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  • Kuhn, Thomas S. - 1996 - The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

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    412 vues114 pages

    Kuhn, Thomas S. - 1996 - The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

    Transféré par

    corinnaaa

    Droits d'auteur :

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Téléchargez comme PDF ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
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    sur 114
    Thomas S. Kuhn The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Tan Kt ror eo ply ie Ma at Bids Try ond te Quon Doi isa chee ney of en Cen ant nike ve ta te xi Contents Price Indie: A Reefer History 7 The RoutetoNemal Science 10 ‘The Nate of Noma Since 23 Normal Scene as Parale-soving 35 ‘The Pry of Puadions 42 Anomaly nd he Emergence of cet Discoveries $2 Cn and th Emergence of Sientie Theves 66 ‘Tae Response Css 77 “The Nate nd Nees of Seni Revousions 92 Revco a8 Changes of Word View 111 ‘The lvisiiy of Revelations 136 The Resins of Reveluons 144 Progress tough Revoions 160 Posscri 1969 174 Index 211 Preface ‘The eomy tha follows isthe Ent fl publised rept on 2 ret nga consved alot tem years ago At that Ei T was raat stodnt im theoeial phys aed thn sight of te eof my diaeationA fotonat vor Them wih an eaperinenal colle course treating phys ten forthe nenscentst eovded my Bt expo othe {Sty af wens To ny compete pre, that expose 1 titcidate inte hea an pacts aay werind Some of my bse conepton ant the sate of sence aod {ho romons for spec rece “Tone conceptions wore ee hl peiosy drawn purty from sete wang Teal aod pry from # ongtndog focal intrest the. plosbphy of selene Samah’, Sie ther dagen her st ple “boven nota the enterprise at trie uy Alpay. Yet they were and are fundamental to any a ios of aden and theirs of versie there Samed throughly woth purtng, Th rol was date {Sit in ny cover pan, tram physio fost fs face and then gad. rately stughorvard hs toe prions ink to ihe more plow cocers ht Id in ed me to history cep for afew ati, his Say i the fst of my publ wis in wich thee aly ‘Solkms re doninat Kramers an tong epi {o mye snd to fends ow I huppened tbe des om ‘Sane to Bu Bory in theft pace Ty fst opportunity o pure depth soe ofthe ee et fonts below tas povided by te yes Jin Fellow of the Sokty of Fellow of Hard Univer Who that pevod of een she tration tw Bd of dy wold Five been far move dial nd might ot have Boon achieved arto my te thw yeas war devoted to ory f cece prope In pti cotnsd ody he wings of Ale Prtoce andre Koyté and fat encountered the of Ene Meyerson, Hiltge Metzger and Anolse Maer? More cea tha most other ecent sears, hs group as shown what as ket ‘hin scent nap when the canons of seni thought were very diferent from thre caret today” Thigh Ting gun ow oh peta Mate ter prtons, thc works, together wth AO. Lovejoy Greet Thai of Bang, have bentzcod ny to pinay Sao ma tei hap my coneption of whet he itr of seth ideas can be Much of my tne in those years, however, was spent explo lng feds without aparet ration to Rstry of scence but which esearch now dcbes problems ie te ones story ws Iningg 0 my atenton. A owtnoteencomntered by chance Jed othe xerines ywhih Jn Pag ated nth the vvou wos of the growing ch and the proses of tention rn othe next Ove of my colnet ne to reading papers inthe rychology of pererption, parteaay the Gestalt prying anoberInfedacrd me fo BL ‘Whoefsieclatons abot the est of ngage on word view; and W. ¥. 