Académique Documents
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1 This is the 4th edition of the text book. 2 Characteristics in the previous edition:
In the emphasis on balanced coverage of relevant fundamental and real-ward practice.
Department of Mechanical and electrical Shazhou institute of technology, Zhangjiagang , Rep. Of China Sep. 2006
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II Study aids
1 Use extensive schematic diagram() and flowchart to present every topic of the manufacturing engineering technology(MET); 2 Emphasis on uses of the concepts and information presented; 3 Analogies, discussions and problems designed to stimulate() the students curiosity() about consumer and industrial products and how they are manufactured; 4 Extensive reference material include tables,Illustrations,Graphs, and Bibliographies; 5 Numerous Examples and case studies to highlight() important concepts and techniques; 6 Tables comparing advantages and limitations of manufacturing processes 7 A summary, list of key terms, and concise description of current trends at the end of each chapter.
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical, Shazhou Tech, Source: Prentice-Hall, 2006 Page 7-4
published numerous papers one of the authors of several encyclopedias editor of several journals wrote three manufacturing books(two of which obtained the M. engene merchant award) life fellow() of ASME fellow and life member of ASM international fellow of the SME full member of the CIRP manufacturing research institution He received: The best paper . Excellence in teaching award Education award one of the founding members and past president of the north American
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( b )
dimensional accuracy geometric features finishing operation surface characteristics economical waste materials unless carried out properly, material-removal processes can have adverse effects on the surface quality and properties of the product
engineer.
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical, Shazhou Tech, Source: Prentice-Hall, 2006 Page 7-7 Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Figure 2 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction.
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CHAPTER 23
Machining Processes Used to Produce Various Shapes
Figure 23.1 Typical parts and shapes produced with the machining processes described in this chapter.
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Face Milling
Figure 23.5 Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling. The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius. Source: Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter. Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical, Shazhou Tech, Source: Prentice-Hall, 2006 Page 7-16
Figure 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface: (a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of a small radius followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. Source: Kennametal Inc. (d) Feed marks due to various insert shapes.
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Arbors
100 0.9 MN
1.7
Figure 23.13 Mounting a milling cutter on an arbor for use on a horizontal milling machine.
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TABLE 23.4
General-purpose starting conditions Feed Speed mm/tooth m/min (in./tooth) (ft/min)
0.130.20 (0.0050.008) 120180 (400600)
Workpiece material
Low-C and freemachining steels Alloy steels Soft
Cutting tool
Uncoated carbide, coated carbide, cermets Uncoated, coated, cermets Cermets, PCBN
Hard Cast iron, gray Soft Hard Stainless steel, austenitic High-temperature alloys, nickel base Titanium alloys Aluminum alloys Free machining High silicon Copper alloys Thermoplastics and thermosets
0.100.18 (0.0040.007) 0.100.15 (0.0040.006) 0.1010.20 (0.0040.008) 0.100.20 (0.0040.008) 0.130.18 (0.0050.007) 0.100.18 (0.0040.007) 0.130.15 (0.0050.006) 0.130.23 (0.0050.009) 0.13 (0.005) 0.130.23 (0.0050.009) 0.130.23 (0.0050.009)
90170 (300550) 180210 (600700) 120760 (4002500) 120210 (400700) 120370 (4001200) 30370 (1001200) 5060 (175200) 610900 (20003000) 610 (2000) 300760 (10002500) 270460 (9001500)
0.080.30 (0.0030.012) 0.080.25 (0.0030.010) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.46 (0.0030.018) 0.080.38 (0.0030015) 0.080.46 (0.0030.018) 0.080.46 (0.0030.018)
60370 (2001200) 75460 (2501500) 901370 (3004500) 90460 (3001500) 90500 (3001800) 30550 (901800) 40140 (125450) 3003000 (100010,000) 370910 (12003000) 901070 (3003500) 901370 (3004500)
Uncoated, coated, cermets, SiN Cermets, SiN, PCBN Uncoated, coated, cermets Uncoated, coated, cermets, SiN, PCBN Uncoated, coated, cermets Uncoated, coated, PCD PCD Uncoated, coated, PCD Uncoated, coated, PCD
Rough surface finish Tolerances too broad Workpiece surface burnished Back striking Chatter marks Burr formation Breakout
Source: Based on data from Kennametal Inc. Note: Depths of cut, d , usually are in the range of 18 mm (0.040.3 in.). PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boron nitride; PCD: polycrystalline diamond. Note: See also Table 22.2 for range of cutting speeds within tool material groups.
