Working Temperature Air Temperature

http://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/thermal/factors.htm

Heat stress
The guidance is aimed primarily at employers, managers, occupational health professionals and safety personnel. The objective is to provide a systematic, approach to the decisions required to minimise or reduce the risk heat stress in your workforce. Employees will also find the information useful in understanding why their employer is taking this approach. There will be workplaces for which the methods described in this guidance may not be able to provide a specific solution and you may be required to seek expert advice. By applying the information in these web pages, you have shown that you have adhered to best practice.

Measuring heat stress

Wet Bulb Globe temperature index Estimating Metabolic Rate Physiological Monitoring Heart rate Estimating Clothing Insulation Values

There are three types of method used for the assessment of hot environments:

Empirical Uses laboratory data to predict the likely effects an environment will have on a human, (ie physiological responses); enabling predictions to be made that estimate work rate, metabolic rate, clothing factors etc. Direct - Standardised instruments measure environmental parameters eg globe temperature Rational - Calculations of the heat exchanges between the employee and the work environment provides a method for predicting employees responses.

The purpose of these methods is to estimate or establish the physiological responses of an individual to their environment. The end result is to provide a value which allows a comparison between environments, different working situations and different types of clothing to be made.

Obtaining thermal stress indices requires four processes to occur:

Input Values - enabling calculations to be made from direct measurement or by extrapolation. Calculations Output Values: - the results from the calculations. Interpretations: - of the outputs either by using a heat stress index, the user or both

Why worry about heat stress

Unless someone collapses from heat exhaustion, the possible health effects of working in the heat may not be obvious. This means it requires employers to identify whether those employees who may be at risk from heat stress are suffering from any heat related illnesses. In some situations this may have to be treated with sensitivity eg sustained heat exposure may result in symptom reporting not readily associated with heat exposure eg rashes, impaired male fertility etc. Part of the way of identifying individuals at risk is to use information you will already have to hand for example:

Look for patterns in absenteeism, types of illnesses and their frequency of occurrence, the nature of employee complaints, etc. Take particular note of where employees work, their job, how experienced they are, whether any illnesses are recurring etc. Read through any RIDDOR reports and any internal accident or injury reports. Are there any patterns to the nature of reportable accidents or injuries? Could any repeated accidents be attributed to the effects of heat e.g. fatigue, loss of concentration, etc.; Speak to employees, their safety representatives (e.g. unions), to managers in other companies that are involved in the same business as your organisation, contact industry federations or associations etc.

As an aid the flow diagram provides one example of how you would act if heat stress was a problem and what to do at the various risk assessment stages.

Talking about heat stress

When explaining to your employees about what heat stress is remember that this is a two way street and it is important to listen to what all your employees tell you about heat stress. This is important as it helps engage everyone in dealing with heat stress risks. For example, those involved with purchasing personal protective equipment need to be aware that while it can protect against one risk it can contribute to the causes of heat stress. After you have identified the problems and put forward solutions then as an employer, you need to ensure that individuals carrying out any measurements or implementing methods of managing the risk are trained and fully competent.

The most commonly used indicator of thermal comfort is air temperature it is easy to use and most people can relate to it. But although it is an important indicator to take into account, air temperature alone is neither a valid nor an accurate indicator of thermal comfort or thermal stress. Air temperature should always be considered in relation to other environmental and personal factors. The six factors affecting thermal comfort are both environmental and personal. These factors may be independent of each other, but together contribute to a workers thermal comfort.

Environmental factors:

Air temperature Radiant tempertaure Air velocity Humidity

Personal factors:

Clothing Insulation Metabolic heat

Environmental factors
Air temperature
This is the temperature of the air surrounding the body. It is usually given in degrees Celsius (C) or degrees Farenheit (F).

Radiant temperature

Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from a warm object. Radiant heat may be present if there are heat sources in an environment. Radiant temperature has a greater influence than air temperature on how we lose or gain heat to the environment. Our skin absorbs almost as much radiant energy as a matt black object, although this may be reduced by wearing reflective clothing. Examples of radiant heat sources include: the sun; fire; electric fires; furnaces; steam rollers; ovens; walls in kilns; cookers; dryers; hot surfaces and machinery, molten metals etc.

