Probationary Firefighters Manual Chapter 8

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

OBJECTIVE:

To introduce members to some of the different types of building construction and their relation to fire spread. Familiarize members with basic building collapse. Building illustrations Construction features Glossary of terms

CONTENTS:

FDNY SOURCE: Firefighting Procedures: o Volume One: Books 1 6 o Volume Three: Book 3 Safety Bulletins o No. 85

OTHER REFERENCES: 1. Brannigan, F. (1992). Building Construction for the Fire Service, (3rd ed.). Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association 2. Captain Murphy, D. & Firefighter Molle, H. (2000, 3rd). More on gypsum roof deck systems, With New York Firefighters (WNYF), p. 25. 3. Dunn, V. (1988) Collapse of Burning Buildings: A Guide to Fireground Safety. Saddle Brook, NJ: Fire Engineering Books & Videos: a Division of Penn Well Publishing Company 4. International Fire Service Training Association (1999) Building Construction: Related to the Fire Service (2nd ed.). Oklahoma: Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University. 5. International Fire Service Training Association (1998). Essentials of Firefighting (4th ed.). Oklahoma: Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University. 6. TenanetNet (2005). NYS Multiple Dwelling Law, Retrieved October 15, 2006, from http://tenant.net/Other_Laws/MDL/mdltoc.html

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
TITLE PAGE
BEAMS ....................................................................................................................1 BUILDING CODES ....................................................................................................4 COLLAPSE ..............................................................................................................6 BULKHEAD..............................................................................................................8 FIRE ESCAPES .........................................................................................................14 FRAMING ..............................................................................................................17 GYPSUM ..............................................................................................................24

LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION ...............................................................................26 LOADS ROOFS STAIRS ..............................................................................................................30 ..............................................................................................................32 ..............................................................................................................33

STAIRWAYS.34 STRUCTURAL STEEL................................................................................................38 TRUSSES ..............................................................................................................43 WALLS ..............................................................................................................48

WINDOWS ..............................................................................................................49

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A space between buildings or between rooms within a building, provided for the purpose of admitting air and light to rooms. OPEN SHAFTS ENCLOSED SHAFTS

AIR SHAFT

AUTO EXPOSURE BASEMENT CELLAR

The extension of fire in or on the exterior of a building from fire originating in the same building

A story partly underground but having at least one-half its height, measured from finished floor to finished ceiling, above the curb level. A story having more than one-half its height from finished floor to finished ceiling below the curb level.

BEAMS
BEAM FIRE -CUT JOIST
A horizontal member used to carry loads perpendicular to its length. A bevel cut at the end of roof beams in brick walls, leaving the beams free to fall if burned through without causing the walls to fall. Closely spaced beams supporting a floor or ceiling.

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Beams/joists can be supported by bearing walls in numerous ways:

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Beams/joists can also be supported by other beams, known as girders.

GIRDER

A horizontal structural member used to carry loads perpendicular to its length but larger in size to beam.

Girder
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BUILDING CODES
1938 Building Code Class 1: Class 2: Class 3: Class 4: Class 5: Class 6: Fireproof Structure Fire-Protected Structure Non-Fireproof Structure Wood Frame Structure Metal Structure Heavy Timber Structure

1968 Building Code Construction Group I - Noncombustible I-A: 4 Hour Protected I-B: 3 Hour Protected I-C: 2 Hour Protected I-D: 1 Hour Protected I-E: Unprotected Construction Group II - Combustible II-A: Heavy Timber II-B: Protected Wood Joist II-C: Unprotected Wood Joist II-D: Protected Wood Frame II-E: Unprotected Wood Frame

CLASS A
MULTIPLE DWELLING

A building housing three or more families in which residency is permanent in nature

CLASS B
MULTIPLE DWELLING

A multiple dwelling which is occupied transiently.