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Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. For troubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc.
Figure 23.16 Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-knee type milling machine (also called a knee miller). Source: G. Boothroyd.
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Broaches
Figure 23.19 Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three principal linear and two angular movements of machine components
Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.
Figure 23.21 (a) Typical parts made by internal broaching. (b) Parts made by surface broaching. Heavy lines indicate broached surfaces. Source: General Broach and Engineering Company.
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(b) Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach used for enlarging long holes. Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates while the broaches pass tangentially across the crankshafts bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company. Figure 23.26
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Sawing Operations
Figure 23.27 Examples of various sawing operations. Source: DoALL Company.
Figure 23.28 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth set on saw teeth, staggered to provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.
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Spur Gear
Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear. Figure 23.32 (a) Producing gear teeth on a blank by from cutting. (b) Schematic illustration of gear generating with a pinionshaped gear cutter. (c) Schematic illustration of gear generating in a gear shaper using a pinionshaped cutter. Note that the cutter reciprocates vertically. (d) Gear generating with rackshaped cutter.
Gear Generating
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Gear Grinding
Figure 23.25 Finishing gears by grinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding wheels; (b) grinding by generating with two wheels.
Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting a spiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.
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CHAPTER 24
Machining and Turning Centers, Machine-Tool Structures, and Machining Economics
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Pallets
Figure 24.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the top view of a horizontal-spindle machining center showing the pallet pool, set-up station for a pallet, pallet carrier, and an active pallet in operation (shown directly below the spindle of the machine). (b) Schematic illustration of two machining centers with a common pallet pool. Various other arrangements are possible in such systems. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
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Touch Probes
Figure 24.6 Touch probes used in machining centers for determining workpiece and tool positions and surfaces relative to the machine table or column. (a) Touch probe determining the X-Y (horizontal) position of a workpiece, (b) determining the height of a horizontal surface, (c) determining the planar position of the surface of a cutter (for instance, for cutter-diameter compensation), and (d) determining the length of a tool for tool-length offset. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
Figure 24.8 Schematic illustration of a three-turret, two-spindle computer numerical controlled turning center. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
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Chip-Collecting System
Figure 24.12 Steel guideways integrally-cast on top of the cast-iron bed of a machining center. Because of its higher elastic modulus, the steel provides higher stiffness than cast iron. Source: Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
Figure 24.9 Schematic illustration of a chip-collecting system in a horizontalspindle machining center. The chips that fall by gravity are collected by the two horizontal conveyors at the bottom of the troughs. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
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Chatter
Figure 24.13 Chatter marks (right of center of photograph) on the surface of a turned part. Source: General Electric Company.
Figure 24.14 The relative damping capacity of (a) gray cast iron and (b) epoxygranite composite material. The vertical scale is the amplitude of vibration and the horizontal scale is time. Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Machining Economics
CHAPTER 25
Figure 24.16 Graphs showing (a) cost per piece and (b) time per piece in machining. Note the optimum speeds for both cost and time. The range between the two is known as the highefficiency machining range.
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Workpiece Geometries
Cylindrical
Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill. Internal Bores in workpiece; low production rate; low to medium labor skill. Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate; low labor skill. Lapping Flat surfaces; high production rate; low labor skill. Ultrasonic Holes and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle machining nonconducting materials. *Larger capacities are available for special applications. L=length; D=diameter.
Common glass Flint, quartz Zirconium oxide Hardened steels Tungsten carbide Aluminum oxide
Titanium nitride Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Boron carbide Cubic boron nitride Diamond
Figure 25.2 The types of workpieces and operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces, (b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off or slotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding. See also the illustrations in Section 25.6.
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Grinding Wheel
Figure 25.3 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and wear and fracture patterns.
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Standard Marking System for Cubic Boron Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives
Figure 25.7 Standard marking system for cubic boron nitride and diamond bonded abrasives. (a)
Grinding Chips
(b)
Figure 25.8 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm (0.0025 in.) in diameter. Source: M. E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.
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Figure 25.11 Chip formation and plowing of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasive wear. (See Fig. 32.6).
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Polishing 15002400
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Surface Grinding
Figure 25.14 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
Figure 25.15 (a) Rough grinding of steel balls on a vertical-spindle grinder; the balls are guided by a special rotary fixture. (b) Finish grinding of balls in a multiple-groove fixture. The balls are ground to within 0.013 mm (0.0005 in.) of their final size. Source: American Machinist.
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Figure 25.16 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.