Air velocity
This describes the speed of air moving across the worker and may help cool the worker if it is cooler than the environment. Air velocity is an important factor in thermal comfort because people are sensitive to it. Still or stagnant air in indoor environments that are artificially heated may cause people to feel stuffy. It may also lead to a build-up in odour. Moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase heat loss through convection without any change in air temperature. Small air movement in cool or cold environments may be perceived as draught. If the air temperature is less than skin temperature it will significantly increase convective heat loss. Physical activity also increases air movement, so air velocity may be corrected to account for a person's level of physical activity.

Humidity
If water is heated and it evaporates to the surrounding environment, the resulting amount of water in the air will provide humidity. Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at that air temperature. Relative humidity between 40% and 70% does not have a major impact on thermal comfort. In some offices, humidity is usually kept between 40-70% because of computers. However, in workplaces which are not air conditioned, or where the climatic conditions outdoors may influence the indoor thermal environment, relative humidity may be higher than 70% on warm or hot humid days. Humidity in indoor environments can vary greatly, and may be dependent on whether there are drying processes (paper mills, laundry etc) where steam is given off.

High humidity environments have a lot of vapour in the air, which prevents the evaporation of sweat from the skin. In hot environments, humidity is important because less sweat evaporates when humidity is high (80%+). The evaporation of sweat is the main method of heat loss in humans. When vapour-impermeable PPE is worn, the humidity inside the garment increases as the wearer sweats because the sweat cannot evaporate. If an employee is wearing this type of PPE (eg asbestos or chemical protection suits etc) the humidity within the microclimate of the garment may be high.

Personal factors
Clothing insulation
Clothing, by its very nature, interferes with our ability to lose heat to the environment. Thermal comfort is very much dependent on the insulating effect of clothing on the wearer. Wearing too much clothing or personal protective equipment (PPE) may be a primary cause of heat stress even if the environment is not considered warm or hot. If clothing does not provide enough insulation, the wearer may be at risk from cold injuries such as frost bite or hypothermia in cold conditions. Clothing is both a potential cause of thermal discomfort as well as a control for it as we adapt to the climate in which we live and play. You may add layers of clothing if you feel cold, or remove layers of clothing if you feel warm. However, many companies remove this ability for their employees to make reasonable adaptations to their clothing. It is important to identify how the clothing may contribute to thermal comfort or discomfort. It may also be necessary to evaluate the level of protection that any PPE is providing can less or other PPE be used?

Work rate/metabolic heat

The work or metabolic rate, is essential for a thermal risk assessment. It describes the heat that we produce inside our bodies as we carry out physical activity. The more physical work we do, the more heat we produce. The more heat we produce, the more heat needs to be lost so we dont overheat. The impact of metabolic rate on thermal comfort is critical. When considering these factors, it is also essential to consider a persons own physical characteristics. A person's physical characteristics should always be borne in mind when considering their thermal comfort, as factors such as their size and weight, age, fitness level and sex

can all have an impact on how they feel, even if other factors such as air temperature, humidity and air velocity are all constant.

Measuring thermal comfort

A simple way of estimating the level of thermal comfort in your workplace is to ask the workers or their workplace representatives (such as Unions or employee associations) if the percentage of workers dissatisfied with the thermal environment is above a certain level, you will need to take action. See the five steps to risk assessment for more details for more details. If you wish to measure thermal comfort in a more scientific manner, please refer to the British Standards listed in Calculating thermal comfort.

