1.

Fatigue

A periodic stress oscillating between some limits applied to a machine member is called repeated, alternating, ov fluctuating stress. The failure of the machine members under the action of these stresses is called fatigue failure. A small crack is enough to initiate the fatigue failure. The crack progresses rapidly since the stress concentration effect becomes greater around it. If the stressed area decreases in size, the stress increases in magnitude and if the remaining area is small, the member can fail. A member failed because of fatigue shows two distinct regions. The first one is due to the progressive development of the crack, while the other one is due to the sudden fracture.

11.2.1

Endurance Limit
The strength of materials acted upon by fatigue loads can be determined by performing a fatigue test provided by R. R. Moore's high-speed rotating beam machine (Fig. II.2.1). During the test, the specimen is subjected to pure bending by using weights and rotated with constant velocity. For a particular magnitude of the weights, one records the number of revolutions at which the specimen fails. Then, a second test is performed for a specimen identical with the first one, but the magnitude of the weight is reduced. Again, the number of revolutions at which the fatigue failure occurs is recorded. The process is repeated several times. The intensity of the reversed stress causing failure after a given number of cycles is the fatigue strength corresponding to that number of loading cycles. Finally, the fatigue strengths considered for each test are plotted against the corresponding number of revolutions. The resulting chart is called the S-N diagram. The S-N curves are plotted on log-log coordinates. Numerous tests have established that the ferrous materials have an endurance limit defined as the highest level of alternating stress that can be withstood indefinitely by a test specimen without failure. The symbol for endurance limit is 5^. The endurance limit can be related to the tensile strength through some relationships. For example, for steel, Mischke

491

Revolution counter Weights Source: R. C. Juvinall and K. M. Marshek, "Fundamentals of Machine Component Design", John Wiley k Sons, Inc., 1991.
FIGURE II.2.1 Sons, Inc. Rotating beam fatigue testing macliine. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley &

predicted the following relationships [11]: f 0.50 Sut, Se=\ 100 kpsi, [700 MPa, Sut < 200 kpsi (1400 MPa) Sut > 200 kpsi Sut > 1400 MPa (II.2.1)

where Sut (or Su) is the ultimate strength in tension. Table II.2.1 lists the values of the endurance limit for various classes of cast iron that is polished or machined. The symbol S^^ refers to the endurance limit of the test specimen that can be significantly different from the endurance limit Se of any machine element subjected to any kind of loads. The endurance limit Se can be affected by several factors called modifying factors. Some of these factors are the surface factor ks, the gradient (size) factor kc, or the load factor ki. Thus, the endurance limit of a member can be related to the endurance limit of the test specimen by the following relationship:
Se = TABLE n.2.1

ks ko ki S'^.

(II.2.2)

Endurance Lim it for Various Classes of Cast Iron (Polished or Machined) Modulus of elasticity, Mpsi Tension 9.6-14 11.5-14.8 13-16.4 14.5-17.2 16-20 18.8-22.8 20.4-23.5 Torsion 3.9-5.6 4.6-6.0 5.2-6.6 5.8-6.9 6.4-7.8 7.2-8.0 7.8-8.5 Endurance Brinell Fatigue stress limit hardness concentration Se, kpsi 10 11.5 14 16 18.5 21.5 24.5
HB

Tensile Compressive Shear modulus strength of Rupture ASTM* ''''''^'^ Ssu, kpsi number ^ut,kpsi Sue, kpsi 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 22 26 31 36.5 42.5 52.5 62.5 83 97 109 124 140 164 187.5 26 32 40 48.5 57 73 88.5

factor Kf 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.25 1.35 1.50

156 174 201 212 235 262 302

*ASTM, American Society for Testing Materials. Source: J. E. Shigley and C. R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, 5th ed., New York, McGraw-Hill, 1989. Reprinted with permission of McGraw-Hill.

492

KINEMATIC CHAINS AND MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN

TABLE n.2.2 Surface finish

Surface Finish Factors Factor a kpsi MPa 1.34 2.70 14.4 39.9 1.58 4.51 57.7 272.0

Exponent b -0.085 -0.256 -0.718 -0.995

Ground Machined or cold-drawn Hot-rolled As forged

Source: J. E. Shigley and C. R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1989. Reprinted with permission of McGraw-Hill.