0. Quine opened for me the Phiosopiel Drs ofthe antyticsythete tinction That the So of "andom erloration tat the Soctyof Fellows pert and nly trong could Thave encountered Ln ees snot Unknown monograph, Enttcung und Entekung einer we "are ral wt K, Ende Cale (0 Hc ley a ale SRI Ne ry ca von kT eae sire i Ps ke or eer a oak seca ep Boi secrmed bee emer gpd Raita ree Batt Ge ine na Rn fF Nase Preface secfichan Tac (Bal 305), a ety hal ats es many of my on eas, Togebe witha rematk from a Sie Sir Plow, rant Sat Fc wok made he ‘eae at those aright equ tobe et in the egy of BeSettbecommany Thong ender el od ew fer nce to ether tee works or conversations below, Tam i {Sheed to them sr more way than T osm now reconstruct or cvahate ‘uring my last year as Junie Fellow, an invitation tle ture fre Lonel attain Boston povided rt ans tory et my tl developing nation of Selmer. The reall was os of eit public etre delivered dring March, 1961, fn “The Ques for Physi Theory.” In the nent yar T began toteath history of scence proper, and fr nts decade the problems of lniacing tna beld Thad never sstomatialy id let ine fr eal areslton of the ras that ‘ad ist bought moto fe Fortiatly, however howe eas roves soueeofimplist orientation and of ome rblen ruc for moc of my more advanced teaching 1 therefore have my students to task for invaluable Tesons both boot the ality of my ew and about the techniques appropriate {other efectve communication. The same problems sed rien tation ve unt to mort of the dominantly histori and prea diverse, studies have pulsed since the ead of my Fewhip Several of them da wih the itegral pat played by owe & another metapysic in retve sete reach ‘ier examine the way im which he experimental bse of pew theory te accumlated and stated by men commited {oi icormpatbe older theory. nthe proce they dese the ype of developnet that T have below called the “ene: fence o anew teary or ducovery. There are other och es Fees “The ral sage in the development of this cay began ‘van lnvftation to spend the year 1058-00 st the Center for avanced States nthe Beavionl Scienrs. Once agin Tas {ie to ge undivided attention tothe problems docoed ile Even more important, spending the year ina comminity Preface ompoued predominantly of socal siete confronted me ‘vith unanticipated problems about the diferences between ich communities and thoe ofthe natural Slntits among ‘whom I hed been trained. Patty, 1 was stuck by the umber and extent ofthe overt disagreements between soil Scientist about the ate of Igtinate cient problems and ‘methods. Both istry and acquaitance ade me doubt that petitioners of the natural scence poses Ber oF Ore Demanent answer Yo sich question than thle oles in Focal scene Yet, somahiow the practie of astonomy, physics, ‘emty, or Bislogy nol as to evoke the entrovesies ‘over fundamentals at today’ often stem endemic among, Dojhologts or socilogit Atempting to dicover the source SF tat dference led me to recognize the role scent r= search of what Ihave since elled-paradgns” These I take fo bo universally veogezad Slentife achievements that for a {ine provide ode! problems and sltons t's communty of Drctlioner. Ones that poce of my pasa fell ato place, 8 Era of ths eaay emerged ply is ‘The subuequnt history ofthat Galt noed not be recounted. here, but afew words mst Be sid about che for tat thas preserved through revise, Unt fst version had been com. pleted and largely vevsd, I antepated that the manuserpt Srould appear exclusively 2s «volume in the Encyclopedia ef Und Science, The editors ofthat pioneering ork had fst solcted i them held me Bly to 3 commitment, od Bally ‘wed with extracedianry tet and patience fra et 1 ant ‘uch indebted to them parca to Charles Mec, fr ‘welding tho essential goad and for advising me about the Imamsrpt that reed. Space limits of the Encyclopedia ‘male it aecesary, however, fo present my’ views in sn extrame- iy condensed aid schematic for, Though sa ave somewhat ened thee retition and aye made pose sible simultaneous independent publeaton, this work remains fn exay rather than the fullce bok my eject wil lt imately demand ‘Since my mot fandamental objective i to uge «change in Profoce the percpin ad esa of fama dts, the schema ‘hatter of is preset nerd be 9 drown. On he ‘Satay