Figure 25.18 Schematic illustration of grinding a noncylindrical part on a cylindrical grinder with computer controls to produce the shape. The part rotation and the distance x between centers is varied and synchronized to grind the particular workpiece shape.
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Centerless Grinding
Figure 25.19 Thread grinding by (a) traverse, and (b) plunge grinding.
(c)
Figure 25.22 Schematic illustrations of centerless grinding operations: (a) through feed grinding. (b) Plunge grinding. (c) A computer numerical control cylindrical grinding machine. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
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Figure 25.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut, d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface by creep-feed grinding in one pass. Groove depth is typically on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. This operation can also be performed by some of the processes described in Chapter 26. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
TABLE 25.6 Material Grinding fluid E, EP Aluminum CSN, E, MO FO Copper D, MO Magnesium CSN, EP Nickel EP Refractory metals CSN, E Steels CSN, E Titanium D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics; MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.
Figure 25.25 Schematic illustration of the structure of a coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century, and emery cloth are common examples of coated abrasives.
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Belt Grinding
Figure 25.26 Example: Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes.
Lapping
Figure 25.29 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
Figure 25.28 Schematic illustrations of the superfinishing process for a cylindrical part. (a) Cylindrical mircohoning, (b) Centerless microhoning.
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10
Abrasive-Flow Machining
Figure 25.31 Schematic illustration of abrasive flow machining to deburr a turbine impeller. The arrows indicate movement of the abrasive media. Note the special fixture, which is usually different for each part design. Source: Extrude Hone Corp.
Robotic Deburring
Figure 25.32 A deburring operation on a robot-held die-cast part for an outboard motor housing, using a grinding wheel. Abrasive belts (Fig. 25.26) or flexible abrasive radialwheel brushes can also be used for such operations. Source: Courtesy of Acme Manufacturing Company and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Figure 25.30 Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields. (a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls. (b) Magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.
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CHAPTER 26
Advanced Machining Processes and Nanofabrication
Figure 25.33 Increase in the cost of machining and finishing a part as a function of the surface finish required. This is the main reason that the surface finish specified on parts should not be any finer than necessary for the part to function properly.
(a)
(b)
Figure 26.1 Examples of parts made by advanced machining processes. These parts are made by advanced machining processes and would be difficult or uneconomical to manufacture by conventional processes. (a) Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Courtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (b) Microscopic gear with a diameter on the order of 100 m, made by a special etching process. Courtesy of Wisconsin Center for Applied Microelectronics, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
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TABLE 26. 1 Process parameters and typical material removal rate or cutting speed 0.00250.1 mm/min.
Wire EDM Laser-beam machining (LBM) Electron-beam machining (EBM) Water-jet machining (WJM)
Characteristics Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large flat or curved surfaces; blanking of thin sheets; low tooling and cost; suitable for low production runs. Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate of material removal among nontraditional processes; expensive tooling and equipment; high power consumption; medium to high production quantity. Cutting off and sharpening hard materials, such as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as a honing process; higher removal rate than grinding. Shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard materials; some surface damage may result; also used as a grinding and cutting process; expensive tooling and equipment. Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces; expensive equipment. Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; heataffected zone; does not require a vacuum; expensive equipment; consumes much energy. Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; very small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; requires a vacuum; expensive equipment. Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to 25 mm and greater in thickness; suitable for contour cutting of flexible materials; no thermal damage; noisy. Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and nonmetallic materials. Cutting, slotting, deburring, deflashing, etching, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic materials; manually controlled; tends to round off sharp edges; hazardous.
V: 525 dc; A: 1.58 A/mm ; 2.512 mm/min, depending on current density. A: 13 A/mm ; Typically 25 3 mm /s per 1000 A. V: 50380; A: 0.1500; 3 Typically 300 mm /min.
2
Figure 26.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining; note the undercut.
12 mm /min.
Varies considerably with material. Up to 7.5 m/min. Varies considerably with material.
Figure 26.2 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffnessto-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first been formed into shape by processes such as roll forming or stretch forming. The design of the chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost. Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, December 1990. ASM International.
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Figure 26.4 Surface roughness and tolerances obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each process (see also Fig. 22.13). Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed. Copyright 1980. Used by permission of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
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Figure 26.6 Schematic illustration of the electrochemicalmachining process. This process is the reverse of electroplating, described in Section 33.8.