FIRE PARTITION

A partition provided for the purpose of protecting life by furnishing an area of exit, or refuge, and having a fire resistive rating of at least three hours. *1938 Building Code A building in which the walls, floors, structural members and stairway enclosures are made of incombustible materials with fire resistive ratings as required by the Building Code, any material or substance that is used to hold back the spread of fire for a rated period of time

FIREPROOF
CONSTRUCTION

FIRE RETARDING

FDNY Chapter Eight

Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION the closing of all concealed draft openings to form an effectual fire barrier at floors, ceilings and roofs with brick, concrete, gypsum, asbestos, mineral wool, rock wool, metal lath with cement or gypsum plaster, or other approved incombustible materials. A wall provided primarily for the purpose of resisting the passage of fire from one structure to another or from one area of a structure to another, and having a fire resistive rating of at least four hours. *1968 Building Code Any alteration to the original structural components, major or minor, that may effect fire fighting operations. Alteration," as applied to a building or structure, shall mean any change or rearrangement in the structural parts or in the egress facilities of any such building or structure, or any enlargement thereof, whether by extension on any side or by any increase in height, or the moving of such building or structure from one location or position to another.

FIRE STOPPING

FIRE WALL

RENOVATED BUILDING

SINGLE ROOM OCCUPANCY

A multiple dwelling in which the apartments, which were formerly rented to families, are now rented as single rooms to unrelated people. These occupants use the kitchen and bathroom facilities in common.

VARIATION

Permission given by the Department of Buildings and/or Board of Standards and Appeal to construct a building in variation with the existing Building Code.

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COLLAPSE
A collapse is one of the most dangerous operations a firefighter will encounter. The FDNY might be dispatched to a report of a collapse or one may happen during firefighting operations. Injured or disoriented people may require assistance, while others may still be trapped in the rubble.

COLLAPSE ZONE

The expected ground area a falling wall will cover when it collapses. It is at least the distance away from the wall which is equal to the height. Horizontal Collapse Zone width of the structure Vertical Collapse Zone height of the structure

PRIMARY STRUCTURAL MEMBER

A structure that supports another structural member in the same building, such as a bearing wall, a column, or a girder. The collapse of a primary structural member will often cause the collapse of the structural member it supports. Loss of surface material when concrete (or stone) is subjected to heat. It is due to the expansion of moisture in the concrete. Explosive spalling occurs violently, throwing bits of concrete projectiles (Brannigan 331.). Structural Weakness: Accumulation of snow or Excavations rain on the roof Improper Renovations Overloading of floors Weather earthquakes, winds etc. Backdrafts/Smoke Explosions Fires Impact load from a collision

SPALLING

CAUSES OF COLLAPSE

WARNING SIGNS

Plaster sliding or falling off of walls Traveling cracks Prolonged burning Walls/columns bulging out of alignment Sagging floors due to excessive water Sounds e.g. creaking, rumbling, etc. 6

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TYPES OF COLLAPSES

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Any structure on the roof of a building enclosing stairways, tanks, elevator machinery or other accessories to a structure.

BULKHEAD

WALK THROUGH BULKHEAD

A structure at the uppermost portion of interior stairs that may isolate the front section of the roof from the rear. One must walk through the bulkhead to reach the other section of the roof.

FDNY Chapter Eight

Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION a horizontal structural member supported on one end only

CANTILEVER

COAMING

A raised frame around a floor or roof opening or scuttle to keep water from running in.

COCKLOFT

The space between the roof and the top floor ceiling. Fire may enter the cockloft through recesses, voids and ducts.

COCKLOFT AREA

COMMON COCKLOFT

Open all the way from one end of a row of houses or stores to the other end.

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Course of brick built out from the face of a wall, as steps in reverse. *See definition of parapet for illustration A supported, roof like covering which projects from a wall as an ornamental feature.

CORBELLING

CANOPY

MARQUEE

A permanent hood which projects over an entrance to a building and is not supported by posts or columns.

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A vertical member in structural frame used to transfer floor and roof loads to the foundation.

COLUMN

CORNICE

Decorative trim at the roof line. Made of metal, wood or masonry, which tops the front wall & projects from it (Brannigan 194.).

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION rainwater. Sometimes called a capstone, it weighs between five and fifty pounds (Dunn 18.).