rear har own reser Bs pepe he rhe Son of vention hese advocated may Bed the ey fom ike sggestve and easier fo asiate, Bat tos i vantages awe and hese may sty my Astin the ery tat tess of eterno in both sop and depth at Tepe umaely tone na ogerversin. Far more bio talvidence valle that haved space tel below Furthermore, hat evidence comes fom he history of bilo ti well of pps cence My dc to deal ere ech Sively with eter as made arly to fcsease this ey ‘Sherene and pty tw pounds of preset competence. ‘tin tev of sees to developed ee sgt ute ies os nmber of mew sorts of reser, both otoral and soi For expla, the mates which soomules, or vlatons of expectation, att the increasing ‘Renton of a slete community needs detaled. toy, at {oer the emergence ofthe ess that may be induced by re ‘ested fae to make an anomaly conform. Or again i Tam Fight that each nti evlton alters the hisralperopec- {ie ofthe common that expences then hat change of Peopeatne shoud fee che stucore of psteoitonay entbats and esearch pblcaons. One scl eflct-a shift in Uiedsbuton othe nal Meroe eed athe tte. {o vesnrch eprtsought tobe sued sponte index to the occurence of revolutions “The ned for drut condensation bas ao forced met fre gp ducaston oft munber of mar problems. My distinction Faneen the pe- sad tbepst paradigm praia the develo tment of sence ifr example, much fo schema. Each of ie scl howe competion characters the aie per [Squid by something uch ke « peraign; there ae cum stds thug hk them rare, sade wich two prais em coe penceflly inthe ate prod. Mere possesion s+ furadigm ioe quite ascent criterion for the devl- ‘na transition dussod in Seton I. More important, ex Petoce cept cal ele, ve ald tig art he Eee ere ae trace get tat Sener he cpt te ee Tec el foe a Cer Se Prolene pend parent rier eda ca hee ‘opal athe wy ton le romaine erases es Dee scasoes nt rane ee tye Eek aac ear eet an a ay em ss er a tec te neo tlt tne hating Sete! Tanya poke not peed ci hess spree andcfateea ot ene cag Eien ny vena sree ia Gea dee tte mse fae Sati pus Seale rane ans at dn STRERSy eid eat a ae Sec Da hed eee ec Sart edn weno ese ee Bpou ately rlacd eens stock eet soon ni ee So tears ned oa Hee itm eee te ‘Scmpratltneuncd rnd cy ees Siempre ringer “ne Tachopapia agents thc hs pce Bima ieee reno oe ep ee ly pel eee ae Se ese Preface pen leet acknowl wt Lt gin fy SEUSS we eof rtp he me mathe bled ge fom ony i Teeside ‘Eth sly Srey tan the ge hat fw: Nagi stove Sow towenew ten rah mento my ped hen te ‘nny nn wine agent et br oe not rind od Sed my ltl ero ‘mr Hn ne ised ea hoy jee pr a of ol te wh my poet ad ‘Spo the ance i ps wel Sm ‘Se oth at fy fade npc Under ‘Soon ma atc mn te fw a i ‘Stns hat ven 2 foky emo wi ver ety Fool Ts Jame B Conan, ten pret of Hard Ue sy, tho it rr mao tery of ye (lta wens ny crim st no ‘Stn han ee tk oss gan, er een gf itn gin i oe ‘mans Lamar Nh, wth no Bre ye a te ray arent Core at eC ha 1 ener lessen rng us “yo gen tas hp Ser Sl dng tet age ht ce. Fores Sehoweer er my dope om Cab, hs pes ese ad tld ore a ed ny Ey Caine, Sanly Crt Tat Cove» ple, mally Cinrned wi eed atten hl te hed co Stier ates conga oy orn te en oak ‘er tnd engi om Ho fre Sarthe oy pon whom veer er ale Hoey ernst nee, Tat ode a Sans nortan ot en a hey gh and wr neo Swot hie pep no ani Proce Since that vesion was drafted, many other fends have Ip with Hs relomulaton They wil thik, forgive me if Inte’ only the four whove contitions proved ios f teaching and dective: Pas! K, Feyerabend of Berkeley, Exaest Nepal ani owes he wre Raton Labonte ad my siden, Jb L Helen, who bas oten worked closely with ne in prepring Bal verston forthe press, Taye found all their rserostons and suggestions extrene) ‘i bt haven ean tb at se en loubt that ether eyo theaters mentioned above approve ins entirety the mane that ete ve My Gna acaowldgments, tomy pets, wf, and children, st be ofa rather ferent sort tn ways which