuation of heat hasten the weathering of
site). (4) The Marbles, like quartzites are compact, bear these rocks. But when a rock gets weathered on its surface,
granulose structure, not porous not permeable and it (surface) acts as inert but protective cover to the under
reasonably strong too. But by virtue of their chemical lying mass and significantly reduces the rate of progress of
composition and mineral composition they are unsuitable at inward weathering of rock. Sometimes, along shear zones or
dam sites. It is so because marbles which are calcareous fault zones, there may be locally deep pockets of
weathering. Hence the extent of weathering should be to bear the load with full competence. Cases where beds
carefully assessed (through trial pits etc.) to know whether a lie perpendicular to the length of the valley.
rock is suitable or unsuitable for required purpose. Dull Tilted Beds:
appearance, faded colour, dull sound to a hammer blow are Beds with 100 to 300 inclination in the up stream
some simple indications of weathering. direction (i.e. beds with gentle up stream dip) :
2.4: Effect of Associating Geological Structures: This situation is ideal and much better than the
The various geological structures that are likely to previous one and this is a typical example where the
occur may be highly complex in nature, but to suit of occurrence of a geological structure brings advantage to the
purpose i.e. to appreciate the importance geological associating rocks of a given site. It is so because:
structures from civil engineering point of view, the following (1) The resultant force (which is more important and
situations are discussed. relevant than the weight of the dam) acts more or less
I case of undisturbed strata i.e. Strata (or beds) which are perpendicular to the bedding planes which are dipping in the
horizontal up stream side.
II cases where the axis of dam lies parallel to the strike Gently inclined beds in up stream direction
direction of strata i.e. where beds lie perpendicular to the
length of the valley :
a) Strata which occur as simply tilted or inclined.
Of course the nature of inclination may be 1) upstream
side 2) down stream side
3) gentle 4) steep or 5) vertical
b) Strata which are folded
c) Strata which are faulted
d) Strata which have joints. Gently inclined beds in up stream direction
III Case where the axis of dam lies perpendicular to the Fig.
strike direction of strata i.e. where beds lie parallel to the
Hence the rocks are best positioned to take the loads
length of the valley. effectively.
IV case where the orientation of dam axis may be oblique to (2) By virtue of the prevailing up stream dip, any percolated
strike and dip directions of country rocks. water of reservoir is directed automatically by the bedding
Horizontal beds: planes to the up stream side (i.e. towards reservoir side only)
i.e. there is no scope of leakage of water below the dam
towards the down stream side. This is doubly advantageous
because : a) scope for occurrence of up lift pressure on dam
is nil and b) the percolated water is returned back to the
reservoir side only i.e. there is no scope for real loss or
leakage of reservoir water. For these reasons, gentle up
stream dip is ideal for dam location.
Fig: Beds with steep up stream dip:
This geological situation is good at dam site because Such a situation is not bad but not as advantageous as
the load of the dam acts perpendicular to the bedding that of the previous situation, for obvious reasons i.e. in this
planes, which means the beds are in advantageous position case there shall be no up lift pressure on dam and no
leakage of water from reservoir, but due to steep dip the
bedding planes are not perpendicular to the resultant force.
Steeply inclined beds in upstream direction
Steeply inclind beds in upstream direction
Fig:
This means the rocks will not be as competent as in the which have already disadvantageous position.
previous case to withstand the loads.
Beds with 100 to 300 inclination towards the down
stream side: (i.e. beds with gentle down stream dip)
Such a case is very undesirable and can be considered
as a typical example to illustrate how a geological structure
can create harmful or adverse conditions for dam location. It
is so because, in such a context:
1) The resultant force and bedding planes are in the same
direction which means the positioning of beds is
disadvantageous and they are less competent to withstand
forces prevailing at the dam site.
Fig.
2) The water of reservoir may percolate (under pressure due
to water column of reservoir) and such water flows along the
bedding planes below the dam. There by it causes
development of uplift pressure (i.e. upward thrust) on dam.
Such an event obviously acts against the stability of dam.
3) Future such percolated water which moves with relative
ease along bedding planes towards down stream side may
account for significant loss of water.
4) If a clay formations occur exposed in such cases (due to
topographical conditions) on up stream side and down
stream side, it shall be the worst situation because it (i.e.
clay formation) shall act as a slippery base among rocks
Beds with steep down stream dip:
Steeply inclined beds in downstream direction
Fig.