COPING STONE Top masonry tile or stone of a parapet wall, designed to carry off

COMPACTOR

A device for crushing garbage and trash into a small space prior to removal from the premises

DUMBWAITER

A device for collecting garbage from apartments by means of a wooden car which is raised and lowered in a vertical shaft by means of a rope and a pulley. In most buildings having these dumbwaiters they are no longer used

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A system of designating the areas or buildings which are adjacent to the fire building. When facing the main entrance to the fire building, exposure #1 is in front of the building, #2 is on the left, #3 is to the rear of the fire building and #4 is on the right.

EXPOSURES

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION An emergency means of egress from a building consisting of metal balconies on the outside of a building connected by ladders to each other and to the ground. Some fire escapes have a ladder from the top floor balcony to the roof. A vertical ladder normally held in the "up" position at the second floor balcony of the fire escape by a hook. When this ladder is to be used, the hook is released and the drop ladder is lowered or dropped to the ground. Care must be exercised to make certain that no one is struck by this ladder when it is lowered or dropped to the ground.

FIRE ESCAPE

DROP LADDER

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A structure built as an emergency means of egress from a building which will afford lateral access to an adjoining building or apartment separated by a fire wall. They do not have ladders to ascend or descend from floor to floor or the roof.

PARTY WALL BALCONY

COUNTER BALANCED STAIRWAY

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A vertical ladder, the side rails of which are curved at the top. This type of ladder is sometimes used between the top floor balcony of a fire escape and the roof.

GOOSENECK
LADDER

Yankee Gutter

WOOD (YANKEE) GUTTER

Found on most Brownstones. They can be dangerous, since they are made of wood and then tarred over many times. Usually rotted.

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FRAMING
BAYS FIRE STOP (CATS) HEADER LALLY COLUMN LINTEL
The open area between either studs, in a wall, or beams in a floor or a roof A strategically located structural component designed to prevent the horizontal and/or vertical spread of fire in walls, partitions, floor, roof and other areas of a building. A beam which carries the ends of beams which are cut off in framing around an opening. A vertical structural member consisting of a steel pipe filled with concrete. A horizontal building member, supporting the weight above an opening, such as a window or a door. When overhauling, lintels should not be removed, regardless of charring, as they support a considerable amount of brickwork. *See definition of parapet for illustration Brick filling between studs Closely spaced beams supporting the roof and running parallel to the slope of the roof. The horizontal line at the junction of the top edges of two sloping roof surfaces. The board at the ridge to which the rafters of both slopes of the roof are nailed. Wood strips imbedded in concrete to provide a nailing base for the under flooring The underside of subordinate structural members. Vertical structural elements in a wall or partition arranged in rows and used for the support of lath, plaster wall board, etc. A beam which frames into the header instead of spanning the entire distance between supports. A beam at the side of an opening and carrying one end of a header. A light frame of wood or metal strips applied to a surface to support plaster, stucco or other surfacing materials.

NOGGING RAFTER RIDGE RIDGE BOARD (POLE) SLEEPER SOFFIT (EAVES) STUD TAIL BEAM TRIMMER FURRING (LATH)

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BASIC TYPES OF WOOD FRAMING

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION In balloon framing construction, fire can easily extend vertically. Studs and corner posts are continuous from the sill to the top plate. The side wall studs, at a point of the upper floors, are notched out and a 1 x 4 is fitted and nailed into the studs. This is known as the ledger board. The ledger board supports the floor joists of the upper floor.

BALLOON FRAMING

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Each level is completed separately. The floor beams and deck for the next higher level are constructed on top of the lower story. From a fire protection standpoint, platform construction is superior to balloon, because there are no concealed wall voids extending for more than one floor level (Dunn).

PLATFORM FRAMING

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Gypsum planks are normally 2 inches thick, 2 feet wide and 8 feet long and factory-laminated of two gypsum panels. Each plank weighs approximately 135lbs. GYPSUM PLANK DECKING SYSTEM

GYPSUM PLANK ROOF DECKING

GYPSUM CONCRETE ROOF DECKING

Gypsum concrete is mill formulated and composed of calcined gypsum and wood chips or shavings. It is usually poured to a 2 inch thickness and weighs approximately 17.5 lbs. per square foot (280lbs compared to the size of a Gypsum plank).