I sal prob “bly be the lst wo rengta, each of them, to, as contrite ‘lca ingredients tomy work. Bat they havens in vary lng dees, done something nore importa, They have that islet goon and even encouraged my devotion 9 Ayone ‘wha has reed with project ie mine wil recognise what as occasionally cost them. T do not kaow how t0 give Heenan "enon how to give them meg ouran TSK |. Introduction: A Role for History Hor viewed as rept fr more than sede oe cqnoeig cold peace 2 decsive transformation he eee cece by which we ae sow poses, That mage JE, imal bee dances by seems. a perPe tad of fahed mietcachieveents a thee ae teeta a the casi sd more recat, he textos ‘Bem otich each new sai generation ars to practic 1 tne Ins bowee te no eh eas pri rere scitoge! a cmc of sonce dren rom the 0 SELMA ote eterp that preuced them han 2 rats atonal uur Sawn ron tourist sha + IEA ge tent, Tis ey steps oso tht we hve ex SEES) them in andomental way, ei Wa tc of he vraradfseat cont of wens at can emerge frm Ue ‘Twa eos of he escnch atv el cs fom sty, bowen that new eoncept wl ot be forthcoming hia! ata ots 0 Dang nd ra seem tamer question pond by te wiser ‘Recap awa fom ese tts Thre testy be, ft Sep feed oy a tent face Sry eremplibed by We obveration, lw, and thers aba in tr pages Alor ax reply, the same Boks iS ben read as ying tht sent metas are nly the ts ssated bythe manipulative ehniqes wed inter {RE inc de toyed wit the geal operations em Tijed when felting tone data tothe texboa's thee BerSaatns Thee bs ben one of sclence wih coun ination aot fs natre an develope. ‘facenes tho conten of ay, rs, nd wets cobain crt ety hen enti the en we yr nts hve sven to conte on or aot ee Se i pu const, Seti devepmeat be. ‘Gene pccmea poss by which thee ems have ben 1 The Strctr of Seti Revlsons ddd singly nin combination, to the ever rowing stoke that conftest enigoe nd Knowdge Aer scence becomes the Gasp that chron bth tase Sucteive increment and thesia that have nied ther ccmatin, Concert wih sete deeopment, te historian then appear thaw two main as. On he oe han emt Str by wht na and wha poet te ach ‘entero etc fat ayaa tcoy hos ncn or Invented. On theater, he a desi ae xan te co ses of ere, myth and upertiion tat have inhi te tore rapid scumulaton of the consttoents ofthe mom ‘ie fit ack eeh ben dtd ois ed Some all Ts recent yeas, however, afew horas of sence have been fing more ard more dst tol the fonctions {ist the conep of develpret by accumulating thom As veil of tn comes pee hey devs thet aol escrch makes harer nt ese Yo awe ‘quests lie: When war oxygen dasovred? Who Rist con ciel of energy mera” ncesiogy few of them ‘ect that hese oe simply the wrong sr f gust to ak Feta sence dos 2 develop by the acta of nl ideal dacoveer and intone Smatneos these sane striae conto growing cults In dstngting te “selnif" omponent fps oberon und bel om nt they predecster fad rexly laid aro” and “sop tin The more crtlly hy sy, Aten yoni, ‘logs chemistry, rele thetmodyamt the more cee Inne el hat hose one cent wef ature wee ara violet les scent nor more the prodat of aman Shaya han te et ay hse te be ie arto becaled myth, th sya can be paced by he ‘nme srs of nts sl ed fo he tuner free {Eat now lend t see wl the oer iad, the ret be elle scence, then senha ned eds tele quite ncomptewith the oes we ld today, Cen these arate the stra mut che te lee Ou a 2 Ievodvetin: A Roe fo History lat theories arent in pineal case hey have ‘ven disdad Tatchle,bowever, make tcl to see Senile devlopment ss proces of seein. The sae hi tore research tat dplys the diler in soln id Nidal invents abd discoverer gees round for prof {obs aout he emule pce ough whch ee fd ‘it cottons to sence ere thought to have be com de eo al he dy ni «Na aphic revelation in the stay of cence though one that SE in ts carly stages Graal, sd aten how ently fel ey se dng Mtr of acc have ego £9 ‘Svea of quests sod to nce dirt, ad fe ss {han cumuatie, devlopenstal ins forthe scenes. Rater than ehing tn permarent cottons oft ler scene ur peat vantge they sept to diy the stor ‘Sey ofthat sence in ts om nes Enya for compl tex thu the ation of Cleo’ vt thse of mater ‘ec bt te sda the elation betwee vow od ‘Doveaf hs up, Lev teacher, comtemporary, 2d me- tte es he en Farther hey i pon Staying the pon of at poupand other sr oes rm {hevott onal very deen from that of moder sc eth ves thse pin the mare tra eaerenc Some ben pose ito utr. See hongh the works Tia eae woud eras est exempted nthe wings af ‘xan Koy, cece dows poe seem altogether the sane imc ng ced wey ie rape talon By inglcston, at Test, thee stor Soe sogest the poty ofr pov age of sence. This hay tn to delinte that age by making expt some of chew hsecogaphy'impleation vt aopecs of sence wll emerge to prominence inthe cout of is ht’ Fst at es dar f presen, {Eelnacieny of methodol dace by thems Shcutesuniqaesultantve cnckson to mans of se geen Tanrcted to eramine ceil or chemi he a The Sircre of ScetieRevlutons erent mn who grat ofthe lds ut who knows wrt ist Bestia lngtinutly reach any oe of tmber of Incompatible cnt Amng tbe Teint ‘rll, the porta concn he dae uve at ate robably determined by hi pir exc nor eld ‘Beacons of hs vestigation, ced by his onde tmakep. What belt soot the st, for example, dese Tring the sly of chamisty or sect? Which ofthe tmany conceabeerperiments leat fo the wow eld oes be slot porto es nd what pect of the couples pom “non tha the ret seis pst lp t a ‘idation ofthe ntre of chen change’ or of elected Minty? Forte ‘nv, st ln, atd Sete forthe Seti communty ss wall anertogustins ike thes ate tien eset determinants of went develops Weta tote, for cramp in Seton I atthe cay developmental Stages of mos scones have ben chartered by eatin competion between s momber of dnt ows of tur cach atl derived from, and al oughly compte with the die {Ee of seme osc and ned What dierent these var schonls mates or tote fare of mat they were astil’-bat what we sal comet eal ir Incoomensrble ways of sea the word and of practi ‘elnc in Obsenaton and eee can and mest dat aly esti the range of sdb sete bel re ‘rl be po scence: Bt they cannot lone determin spa Uealar body of uch belo aparently esey deme, compounded of peronal and haralatdeat, slwyy arma ingredient of th bles apnsed bya ge ‘ie commun at given tine "That demon of arbitarncs dos ot, however, nda tat any scent group cold pace Hrs what same st ‘eeved bls, Nor doe ft ake lo snsoqucntal the pate {tear consteltion to which the group, a's en tine tn fact commie, Efecive roearchuaiely ogi before scienlie crsmanty thks har auised frm angers to question lie the follwing, What se the fandaenlettieg 4 Inedaction: A Role for History af which the ulvese is componed? How do these neat with ih other aod withthe sono? What questions nay legate iy be hed abut such eve and what eniqus employed Uh eking solutions? A Tet i he tre scenes, ase {or fall Slstiuts for anonen) to questions Ihe Dee re ‘ly eobeddd othe cra nation hat prepares and {Kersh stent for penal practice Beets at {tons both iguow tng hee sven come 0 ext ‘tepid om th stl a Tht ny xa does much te Zaman both forthe pec isency of the soma = Starch aye forthe eston which poco a hy {Gren ine When cnn oral sence Secs IL TV, Sha. we ll want Bly to desobe tat rorarch a4 Stent tad dented attempt to fore naa bt the ea Septal bores sapped by role elucaton, Sima ten, we shal tender wither occ old posed wil (arch bac winter esnct of bts ne tore orgs andy ocala that meen develop” “eth ment of abies preset, ad tno aan Angora let onset devon oe wich lb ‘Sine in etal Seon i, VL and VI Nona ‘ice the acti n which mst settee spend a fost all hl tine, predated onthe sumption tat the ‘etl commons what te void ke Much fhe Stes of te rtp dees rte comment’ wing Santo defend Unt asumpton Hf necsary a cms ‘Sit Non scenes, orem ten press fender sovelies