Thermal comfort checklist

Use the table below to help you identify whether there may be a risk of thermal discomfort to your employees. Please note that this is a basic checklist and does not replace an adequate thermal comfort risk assessment. Read the descriptions for each thermal comfort factor, and tick the appropriate box. If you tick two or more YES boxes there may be a risk of thermal discomfort and you may need to carry out a more detailed risk assessment. Description YES Does the air feel warm or hot? Does the temperature in the workplace fluctuate during a normal working day? Does the temperature in the workplace change a lot during hot or cold seasonal variations? Radiant temperature Is there a heat source in the environment? Humidity Is there any equipment that produces steam? Is the workplace affected by external weather conditions? Are your employees wearing PPE that is vapour impermeable? Do your employees complain that the air is too dry? Do your employees complain that the air is humid? Air movement Is cold or warm air blowing directly into the workspace? Are employees complaining of draught? Metabolic rate Is work rate moderate to intensive in warm or hot conditions? Are employees sedentary in cool or cold environments? PPE Is PPE being worn that protects against harmful toxins, chemicals, asbestos, flames, extreme heat, etc? Factor Air temperature

What your employees think

Can employees make individual alterations to their clothing in response to the thermal environment? Is respiratory protection being worn? Do your employees think that there is a thermal comfort problem?

Download checklist as PDF [34KB]

Calculating thermal comfort

In most instances, the guidance given on this website will be sufficient to enable you to improve thermal comfort in your workplace. However, you may wish to measure the factors contributing to thermal comfort more accurately. The predicted mean vote (PMV) and percentage people dissatisfied (PPD) index and use of BS EN ISO 7730 and BS EN ISO 10551 British standards are recommended. The PMV/PPD index predicts the thermal comfort of people working in a given environment. It uses the six basic factors, and has become the most widely used index in recent years. It has been adopted as a British and European and International standard.

Controlling thermal comfort

There are a number of ways that you can manage thermal comfort in the workplace:

Administrative controls
Administrative controls include planning and rescheduling work times and practices and rest schedules, for example, scheduling hot work for cooler times of day or giving workers flexible hours to help avoid the worst effects of working in high temperatures. Administrative controls are generally of a short term, temporary nature and are also widely recognised as being more expensive and less cost-effective than engineering controls in the long-term.

Engineering controls
These should be the first choice to reduce or eliminate the hazard. Although the initial cost of engineering controls seems high, it has been found that the implementation cost is often offset by the resulting improvements to production and decrease in downtime, with reduced absenteeism and improved motivation. It is important to stress that any practical solution to controlling thermal comfort is likely to require a combination of different options alongside consultation between employers, employees and their representatives.

Heating
Many types of heating systems are available:

hot air based heating systems; water based central heating systems using radiators; combined heat and ventilation systems using air conditioning systems; electrical heating systems using electrical heaters; under-floor heating systems using either electrical coils or heated fluids; overhead heating systems.

Most of these systems are useful. However the beneficial effects may be in some situations restricted to the immediate locality of the heat source.

Air movement
There are many methods for increasing air movement. Small personal fans can provide a refreshing movement of air on the face. Larger oscillating fans can provide a swirling air movement, though some people may find this draughty. There may also be noise problems. Large diameter fans suspended from the ceiling can provide a swirling air movement that is effective over a wide area. Exhaust fans, mounted in the roofs and walls, are useful for removing heated air; however, while improving general air movement, they may have little effect on thermal comfort.

Air conditioning
This can range from small units that lower the air temperature but do not control humidity levels or air movement, to large units that can cope with extreme conditions as well as humidity and air movement. When air conditioning systems are used, care should be taken to ensure uniform air distribution throughout the workplace, otherwise some workers may complain of feeling cold while others are feeling hot. Air conditioning units should be operated as per the manufacturers instructions.

Evaporative cooling
Evaporative coolers produce a moderate reduction in air temperature and increase humidity. They operate by passing hot air over water-saturated pads and the water evaporation effect reduces the air temperature.

Thermal insulation

There are many different types of thermal insulation materials, eg loose fills, rock wool and boards. The material acts as a barrier, which slows heat flow in the summer and heat loss in the winter, but it is only effective where there is a temperature difference between the inside and the outside of the building or between two areas inside a building.

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Generic control measures

There are eight main methods of control which you can use:

Control the heat source

Don't only consider this in relation to air temperature. Reduce/increase temperature, humidity, radiant heat load or air movement. Insulate the source of heat or cold.

Control the environment

Replace hot air with cold, or replace cold air with hot, as required. Humidify or dehumidify the air as required. Increase air movement by ventilation or air conditioning. Reduce draught discomfort by directing the ventilation or air movement so that it doesn't blow directly onto the workers.