GYPSUM CEMENTERY ROOF SYSTEM

Deck With Ceiling 24

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SAFETY CONCERNS OF GYPSUM ROOF SYSTEMS:

Gypsum plank and concrete decking is of lightweight construction which spans large wide spaces. The main drawback, from a firefighting operational stand point, is that this type of construction is extremely vulnerable to moisture causing a deterioration of the system. The above characteristic, along with truss construction, are conducive to an early collapse under fire operations. Members shall not be committed to roof operations when this type of roof construction is found. Interior firefighting operations shall be conducted from areas of safety due to the weight of such decking materials. Hose streams should be operated well in advance of members. The presence of a Gypsum Roof Deck will be indicated by a white powdery residue during saw operations. Upon this observation, members shall make immediate notification to the Incident Commander and proceed to evacuate the roof.

However, a field unit discovered that white powdery residue will only be present on a roof not subjected to moisture. They further discovered that a gypsum roof that had been penetrated by moisture will produce a brownish, clay-type substance, that will fill the shroud of the saw during cutting operations. o It should be stressed that this condition exists in roofs that already are degraded by moisture.

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LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION
LAMINATED WOOD "I" BEAMS
Consist of a top and bottom chord and web. The chords are made of 2" x 3", 2"x 4", or two" CDX or pressed

plywood glued together. The web is usually made of " plywood. Contractors bore holes may to have route

electric, plumbing etc., compromising the strength of this beam. If not properly sealed, fire can extend from one bay to another.

METAL "C"
JOISTS

are constructed of lightweight steel, approximately 1/16" thick, and may have predrilled holes for plumbing and electric lines. Cross braces may prevent twisting.

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Made of 2"x3"s or 2"x4"s, which are held together with sheet metal gang nails or gusset plates. o Gang nails (gusset plates) penetrate only " to ". When exposed to high heat, fire, or prolonged moisture, gang nails may pull away causing the failure of that truss. The failure of one truss may initiate a domino effect on adjoining trusses. When light weight wood trusses are used as joists, fire can spread horizontally unimpeded. Tests have shown truss failure rates a low as 1 minute, 20 seconds. Failure of one truss can cause a structure to totally collapse.

LIGHTWEIGHT WOOD TRUSSES

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OPEN WEB STEEL BAR JOIST

No fire resistance rating, protection from fire depends on the ceiling finish and finish roofing. Used to span long distances (up to 60 feet). Unprotected open web steel joists are particularly vulnerable to elevated temperatures of a fire and may collapse after only 5 or 10 minutes. May be covered with various roof decks: o Solid wood o Cementitious roof plank (wood fibers chemically processed and pressure bonded with portland cement) o Pre-cast concrete or gypsum plank o Gypsum concrete (factory controlled mixture of gypsum and wood chips) poured over form boards and steel wire mesh; usually 2" minimum thickness. o Most common decking is corrugated steel, with the joists spaced from four to six feet apart. Roofs with this type of roof support system must not cut. Vertical ventilation should be limited to removal of skylights & scuttle covers if present. Emphasis should be placed on any and all horizontal ventilation points.

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ANY BUILDING WITH LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION SHOULD BE ENTERED INTO THE CIDS PROGRAM.
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LOADS
AXIAL LOAD
is a force perpendicular to the supporting member. An axial load is straight and true and is evenly applied to the bearing structure.

DEAD LOAD

the weight of all permanent stationary construction entering into a structure and includes the weight of walls, floors, roofs, structural members, etc. is a force whose resultant is perpendicular to the supporting member but does not pass through the center of the mass. The load is not evenly applied to the supporting or bearing member.

ECCENTRIC LOAD

LATERAL LOAD

are loads that are exerted outwardly on a horizontal plane. These forces may take place during a collapse or an explosion. Walls are not usually designed to withstand severe lateral loads. All loads other than dead loads. These loads are not permanent or stationary and include the weight of merchandise, office fixtures, furnishings and all free standing material and persons.

LIVE LOAD

IMPACT LOAD

Are loads delivered, in a short time, on structural members and produce stresses on structural members that may not have been provided for in design and may cause collapse.