becouse they ae seca sive of bs {imine Never, so og tau coment Mn an cnt a the at, the yy tr of toma se cst nly st rel fe Keng Sometines noma pcm, oe tat ght tobe le {IF by known rr sd proce, rst the eet om ‘Digit ofthe oleate ofthe group win hos com fattest ae On aber exons poo upment de Sigord uni come forthe purpose of somal earch fas 5 The Sirectur of Siete Revolutions to perform in the antipnted mnne, reveling an anomaly tia canoe deste repeated ort, be signed wth profes: Sonal epetton. In hese and oer wn beste, noma Senceyepetedly gors ay. And when lero, at the pletion conto kg cra seater tha sve he ‘lg adoro ete patho gine ear ‘Sy ivestigatons tht lend he proon ant ow new ae 1 Sonnets new bas forte rch of sks, The ‘Ssordinry eps in which that shi of presale ‘tpt ocarae the ones Koown nth ly ski ‘vlan: They te the tadiionshteing complement 0 Tovadiion bound acto al wine “the met vis comple of sti rovoltion ae those funn cpt in cet erlpeen that hese een Ineled revcations bore: Tefen Sections BC and, sherpa of sie revlton it dat srt ‘ac, we sl del epestedy withthe major toring point ‘cite development sneaked wth the res of Capers, Newton, Liver, and Ere. More del an most thet nde inte tory fat est the py scees, these py what alte eons ae Bhnt. Each of thom Seccsinted the community's ejection of oe tine honored SSSR tery vor of tote incompatible with Each frdbe conta shit in th robles for sccm Tic sratiny an nthe standards by which the profes de termined what shuld count ay ansible ple o 3 Icgimste probleokton, Av each tanned the ceo {HE Seago i ways al we sal ltnaey eed t de Seite a tmnfomaton ofthe word win wich sic srr redone, Sach change, together with the ontrverso Tatas aways accompany dem, are the desing character ls of let eaten “Thee chucterate emerge with pate cary from a sty omy the Newnan othe semi revaiton weve, finden thes of hs enya hey ca 9 te eticved fom the stay of many other epades at ee to obvi elton. For the fr salle profes 6 Introduction: A Role for History froup afected by them, Maxwells ogutions were as reel {nay as Elsen and they were resisted accordingly. The fnventon of other new theres regulary, and appropeately, res the sre response from sme ofthe pets on whose fea of spell competence they impinge. For these men he ow they tnglr ange ther govering the ror tio of oral scence tnovably, therfore eects pon och siete work they have lead sccessflly completed. ‘Thats why a new theory, however pec ange of eplice tion, seldom or never jut an increment fo wit sendy Ive, aati Rogie the rconereton of pe theory andthe revelation of pir fac an intial eo Ietoary process hat etm competed by singe man and ‘over regi No wonder itorans have had ily in ‘sting precy th eaten proces tht ir esbulry pets thn to ew aan tel event. Tor are now inventions of they the only scent events thet have elton Hopet pu espeili a whee brain they osu The commons tht over normal ck ‘sce spect stony what st of ents the ives does inti: but a by inplstion those thet doe ote fo iow though the plot wil requ extended Bscoxion, that & Altovery that of enygen of Xray doesnt spl a one ‘nore em othe popustion ofthe setts work: Uiinatly ‘htt eet, but nt wnt the paesional community has fori tone experimental procedarey are Bs ‘ception fetter with whic thas long ben fan, an, {nthe proces, shifted the network of they through which este worl Sie tad hoy re ot ater ‘aly peat ercept perhaps within a singleton of or ‘Saba proce. Plat Ew the unetpeced discovery at siply focal ins impot a why the ett we {qsatvly tarsormed well x qozntatiey enriched by damental mover ses ft ry. "Pa extendad conception ofthe natre of sent eel tis he oe dhe nthe pages ts follow, Amite theeateson stains estomarywonge Neverthe, tal em 7 The Strate of Scien Revolutions tinue to speak even of dscoveres as eoltonary, ecsse tis just the psi of relating te strvtre to that, he Ecperitan revaitin that nakes