Separate the source of heat or cold from the worker

Erect barriers, shield the work area or restrict access. Redesign jobs to remove the worker from the area.

Control the task

Restrict the length of time that workers are exposed to hot or cold conditions. Control the amount of work that workers are expected to do. Introduce mechanical aids to aid physically demanding jobs in warm and hot environments or when workers are wearing a lot of clothing.

Control the clothing

If PPE is worn, make sure that workers are not wearing more PPE than is required (ie a higher protection factor than is needed). If uniforms are worn, evaluate alternative designs, new materials etc to improve wearability of clothing. Evaluate dress code and allow workers to adapt their clothing where possible.

Multiple layers of clothing enable workers to make reasonable adjustments to their clothing based on their own subjective feelings.

Allow for the worker to make behavioural adaptations

Where possible, remove all restictions that may prevent employees from making minor adjustments to their clothing or work rate. Provide warm-up or cool-down areas. Provide personal heaters or fans. Allow workers to adjust thermostats or open windows as appropriate.

Protect the worker

Provide suitable special clothing and/or equipment (eg desk fans). Provide training.

Monitor the worker

Provide appropriate supervision. Obtain medical advice for workers who are pregnant, have an illness or disability, or are on medication. As required undertake a specific risk assessment for pregnant workers to identify and manage any risks.

Managers guide
This section outlines your responsibilities as a manager, and suggests some ways you can improve thermal comfort in the workplace.

Managing thermal comfort in the workplace

In organisations where thermal discomfort in indoor environments is a risk, it is vital that management provides a visible commitment to the health and well-being of their employees. In many workplaces, thermal discomfort may only occur during unscheduled repair and maintenance work, when heating ventilation and air conditioning systems either break down or don't work as intended, eg during the hottest or coldest months. When this occurs, it is important to consider the possible impact of increased thermal discomfort on employees. It is the responsibility of management to ensure that a company adapts as necessary to reduce or eliminate the risk of thermal discomfort amongst the employees.

If thermal discomfort is a risk, and your employees are complaining and/or reporting illnesses that may be caused by the thermal environment, then you will be required to develop a thermal comfort programme:

You may need to train and/or re-train staff. Training may be required for the thermal comfort risk assessments, analysis of data, interpretation of results and implementation of controls. Training may also be required to explain to staff how, by modifying their working practices (such as clothing worn, work rate etc), they may be able to adapt to their thermal environment. The thermal conditions may need to be monitored and where possible recorded. Health surveillance or medical screening may be required for staff who have special requirements such as pregancy, certain illnesses, disabilities and/or maybe taking medication. Medical advice should be sought if necessary. Adequate and appropriate risk assessment procedures are essential. Records of all procedures and results should be kept as part of your risk management program. Working habits and current practices need to be reviewed periodically and (where necessary) changed, to meet your obligations to control the risks your employees may face.

When people are too hot

You can help ensure thermal comfort in warm conditions by:

placing insulating materials around hot plant and pipes; providing air-cooling or air conditioning plant; providing fans, eg desk, pedestal or ceiling-mounted fans; ensuring that windows can be opened; shading employees from direct sunlight with blinds or by using reflective film on windows to reduce the heating effects of the sun; siting workstations away from direct sunlight or other situations or objects that that radiate heat (eg plant, machinery); providing additional facilities, eg cold water dispensers (water is preferable to caffeine or carbonated drinks). Introducing formal systems of work to limit exposure, eg flexible working patterns, job rotation, workstation rotation etc; allowing sufficient breaks to enable employees to get cold drinks or cool down; relaxing formal dress code but you must ensure that personal protective equipment is provided and used if required.

When people are too cold

You can help ensure thermal comfort when working in the cold by:

providing adequate workplace heating, eg portable heaters; reducing cold exposure by designing processes that minimise exposure to cold areas and cold products where possible;

reducing draughts; providing insulating floor coverings or special footwear when workers have to stand for long periods on cold floors; providing appropriate protective clothing for cold environments introducing formal systems of work to limit exposure, eg flexible working patterns, job rotation; allowing sufficient breaks to enable employees to get hot drinks or to warm up in heated areas.