The Bhakra dam on the Sutlej, however, lies on an
uncomfortable site composed of sand stones and clay beds
(shales) which exhibit a down stream slope of the order of
550 to 800. But to ensure safety suitable measures have
been taken.
Vertical beds:
 Vertical beds
Fig.
In nature, occurrence of perfectly vertical beds is
rather uncommon, because when disturbed or uplifted, the
strata will have normally some inclination or the other.
However in case such a situation occurs at a given place, it
will not pose problems of uplift pressure (on dam)or leakage
(of reservoir water) below dam. However it shall not have
nay advantage in terms of competence of rocks. The Escales
dam on the Ribagorzana river in Northern Spain (see figure
are the end of the unit) dam is an example where dam is
flanked by supporting alternating strata of cretaceous marls
and lime stone which dip almost vertically.
Beds which are folded:
Folding of beds, which occurs relatively on large scale
is less dangerous than faulting, generally. Unless the folds
are of complex nature a fold consists of two limbs which can
be considered as simple homoclines i.e. tilted beds. When
viewed from this approach, the influence of a fold occurrence
at dam site can be interpreted either as advantageous or
disadvantageous, just as in the cases of occurrence of
inclined beds at dam site.
Beds which are faulted:
Occurrence of faulting irrespective of its attitude (i.e.
strike and dip) right at the dam site is most undesirable. if
the faults are active, under no circumstances, dam
construction can be taken there. it is not only because of the
fear of possible relative displacement of site it self, but also
due to the possible occurrence earth quakes there; both of
which can easily endanger the safety and stability of dam. Beds which have Joints:
further, fault zones being crushed or intensely fractured, it is
physically incompetent to withstand the forces of dam.
Thus location of dam on fault zone is undesirable for
different reasons. however if need arises and if known
tectonic history of faulted regions indicates that it has no
threat of possible recurrence of faulting (i.e. if the faults are
confirmed to be inactive), then sites associating with such
faults can be considered as dam sites, after necessary
treatment.
Further among such sites:
1) If the faults occur in down stream side, directly they will
not be much harmful irrespective of their attitude.
2) If the faults occur in the up stream side, the down stream
dipping faults are dangerous because they have all the
disadvantages of a case with bedding planes of such attitude
(i.e. risk of uplift pressure, heavy leakage of water etc.), but
if the faults dip in up stream side they need to be sealed to
avoid possible leakage.
3)  If the dam has to rest upon inactive faults, stringent
precautions have to be taken to over come the draw
backs of faulting. These details indicate the severe harm
that can be caused by faults. Some of the Indian dams
built across faults are: Nagarjuna sagar dam of Andhra
Pradesh, Tenughat dam of Bihar, Kadana dam and
Navagam dam of Gujarat, Hidkal and Mala Prabha dams
of Karnataka, Parambikulam dam of Tamilnadu etc.
Fig.
 Among the different geological structures Joints(and
cracks) are the most common and are found to occur in all
kinds of rocks, almost every where. Obviously, as they
represent clear cut openings and gaps of different
magnitudes, they contribute to the physical weakness of
rock and porosity and permeability. Thus it brings over all
improvement of the rock. Joints are in a way comparable
with bedding planes, since both are weak planes in the rocks
and have some strike and dip (Joints being planes of open
fractures are definitely more weaker then simple bedding
planes). Therefore as far as effects of joints over dam sites
are concerned, they will be similar to the effects and
attitudes of bedding planes, which have been already
discussed. .
Beds which are parallel to the length of the valley:
This is a case where dam is aligned across the strike
i.e. in the dip direction of beds. In such situation beds will be
dipping in the direction of surface slope on one flank and
therefore there will be danger of slipping of rocks along
bedding planes of that flank (i.e. that side of river valley).
This danger will almost always be present as slope of valley
sides are very steep at dam sites and are therefore very
likely to be steeper than dip of rocks which creates instability
of site and slipping of rocks of one side.

Fig.
The St. Francis dam, an example of dam failure was aligned
along the dip of foundation rocks and in the left abutment
the foliation of schists was dipping in the direction of slope of
one valley side. Slipping which occurred along the foliation
planes of schist is also considered to have contributed to the
failure of dam.