the steed conengton bean to me so portant. The preceding dcusionlnates ow the complementary notions of normal cence and cen: {ie revolt wil be develped i the nn ston te dlstly to follow Thereof heey atest apne of the remaining central questions Seton XI by dacusing the tetbok tion, cadre why ete revolts hve Revol hen alt Sst Xl desis te Fevoltoary competion between the proponents ofthe od ‘oma ton aed Ue adhee of fe wew one It {hs consders the procs that should sochow, nay of sce ay ie con ation lars mae fama by our ul hnage of sleet, Came tion between sents ofthe sete ommunty the oly Netra proces thet ever scully real in the reeton of ‘ne previo accepted hry ori the adoption of anther. Finally, Section XI wil ask hoe development hough eo tons in be compte wh te appv hrc sf siente progr For that questo, however, is xy wl [rove no more than themaln lin of spas one which Acpends upon characteris ofthe cient community that "ei much additonal expoation aes Undoubtedly, sme reader wil say have wondered wheter tonal stay can poly effect the tt of emery {ulema seat Ber ne ane fd inc is aval to agen that cannot propery dos. He tory, we to often mya purely descrpve dpe. The ry sgt shore ary, howee ten inte und ‘omeines normative. Aga, many of my gemraeton are tout the sociology octal prychalogy of rents yet tt least afew of my concisios Belong tadtonaly To loge or epstemolgy In the preceding paragraph Tay even seem 0 Hive voted the very ifn contenporry stint be. tween “he contest of covery" and the content of fsten Inteduction: A le or History ton Gan anything moe then profound confusion be inated Ip this adore die ls and concer? ving been weaned lect on ths dint ad edhe the old scary be mre are of het import Sere Forsany yas took She oe abot the nate of owicige and Tvl spose that sproeatl recast they ve toncing ingen tl Yet my steps t app te, ren rm, hn tons lnowidge sgune,ssptd, and asindatdhavemde then arene clemency ing or metindlopa dint, which would ths be Phe ani ie ey, thy nw cpl prt of tad! eof scbstanv answers to he ‘erations upon which hey ave ben deployed. That aly doe otal alte thom, Bt feds ake them parts of ery sc by dig am wbjets them to the se ‘ny regan aplled oto te ee they ar {Shine re tn pare asain ahr ote the at touteat ns be dover by serving them pliaton the data they ne sean thy: How cold history of Scene falltsbe sure of pheomenn to which theo abut Tnwledge may letatl be shed to ap? I. The Route to Normal Science In this say, “oral sinc’ means research Sly based ‘pon one oF more pst slenfeacievemen achievements that sme parla seni community acknowledges fr time at upping the foundation fort er practi Today such achievements ae recounted, though seldom in thei orig Ina form, by science textbooks, clementary and sdvance ‘These tenbols expound the body of aceped they, Mtrate imay oval of ts Sucefl applications and compare these “ppliations with exemplary observations and esperents Be Fore such books Beane poplar ely i he stents entry {Ged unt even more recently nthe newly matured science) ‘many af the famous lassie of since Full sina one: ton. Arsote's Physice, Poleny’s Almaget, Newtons Prin ‘ip and Opi, Franklins Electr, Lavoe’ Chem, Std Lyells Geoogycthve and any ether works served for 4 time imply to define the legitinate probleme and methods fs reach Bld for sucreding generstions of practitioner. ‘They were she todos becnne they shared to eentia h sterile, Tel achievement was sient precaented o tact an enduring group of sherents away fom competing Imade of sete sty, Siultaneosy [war satiety ‘pete to live al sorts of proble forthe vedtingd ‘ep a practitioners to resale. ‘Acheweents that share thew two characteristics shall nett fe to as ‘paradigms atom that relates los to normal cence By cooing I'mean fo sggent that some cepted example of actual seni practioeexampes which {nce law, theory, appeaton, and struments togetho provide mos rom which