PPE and thermal comfort

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is considered to be a last resort to protect workers from the hazards in the workplace (PPE Regulations 1992). PPE reduces the bodys ability to evaporate sweat. Additionally, if the PPE is cumbersome or heavy it may contribute to an increase in the heat being generated inside the body. Wearing PPE in warm/hot environments and/or with high work rates may increase the risk of thermal discomfort and heat stress. Removal of PPE after exposure will prevent any heat retained in the clothing from continuing to heat the worker. PPE may prevent the wearer from adapting to their environment by removing clothing because to do so would expose them to the hazard that the PPE is intended to protect them from. However, people may not wear their PPE correctly (eg undo fasteners to increase air movement into the garment) and thereby expose themselves to the primary hazard.

Workers' guide
This section outlines what you can do if you think there is a thermal comfort problem in your workplace. It is important for you to report any problems you come across to your management, union or other workplace representative. It may be that you have to work with your management and fellow workers to get permission to take some of the steps below, but by working together, it is more likely that suitable, long term solutions to any problems can be found.

What can you do?

There are a number of things that you can do to improve thermal comfort in your workplace:

add or remove layers of clothing depending on how hot or cold you are; use a desk or pedestal fan to increase air movement; use window blinds (if available) to cut down on the heating effects of the sun; in warm situations, drink plenty of water (avoid caffeinated or carbonated drinks); if possible, work away from direct sunlight or sources of radiant heat; take regular breaks to cool down in warm situations and heat up in cold situations. Raise the issue with your managers or, if you can with your union or other workplace representatives.

Although any of the actions outlined above may go some way to alleviating your thermal discomfort, there are also a number of things that your manager or employer could do to help further. Talk to your manager, supervisor, union representative or employee representative about:

insulating hot plant or pipes; providing or upgrading air cooling or air conditioning; including thermal comfort as part of workplace risk assessments; introducing work systems to limit exposure, such as flexible hours or early/late starts to help avoid the worst effects of working in high temperatures; relaxing formal dress codes; moving workstations away from hot plant or out of direct sunlight.

Physiological monitoring
Physiological monitoring should be used when all other alternatives cannot be implemented either on grounds of practicality or because employees are working in environments outside the design parameters of a heat stress index eg WBGT. When performing physiological monitoring you are advised to seek specialist help and use the standard ISO 9886. These measurements (eg core temperature, heart rate, sweat rate etc) require:

Employees give their informed consent ie they are fully aware of any discomfort or risks associated with the measurement technique to be used and that they agree to their use and their own participation. Employees are able to withdraw from these measurements at any time. This ensures that the monitoring is ethical ie the physiological measurements being taken do not expose an individual to an unacceptable risks due to the measurements being taken.

It may be that the only way to ensure that workers are not being put at risk from heat stress is for personal monitoring procedures of the workers to be implemented. Due to

practical limitations this is usually done periodically, although this reduces the rate of risk of detection. The following needs to be considered:

The measured site must be valid and appropriate for the environment and the job; Non-contact infrared tympanic temperature is NOT to be used for measuring deep internal body temperature; There are two reasons for monitoring: o Post exposure evaluation of minute by minute data; o Real-time exposure monitoring of workers; The former provides a basis for establishing work/rest schedules. The latter would be for continuous health monitoring during the exposure; If the latter is to be used as part of a safety procedure during exposure to extreme environments, there is a need for those responsible for health and safety to have instant real-time access to data during the entry. Therefore there is a need for this information to be transferred electronically from worker to health and safety monitor; It is recommended that where reasonably possible, real-time data be observed so that the physiological performance of staff can be monitored, and where limits are exceeded withdrawal protocols implemented; The interpretation of the results of physiological monitoring requires training and only personnel that are adequately trained and competent should interpret this data. The standard ISO 9886 and the information contained in the Tools and Risk Assessment enables a decision to be made on which method to use. Devices that sound alarms when limiting criteria are reached may provide a control methodology if the equipment used is calibrated and has been shown to provide a valid reading. The validity of such equipment should be established prior to use in industrial settings. All measuring equipment, transmission equipment, recording and data logging equipment should all undergo regular calibration checks by authorised calibration laboratories. Careful consideration should also be made of the implications of such devices or systems ensuring that they will not reduce the ability for rapid evacuation of the wearer from the environment in which they are operating, and that system failures will not increase the risk. Other considerations such as evacuation time, emergency evacuation procedures etc. should also be considered.