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Electrical-Discharge Machining
(b) (c)
Figure 26.9 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process. Figure 26.8 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces) with an ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applied to the metal implant. Source: Biomet, Inc. Figure 26.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is one of the most widely used machining processes, particularly for die-sinking operations. (b) Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front (see also Fig. 15.9b). Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (c) A spiral cavity produced by EDM using a slowly rotating electrode, similar to a screw thread. Source: American Machinist.
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Examples of EDM
(a) Figure 26.11 Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The workpiece moves in the two principal horizontal directions (x-y), and its motion is synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
Wire EDM
Figure 26.13 (a) Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be performed with one reel of wire, which is then discarded. (b) Cutting a thick plate with wire EDM. (c) A computer-controlled wire EDM machine. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (c)
Laser-Beam Machining
Figure 26.14 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c) Examples of holes produced in nonmetallic parts by LBM.
(b) Figure 26.12 Schematic illustration of producing an inner cavity by EDM, using a specially designed electrode with a hinged tip, which is slowly opened and rotated to produce the large cavity. Source: Luziesa France.
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12
Electron-Beam Machining
(a)
Water-Jet Machining
(b)
(c)
Figure 26.15 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.
Figure 26.16 (a) Schematic illustration of water-jet machining. (b) A computer-controlled, water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-jet cutting process. Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation.
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CHAPTER 27
Fusion-Welding Processes
Figure 26.17 Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. Figure 26.18 (a) A scanning electron microscope view of a diamond-tipped (triangular piece at the right) cantilever used with the atomic force microscope. The diamond tip is attached to the end of the cantilever with an adhesive. (b) Scratches produced on a surface by the diamond tip under different forces. Note the extremely small size of the scratches.
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Figure 27.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
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Figure 27.5 Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding operations (also known as stick welding, because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).
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Submerged-Arc Welding
Figure 27.7 Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused. Source: American Welding Society.
Figure 27.8 Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.
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Flux-Cored Arc-Welding
Figure 27.10 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is similar to gas metal-arc welding, showing in Fig. 27.8.
Electrogas Welding
Figure 27.11 Schematic illustration of the electrogas welding process. Source: American Welding Society.
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Plasma-Arc Welding
Figure 27.15 Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a) transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep and narrow welds can be made by this process at high welding speeds.
Figure 27.14 Equipment for gas tungsten-arc welding operations. Source: American Welding Society.
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Roll Bonding
(a)
Ultrasonic Welding
(b)
CHAPTER 28
Solid-State Welding Processes
Figure 28.1 Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding, process
Figure 28.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. (c) An ultrasonically welded part.
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15
Friction Welding
(a)
(b)
Figure 28.4 The principle of the friction stir welding process. Aluminum-alloy plates up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have been welded by this process. Source: TWI, Cambridge, U.K.
Figure 28.3 (a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-hand component is rotated at high speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under an axial force. (3) Axial force is increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component stops rotating; weld is completed. The flash can subsequently be removed by machining or grinding. (b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a function of the force applied and the rotational speed.
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Figure 28.6 (a) Schematic illustration of an air-operated rocker-arm spotwelding machine. Source: American Welding Society. (b) and (c) Electrode designs for easy access into components to be welded.
(c)
Figure 28.7 (a) and (b) Spotwelded cookware and muffler. (c) An automated spotwelding machine with a programmable robot; the welding tip can move in three principal directions. Sheets as large as 2.2 m X 0.55 m (88 in. X 22 in.) can be accommodated in this machine. Source: Courtesy of Taylor-Winfield Corporation.
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Flash Welding
Figure 28.12 (a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts. (b) and (c) Typical parts made by flash welding. (d) Design Guidelines for flash welding.
Stud Welding
Figure 28.13 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates.
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Explosion Welding
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 28.15 Schematic illustration of the explosion welding process: (a) constant interface clearance gap and (b) angular interface clearance gap. (c) and (d) Crosssections of explosion-welded joints. (c) titanium (top piece) on low-carbon steel (bottom). (d) Incoloy 800 (an ironnickel-based alloy) on lowcarbon steel. Source: Courtesy of E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Co.
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical, Shazhou Tech, Source: Prentice-Hall, 2006 Page 7-148 Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical, Shazhou Tech, Source: Prentice-Hall, 2006 Page 7-149 Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Figure 28.17 The sequence of operations in the fabrication of various structures by diffusion bonding and then superplastic forming of (originally) flat sheets. Sources: (a) After D. Stephen and S.J. Swadling. (b) and (c) Rockwell International Corp.
Jiancheng Miao, Department of mechanical, Shazhou Tech, Source: Prentice-Hall, 2006
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