pring partir nkerent tans [Sl sientfe rear Those are the tations whch the his tora deserts er uch rubies Polenate ison (or ‘Copernican “Arsttclan dynam’ (or Newiona) or uncle pte (or wave ope. and so om The dy of 10 The Route fo Normal Science rats, ling many that a far more specie than Tw named Mataely swe i what mainly preperes the ‘dent for membership nthe particle seentiBe coment ‘vt which be wl ater practi Bons e here ae mes who leamed the bases of their Bld frm the sme concrete Sovels his sbeoqust practice wil dom evoke one de {grement over fordamentals, Men whos research ts based on ‘hovel pradigns are commited tothe sme res ad and Sri for scent pce Tin commit snd the appara onsen kpc are prensa ces Le forthe genes and continaton of «prin research rah. Becase inthis evsaythe concept ofa paradigm wil en substat fora vary of familar motos, oc wil ned tobe ‘nid sbet the rearns or intact. Why the concrete ‘centile achievement, a er of profesional commtnen, Prior tothe various conepts, ws, here, and pots of we that may be abetsced fem KP in what verse ithe shared paradigm «fundamental ont forthe student of sei do- feloment «nl at canot be fly reduced t lly {oe compen which might Fonction In send? When ‘reenter tm a Sesto anne tonegution ad ‘Dothers ite then wl prove bust oan undrstening both of Nonna iince nd tbe seated concep of padi “hat ore stat Gael depen = revs expoaret examples of noche since oa Pa Sige io dprto. npr, bth hw eed cones sb td by noting that hee ean bes orto sce Teearch without perdignn ora ast without any 40 ‘jevod an so Bnding athe ones named above. Acquistion of padi sno the more eters type of coast pe ts ra igo matrity in the development of any given sl her Ti the istoian traces the acetic owl any sect roip of lated phenomena backward in tan, be ly 10 Scooter some nor variant of patter ere stated from ‘Betty of patel opt Today's pyr texto el te " The Sirstre of Scaife Revolutions student tat ight f photon, Le, quantum-mechancl entities thatexhbl some character f waves and some of ptiles, evenrch proceeds accordingly, or rather soaring to he more ‘aborted athena characterization from which this sve verbaization ie deived, That characteration of ight i, Iowever, saree hl «century old. Before was developed by Plnck, Einstein, anders ety a this century, physics teats taught that ight was transverse wave motion, «concep tion rooted in paradigan that desved ultimately om the ‘ptcl waitings of Young and Fresnel in the ety nineteenth ‘hatry, Nor was the wave theory the ist to be embraced by “imos all pation of optical scence. During the eight tenth entry the arsdig for this Bel was provided by New Kons Opis, wich taught that light was mater corpses [At that ime psi sought evidence, athe aly wav theo. ‘ts had ots ofthe peste exerted by Hight partes pig ingen slid bodies” "Thee transformations ofthe paradigms of physical opts are scictiberevoltons, andthe scorsvetetsiion {fom one [uradign to another ia revatonf the wal developmental fatter of mature scene. Tt x nt, however, the pattern char {ctr of the period before Newors work, an that ithe ontst that concensus ere, No perad between remote a tiguity and the end of the seventeenth coniry eabited Single genenllyscepted view aboot the ature af Light In ‘Mead there were a number of competing schools and sub- ‘howls mos of them espousing one variant cr anther of Ep ‘arena, Atte, or Hatonl they One group tak light to be patces emanating fom material odie, for another i was {2 molcaton of the medium tat intervened between the body find the eye sll anther explained Light a terms ofan Inte: tion of the medium with an emanation from te eye: and there were eter combinations and modieaton besides. Each tthe consnpoding schoo derived strength frm ration to some prtclar metapys, and each empl, a pra chert tg al rome ee 2 The Rout to Normal Seence

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