There is no current standard describing the specification for physiological monitoring equipment. Discontinue work and remove worker from the environment and protective clothing if:

If core temperature limits exceed 38C for unacclimatised workers or 38.5C for acclimatised workers. Workers complain of any of the symptoms of heat related illness. The taking of core temperature and skin temperature requires specialist equipment and training. Unless the appropriate equipment and appropriate trained personnel are available these measures should not be undertaken.

Five steps to heat stress risk assessment

When undertaking a heat stress risk assessment it is recommended that you take a staged approach. A diagram of what happens at each stage of a heat stress risk assessment is provided on these web pages. This diagram is a means of helping to understand the activities that need to be undertaken at each stage.

Risk assessment checklists [PDF 256kb]

Step 1: Identify hazards

Look - Visually inspect the workplace to identify heat stress hazards (e.g. looking for a heat source, are workers wearing PPE etc?) Read through accident and productivity reports. Can any accidents be attributed to heat stress (e.g. fainting, confusion, poor concentration etc)? Do accidents increase during periods of hotter weather? Listen to your workers. They are experts in their jobs.

Step 2: Decide who might be harmed and how

Inexperienced workers, young workers, trainees, contractors, cleaners, maintenance workers and visitors may require training. Experienced workers with infrequent exposures may also require training. They may be used to the job, but not to working in the heat. Health status of workers is important. Identify those who might be added risk to heat stress? Consult a physician if you are unsure. What happens if things go wrong? Put emergency procedures in place. Rehearse emergency procedures. Consult a physician if you are unsure. Plan for the unexpected. Consider the nature of the task, where it is being performed, what the hazards are and what sorts of things may go wrong. Establish a chain of command.

Step 3: Evaluate risks and decide whether existing precautions are adequate or should more be done

Think before you start - Is it necessary to work in the heat? Can the job be redesigned? Can the environment/PPE/work rate be changed? Planning and training are crucial Conduct a risk assessment and interpret the results. Use the following methods in your heat stress risk assessment: o Basic Risk Assessment to Identify Hazards o Qualitative Risk Assessment using the Observation Checklist o Quantitative Risk Assessment using the WBGT index Draw up an action list. Can you get rid of the hazard all together? If not, how can you reduce the risk of heat stress? A possible order for problem solving may include: o Try a less risky option e.g. wait for the temperature to reduce; o Prevent access to the hazard e.g. only acclimatised workers; o Organise work to reduce exposure e.g. work-rest schedules, job rotation, team rotation, more workers on job; o Issue personal protective equipment e.g. aluminised garments for those exposed to high radiant temperatures; o Provide welfare facilities e.g. first aid and emergency procedures.

Step 4: Record your findings

Implement a formal reporting procedure that is incorporated into current risk assessment reporting procedures for other hazards. Record measures taken, indices used, and outcomes. Describe interpretation of assessment. Report any communication between medical experts, thermal experts etc. Record findings of discussions with staff, review of accident statistics, productivity variations etc.

Step 5: Review your assessment and revise if necessary

Review control options and implement controls where appropriate. Do your employees think there is still a problem? Has there been a reduction in unsafe actions, accidents, illnesses, absenteeism etc? Has there been an increase in productivity, worker satisfaction, etc? Frequent Exposures: Be aware that new equipment, new manufacturing methods, new PPE, etc, may all contribute to a change in the risk of heat stress. If any changes significantly alter the risk of heat stress, conduct a heat stress risk assessment; Infrequent Exposures: Conduct a risk assessment prior to each exposure. Ensuring your controls are in place, that training has been given, emergency procedures are in places, etc.