Surface factor ks. The influence of the surface of the specimen is described by the modification factor ks which depends upon the quaHty of the finishing. The following formula describes the surface factor [20]: ks = aSl,, (IL2.3)

where Sut is the ultimate tensile strength. Some values for a and b are listed in Table II.2.2. Gradient (size) factor kcThe results of the tests performed to evaluate the size factor in the case of bending and torsion are as follows [20]:
0.1133

in. ko
-0.1133

0.11 < J < 2in. (IL2.4)

V7:62J

mm

2.79<J<51mm,

where d is the diameter of the test bar. To apply Eq. (IL2.4) for a nonrotating round bar in bending or for a noncircular cross section, an effective dimension, de, is introduced [20]. This dimension is obtained by considering the volume of material stressed at and above 95% of the maximum stress and a similar volume in the rotating beam specimen. When these two volumes are equated, the lengths cancel each other out and only the areas have to be considered. Some recommended values for ko are given in reference [27]: for bending and torsion: J < 8 mm 8 mm < J < 250 mm d > 250 mm for axial loading: kc = 1, ko = 1.189 d'^'^^'^, 0.6 < kc < 0.75, kc = I. Fatigue 493 (11.2.5)

TABLE 11.2.3 Summary of Modifying Factors for Bending, Axial Loading, and Torsion of Ductile Materials 10^-cycle strength Bending loads: S = 0.9 Su Axial loads: S = 0.75 Su Torsional loads: S = 0.9 Sus, Sus ^ 0.85^ for steel; Sus ^ 0.1 Su for other ductile materials 10^-cycle strength (endurance limit) Se = kskckiS'^, where S'^ is the specimen endurance limit 5g = 0.55M for steel, lacking better data Surface factor, ks Load factor, ki Gradient factor, kc diameter < (0.4 in. or 10 mm) (0.4 in. or 10 mm) < diameter < (2 in. or 50 mm) (see Fig. II.2.2) bending 1 1 0.9 axial 1 0.7-0.9 0.7 - 0.9 torsion 0.58 1 0.9

for (2 in. or 50 mm) < diameter < (4 in. or 100 nmi) reduce the factors by about 0.1 for (4 in. or 100 mm) < diameter < (6 in. or 150 mm) reduce the factors by about 0.2
Source: R. C. Juvinall and K. M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1991. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Load factor ki*

Tests revealed that the load factor has the following values [20]: 0.923,
1, kL =

axial loading,
axial loading,

Sut < 220 kpsi (1520 MPa),

Sut > 220 kpsi (1520 MPa),

(IL2.6) 1, 0.577 bending, torsion and shear.

Juvinall and Marshek present a summary of all modifying factors for bending, axial loading, and torsion used for fatigue of ductile materials and listed in Table 11.2.3 [7].

.2.2

Fluctuating Stresses
In design problems the stress frequently fluctuates without passing through zero. The components of the stresses are depicted in Figure IL2.3(a), where cxmm is minimum stress, cfmax the maximum stress, a^ the stress amplitude or the alternating stress, am the midrange or the mean stress, a^ the stress range. The steady stress or static stress, a^, can have any value between cfmin and a^ax and exists because of a fixed load. It is usually independent

494

KINEMATIC CHAINS AND MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN

Hardness {H^)
120 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7
CO

160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520

\ 1

1 1

Mirror-polished \ Fine-ground or^^^ commerniallv Polisheci

^-^ s \ s
S
V

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

h ^ P^oA

ti

s
> "-,

^^o,...,.
V

^<^
^^ '^^
i,^ >

Corroded tao water

in " ^

$ > ^
~-^"^Z^

"^^.

0 60

80

100

120

140

Corroded in salt water 1 1 1 1 160 180 200 220 240

260

Tensile strength Su (kpsi)

r
0.4

T
0.6 0.8

"T"
1.0

T
1.2 1.4

"T"
1.6 1.8

Su (GPa) Source: R. C. Juvinall and K. M. Marshek, "Fundamentals of Machine Component Design", John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991.
FIGURE 11.2.2 Surface factor ks. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

of the varying portion of the load. The following relations between the stress components exist as
CTm =

^max max

I 1^ CT] ^min

(IL2.7) (11.2.8)

(^max

^min

The fluctuating stresses are described by the stress ratios R=: A = (11.2.9)

Fatigue

495

Stress Fluctuating stress

/ ^

V
\

4
C^a /

/'^\
\

i
<7r

\
^max

/ 1
/ y
i

C^a

/ ^

\_/
C^m

^min

'r

o
Stress

1
(a)

Time

Repeated stress

Time
^min
^

(b) Stress Reversed stress

i

/ ^
^a / \

^ /
/ i

\
C^a

Gy

\\
vy

1 /
f

Time

/
l^m

\'
(c)

=0

FIGURE 11.2.3 Time varying stresses: (a) sinusoidal fluctuating stress; (b) repeated stress; (c) reversed sinusoidal stress.

496

KINEMATIC CHAINS AND MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN

Afluctuatingstress is a combination of static plus completely reversed stress. Figure IL2.3(a) shows a sinusoidal fluctuating stress, Figure IL2.3(b) represents a repeated stress, and Figure 11.2.3(c) is a completely reversed sinusoidal stress.