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION That portion of a wall continued above the roof line.

PARAPET

RETURN

The interior surface of a scuttle or skylight between the roof and the top floor ceiling

SCUTTLE

An opening in the roof or a floor of a house fitted with a lid.

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ROOFS
BUILT UP
ROOF

is the roofing material applied in sealed water-proof layers on the structural members of the roof.

MEMBRANE Roofing material in roll form, consisting of asphalt materials, (bituminous) polymers of plastics and synthetics for strength. Thickness ROOF
can vary. Roofs covered with this type of materials are susceptible to ignition and rapid flame spread when exposed to flame.

A roof which is raised above the roof beams and supported by 2 x 4"s. RAISED (INVERTED) The extent to which it is raised varies so as to provide proper drainage on
ROOF

the roof. The result is a large open cockloft where fire can spread easily.

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STAIRS
TREAD:
the horizontal part of a step on which the foot is place. the vertical part of a step which extends from the tread of a step to the nosing of the next higher step

RISER:

NOSING: that part of the tread which

extends past the riser.

NEWEL POST:

Vertical post at each landing supporting handrails

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STAIRWAYS
ACCESS
STAIRS

A stairway, usually open, serving a number of floors of a common tenant. Also known as convenience stairs.

ATTACK
STAIRWAY

A fire stair being used by the Fire Department to gain access to the fire area, where the door between the stairway and the fire area is being maintained in an open position.

EVACUATION Fire tower or a fire stairs, designated by the Fire Department or a preSTAIRWAY

existing building fire plan, that is remote from the fire area and used for the evacuation of the building occupants. A fire tower is the preferred evacuation stairs.

FIRE TOWER

An enclosed stairway connected at each story by an outside balcony or fireproof vestibule vented to the outside. Required by NYS building code in high-rise buildings, built between 1938 and 1968.

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Breaks up the stair climb at the middle of the stair rise with an intermediate landing; here, the climber reverses direction before starting the second half of the stair rise.

RETURN STAIRS

TERRAZZO

A polished floor covering made of small marble chips set in several inches of cement. A terrazzo floor is a collapse hazard: it adds weight to floor beams, conceals the heat of a serious fire below, and, because it is watertight, allows water to accumulate and build up to dangerous proportions. In 1966, A fire burning in a cellar below a terrazzo floor burned away the floor beams, although little heat and smoke penetrated the floor itself. The floor suddenly collapsed, killing 12 firefighters (Dunn 32).

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Two stairs constructed side by side in the core of a building in which their doors alternate the point of exit to opposite sides of the core.

SCISSOR
STAIRS

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LAYOUTS - STAIRWAYS AND PUBLIC HALLS

TRANSVERSE STAIRS
Located at points remote from each other but a person can go from one stairway to another via public hall on all floors of the building. An asset to fire operations

WING STAIRS
These stairs, one or two in a building, are located in each wing. There is no connection to the other wing. The diagram represents half a building showing each type.

ISOLATED STAIRS
Usually have individual entrance. Floor landings are limited. No connection to other.

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STRUCTURAL STEEL
Older buildings generally only have two structural elements to support the structure, masonry and wood. The introduction of a third element, steel, had the following advantages: It allowed girders to support floors instead of a costly bearing wall of brick The consistency of steel structural characteristics allowed a fairly exact amount of failure to be determined, thereby eliminating costly overbuilding required by the use of safety factors when using less predictable materials such as masonry and wood. And finally, the ability of steel to be connected permitted the coupling of several building sections, e.g. the H type design of residential housing. Structural Steel creates three concerns to the fire service: 1. Steel when heated expands, and substantial elongation can occur at a fire. This elongation can cause a wall to bulge, move, or even collapse if the steel is set within the wall. 2. Steel when heated to higher temperatures during a fire may fail. Floor beams supported by such failing steel will fall to the floor below. 3. Steel columns or girders, generally in an "I" beam shape, transmit fire and heat. The "I" beam or channel rail, as it is sometimes called, when in the form of a column located in the inner framework of a building may extend from the first floor up into the roof space or cockloft area. The space between the enclosing wood framework and "I" beam, when in the form of a vertical column, leads up into the cockloft and many times spreads to this roof space.