11.2.3 Constant Life Fatigue Diagram

Figure II.2.4 illustrates the graphical representation of various combinations of mean and alternating stress in relation to yielding and various fatigue life [7]. This diagram is called the constant life fatigue diagram because it has lines corresponding to a constant 10^ cycle or "infinite" life, constant 10^ cycle, constant 10^ cycle, and so forth. The horizontal axis {aa = 0) corresponds to static loading. The point A(a^ = Sy,aa = 0) represents the yield strength. For ductile materials the point A\Sy,0) represents the compressive yield strength. The point B(Su,0) represents the ultimate tensile strength. At the point A^XcTfn = 0,aa = Sy) the stress fluctuates between -hSy and Sy. The points on line AA^^ correspond to fluctuations having a tensile peak of Sy. The points on line A^A^^ correspond to fluctuations having a compressive peak of Sy. Within the triangle AA^A^^ there are all the combinations with no yielding. The points C, D, E, and F correspond to (7^ = 0 for various values of fatigue life and are obtained from the S-N diagram. The lines CB, DB, EB, and FB are the estimated lines of constant life. These lines are called the Goodman lines. The area A^HCGA corresponds to a life of at least 10^ cycles and no yielding. For a life of at least 10^ cycles and yielding, in addition to the area A^HCGA, the area AGB and the

0a

10^-

F
by

\.^

; ^ Values from S-N

curve

AX,
\ y ^

10^-

/
10^/

^
D C
Se

\^^

/
H'

10^- / /E

/
A'^

/
Ca

G^^X^^^

X 4 ^^ ^
-am (compression)
O

am (tension)

Source: R. C. Juvinall and K. M. Marshek, "Fundamentals of Machine Component Design", John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991.
FIGURE 11.2.4 Constant life fatigue diagram. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Fatigue

497

area to the left of the Hne A!H may be used. The area HCGA"H corresponds to less than 10^ cycles of life and no yielding.

11.2.4

Fatigue Life for Randomly Varying Loads

For most mechanical parts acted upon by randomly varying stresses, the prediction of fatigue life is not an easy task. Instead of a single reversed stress a for n cycles, a part is subjected to a\ for n\ cycles, ai for ni cycles, and so forth, and the problem is to estimate the fatigue life of the part. The procedure for dealing with this situation is the linear cumulative damage rule (or Miner's rule) and can be expressed by the following equation [7, 20]: n\ no nk \v /

-^ + - ^ + - + -f = l or Y^
7=1 ^

=\

(II.2.10)

where ni,n2," - ,nk represent the number of cycles at specific overstress levels ai,(72, ,crk and Ni,N2," - ,Nk represent the life (in cycles) at these overstress levels, as taken from the appropriate S-N curve. Fatigue failure is predicted when Eq. (II.2.10) holds.

IL2.5

Variable Loading Failure Theories

There are various techniques for plotting the results of the fatigue failure test of a part subjected to fluctuating stress. One of them is called the modified Goodman diagram and is shown in Figure II.2.5 [20]. For this diagram the mean stress a^ is plotted on the abscissa and the other stress components (Se, Sy, Su) on the ordinate (tension is the positive direction). The mean stress line makes a 45 angle with the abscissa from the origin to the tensile strength. Lines are constructed to Se (above the origin) and to Se (below the origin) as shown in Figure II.2.5. Yielding can be considered as a criterion of failure if <J^^ > Sy. Another way to display the results is shown in Figure 11.2.6 using the strengths [20]. The fatigue limit Se (or the finite life strength Sf) is plotted on the ordinate. The tensile yield strength Syt is plotted on both coordinate axes. The ultimate tensile strength Sut is plotted on the abscissa. The alternating strength is Sa as a limiting value of a^ and is plotted on the ordinate. The mean strength is Sm as a limiting value of a^ and is plotted on the abscissa. Four criteria of failure are shown in the diagram in Figure II.2.6, that is, Soderberg, the modified Goodman, Gerber, and yielding. Only the Soderberg criterion guards against yielding as shown in Figure II.2.6. The Soderberg, Goodman, and yield criterion are described by the equation of a straight line in intercept form: ^ + ^ = 1, (II.2.11) a b where a and b are the Sm and Sa intercepts, respectively. The equation for the Soderberg line is ^
Syt

+ ^ = 1.
Se

(II.2.12)

498

KINEMATIC CHAINS AND MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN

Source: J. E. Shigley, and C. R. Mischke, "Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1989. FIGURE II.2.5 Modified Goodman diagram. Reprinted with permission of McCraw-f-lill.