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"I" beams will absorb heat from the fire at a rate dependent on many factors, such as, the temperature of the fire, the extent of the fire, and the mass (weight and size) of the beam. A large, heavy "I" beam will be able to absorb more heat and its temperature will rise more slowly than a lightweight beam. Because of the conductivity of the steel, this temperature will diffuse into the beam causing its expansion. An average 50 foot long steel beam, heated uniformly over its length to 970F will extend in length approximately four inches. A longer "I" beam will expand a proportionately greater distance, and as the temperature increases, the rate of expansion increases. At 1000 F a 100-foot long beam will have extended in length nine-and-a-half inches. When these steel beams are heated from 1000 F to 1500 F, their yield strength drops dramatically and they start to soften and fail. This temperature can be reached in five to ten minutes at a fire and it is only a matter of time at an uncontrolled fire (thirty minutes for the smaller beam sections), until these beams can be heated beyond their strength limitations. There is a false impression that hot steel beams or columns cooled by hose streams will crack or fail. Tests have shown that cooling a steel member will cause it to regain its strength and load carrying ability, and under normal circumstances, there should be no hesitation in cooling these members. If the beam has already sagged under the weight of floors or roof, firefighters should not be allowed in the possible collapse zone, whether these beams are cooled or not. The steel will contract to its original length as it is cooled and if the beam has sagged, this shortening may pull the end of the beams off their supports or twist the beam allowing the joists to drop.

UNPROTECTED STEEL

Steel structural components of a building which do not have any fire resistive covering such as concrete, brick, asbestos, etc.

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SUSPENDED (DROP) CEILINGS

They are suspended by light wood strips, steel wire or steel bars, all of which are quickly affected by fire. Suspended ceilings offer their own collapse potential when loaded with water or weakened by fire and are sometimes blown down by a backdraft in the cockloft. Special care must be exercised when these ceilings are constructed of heavy wire lath and plaster or tin, as these ceilings often fail and fall in one piece over the entire area of a store. Besides inflicting injury, these ceilings can trap members beneath, if they fall intact. These ceilings should be "punched" with a hook for water detection, to check construction and fire conditions. Multiple layers of tin, sheetrock or tiles may have been affixed together on supports which were not intended to carry such weight. A slight amount of water or fire can cause failure and the weight of such a ceiling increases chance of entrapment and injury. When initially pulling suspended ceilings members should be in a safe area in case of total failure. Light fixtures offer another hazard as they may swing down if the support breaks at one end. The void area created by suspend ceilings is referred to as the Plenum, which may allow for fire travel. Also, in this area are installed pipes, wiring, air handling ducts and recessed lighting fixtures.

Plenum

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Part of a building that connects the wings of the building.

THROAT

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TRUSSES
BEWARE OF T HE TRUSS Truss roof construction is used to span large areas, free of support columns, and can be made of wood or steel. Most roof trusses are designed just to provide the span and support of the roof system. Basically, the truss is composed of two major members, chords and webs. There is a top and bottom chord connected by shorter members called webs. The webs are placed vertically and diagonally, forming triangular configurations with the chord members. There are many variations but all are essentially the same; a combination of interdependent components used to span large distances through the use of smaller pieces fastened together.

In any truss frame, every part of the truss is important to its stability. The failure of any element may lead to the failure of the entire truss. Because of the wide spans and the interdependence of trusses, one with another, the failure of a truss may have serious consequences far from the point where the initial failure occurs. Truss roofs are not designed nor constructed to be used as a Fire Department working platform. Early collapse of the roof must be anticipated in a heavy fire condition and members should not be committed to roof operations. Members operating on the roof must immediately inform their officer and Incident Commander of the type of roof system and the presence of any heavy equipment. Members should also be aware that light-weight wood trusses and wood I-beams are being used as floor supports, creating the same potentially dangerous collapse conditions within the interior of the structure. Truss construction should be suspected on all new or renovated taxpayer/commercial structures as well as all large span building spaces. When found, these structures should be the subject of a CIDS card.

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BOWSTRING TRUSS

Can be made of heavy timber or metal or a combination of both. Wooden bowstrings are found in older commercial structures in NYC, e.g. supermarkets, bowling alleys, lumberyards, auto storage garages, and in buildings that originally housed such occupancies. Characteristic hump-like roof profile the longer the span, the higher the bow. This easily recognized silhouette, if not obscured by signs, built up parapets or smoke conditions, gives notice of truss construction. Other types of truss construction are not as easily discerned from the exterior of the building. Trusses may be spaced 10 or 20 feet apart with roof beams installed between the trusses to support the roof coverings. Also, in the older wooden truss roof buildings, there is a possibility of rotting at the ends of the trusses where they rest on the walls, due to water leaking through the roof covering. To prevent this leakage, building owners, may place a small section of roofing at an angle between the wall and the roof to form a trough for drainage. Wood truss roofs appear to fail without warning. The roof does not sag or get "spongy." Steel trusses tend to "stretch" when losing their strength because of elevated temperatures, but wood tends to "snap". Trusses are composed of smaller and lighter weight members and they span greater distances than the conventional roof beam construction. Fire will affect them more rapidly. If a serious fire involves the roof portions then firefighters should not be committed to cut such roofs. Fire conditions must be closely monitored and the firefighters on the roof must be removed when roof stability is in doubt.

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Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Created by pipe recess (water & vent pipes), channel rails, electrical conduits, dumbwaiter shafts, etc. Can spread fire throughout the building by convection or burning embers dropping down these voids and starting a fire on a lower floor.

VERTICAL VOIDS

Soil pipe, water pipe and electrical line found in a rear closet.

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If heat is detected at BASE OF of soil pipe, inspection holes shall be cut.

Firefighter makes inspection hole in the wall.

If heat is detected in walls, inspection holes shall be cut.

Officer communicates via Handie-Talkie to Office on floor above. Fire extending up pipe recess, between kitchen and bathroom.

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FDNY Chapter Eight

Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

WALLS
BEARING
WALL

A wall of a building which carries any load other than its own weight.

KNEE WALL PARTITION VENEER WALL MORTAR

A wall used to box out a finished attic. This creates large voids and occupants usually store combustibles behind it. A non-bearing wall one story or less in height Single thickness of masonry or brick-designed to improve exterior appearance of the building, it lends no structural support. A material composed of sand and cement (and possibly other additives) used to build brickwork.

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FDNY Chapter Eight

Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

WINDOWS
WINDOW BARS
The location of window security bars will vary. However, it is not uncommon to find these installations on all floors and all sides. The construction of these bars will vary from thin aluminum child guards to heavy wrought iron and steel. Some bars may be set in mortar or brick. Others may be bolted or screwed into the wooden frame of the window or door. Civilians may become trapped with no means of escape. Firefighters may become trapped when going above the fire for a search. Window bars are heavy and difficult to remove.

CASEMENT WINDOWS

A metal framed window which opens outward. This type of window is usually found in high rise multiple dwellings.

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FDNY Chapter Eight

Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A window designed to maintain air tight insulation, and will contain more than one pane of glass with an air tight space in-between.

ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOW (EEW)

*SPECIAL NOTE ON ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS*

EEWS HAVE A MAJOR IMPACT ON THE VENTILATION PROCEDURE These windows maintain their integrity longer than ordinary single pane windows in a fire environment with the following effects: A. High heat buildup in fire apartment and floor above. B. Possibility of a backdraft/flashover. C. Difficult to vent properly. D. Cause rapid extension. E. Discoloration due to high heat is not readily apparent. F. Difficulty in determining the fire apartment, room or floor area. Energy Efficient Windows can cause extreme heat and smoke conditions to develop in the fire apartment and apartment above the fire. The potential for flashover and backdraft is increased. Uncontrolled horizontal ventilation can seriously jeopardize member safety. Fire showing out failed Energy Efficient Windows is indicative of high heat and fire in an advanced stage.

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FDNY Chapter Eight

Probationary Firefighters Manual BUILDING CONSTRUCTION A folding gate placed at a window to prevent intruders from entering. The type that is approved by the Board of Standards & Appeals does not have any locks.

WINDOW
GATE

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