Similarly, the equation for the modified Goodman line is (11.2.13) The yielding line is described by the equation (II.2.14)
Oyt
Oy

Fatigue

499

Gerber line

Goodman line

Mean stress dm Source: J. E. Shigley, and C. R. Mischke, "Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1989.
FIGURE II.2.6 Various failure theories. Reprinted with permission of McCraw-f-lill.

The Gerber criterion is also called the Gerber parabolic relation because the curve can be modeled by a parabolic equation of the form

1.

(II.2.15)

The curve representing the Gerber theory is a better predictor since it passes through the central region of the failure points. If each strength in Eqs. (11.2.12) to (II.2.15) is divided by a safety factor SF, the stresses aa and Gm can replace Sa and 5^. Therefore, the Soderberg equation becomes (II.2.16)

Sp

S\i

SF

500

KINEMATIC CHAINS AND MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN

- Goodman line

Safe stress line

^m

Srr Mean stress am

Sut

Source: J. E. Shigley, and C. R. Mischke, "Mechanical Engineering Design", McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1989. FIG U RE 11.2.7 Safe stress line. Reprinted with permission of McCraw-Hill.

the modified Goodman equation becomes (11.2.17)

Se and the Gerber equation becomes SFa,

Se \

Sut

SF

(11.2.18)
Sut /

Figure II.2.7 shows the explanation of Eq. (II.2.17) [20]. A safe stress line through point A of coordinates a^, cr^ is drawn parallel to the modified Goodman line. The safe stress line is the locus of all points of coordinates a^, aa for which the same safety factor SF is considered, that is, 5^ = SF a^ and Sa = SF Ga. Table 2.4 lists the values of the tensile strength and Table 2.5 gives the yield strength for various materials.

.2.6

Examples
EXAMPLE 11.2.1:
Estimate the S-N curve for a precision steel part for torsional loading. The part has the cross-section diameter under 2 in. and has a fine ground surface. The material has the ultimate tensile strength ^^ = 110 kpsi and the yield strength Sy = 11 kpsi. Use the empirical relationships given in Table II.2.3. Continued

Fatigue

501

TABLE ir.2.4

Tensile Strength

Tensile, strength Material name ultimate MPa 330 295 330 305 340 365 325 365 370 330 370 385 385 345 420 425 385 420 380 405 365 440 475 400 485 450 415 380 455 407 420 380 450 440 472 470 475 505 yield MPa 285 165 285 170 285 305 180 305 310 185 310 325 325 190 315 325 285 350 205 340 200 370 275 220 415 380 345 310 379 224 350 205 330 345 384 395 400 360

AISI1006 Steel, cold drawn AISI1006 Steel, hot rolled bar, 19-32 mm round AISI 1006 Steel, cold drawn bar, 19-32 mm round AISI 1008 Steel, hot rolled bar, 19-32 mm round AISI 1008 Steel, cold drawn bar, 19-32 mm round AISI 1010 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1010 Steel, hot rolled bar, 19-32 mm round or thickness AISI 1010 Steel, cold drawn bar, 19-32 mm round or thickness AISI 1012 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1012 Steel, hot rolled bar, 19-32 mm round or thickness AISI 1012 Steel, cold drawn bar, 19-32 mm round or thickness AISI 1015 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1015 Steel, cold drawn, 19-32 mm round AISI 1015 Steel, hot rolled, 19-32 mm round AISI 1015 Steel, as rolled AISI 1015 Steel, normalized at 925C (1700F) AISI 1015 Steel, annealed at 870C (1600F) AISI 1016 Steel, cold drawn, 19-32 mm round AISI 1016 Steel, hot rolled, 19-32 mm round AISI 1017 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1017 Steel, hot rolled, 19-32 mm round AISI 1018 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1018 Steel, hot rolled, quenched, and tempered AISI 1018 Steel, hot rolled, 19-32 mm round AISI 1018 Steel, as cold drawn, 16-22 mm round AISI 1018 Steel, as cold drawn, 22-32 mm round AISI 1018 Steel, as cold drawn, 32-50 mm round AISI 1018 Steel, as cold drawn, 50-76 mm round AISI 1019 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1019 Steel, hot rolled, 19-32 mm round AISI 1020 Steel, cold rolled AISI 1020 Steel, hot rolled, 19-32 mm round AISI 1020 Steel, as rolled AISI 1020 Steel, normalized at 870C (1600F) AISI 1020 Steel, as rolled, 25 mm round AISI 1021 Steel, cold drawn AISI 1022 Steel, cold drawn round (19-32 mm) AISI 1022 Steel, as rolled

AISI, American Iron and Steel Institute. Source: MatWeb Material Property Data available at: http://www.matweb.com/.

502

KINEMATIC CHAINS AND MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN