Wireless Merged

Proceedings of TEQIP-II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013
H-shaped Coaxial Fed Microstrip Patch Antenna for Bluetooth Applications

Nidhi Raj R1, Nithin Sethumadhavan2, Rakesh V3, Sharaz K M4, Srijith K5
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Student, Department of ECE, Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, Ernakulam 683 577, Kerala, India
nidhiraj1991@yahoo.com, nithinsethumadhavan@yahoo.com, rakeshcvakkel@gmail.com, sharazkm33@gmail.com

5
Assistant Professor, Department of ECE, Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, Ernakulam 683 577, Kerala, India
Abstract A patch antenna is a type of radio antenna with a low profile, which can be mounted on a flat surface. It consists of a flat rectangular sheet or "patch" of metal, mounted over a larger sheet of metal called a ground plane. Microstrip patch antenna is used in many applications such as Bluetooth technology, mobile phones and other short range applications due to their properties like low weight, easy to integrate, compactness etc. This paper includes the study of an H shaped coaxial fed microstrip patch antenna which is proposed for Bluetooth applications at 2.4GHz frequency. The effect of different physical parameters of antenna on frequency of operation, bandwidth, return loss and the effect of addition of slots on those parameters has been included in the study. A compact size patch antenna with dielectric substrate FR4 with r=4.4 is used. The simulations are done on HFSS 13.0 simulation software. KeywordsMicrostrip patch antenna, FR4, H shaped patch, uslot
be resonant, a length of microstrip transmission line slightly shorter than one-half a wavelength at the frequency is used[2]. A patch antenna is usually constructed on a dielectric substrate, using the same materials and lithography processes used to make printed circuit boards. However, the serious problem of patch antennas is their narrow bandwidth due to surface wave losses and large size of patch for better performance[3]. In this paper, a compact size patch antenna is proposed with dielectric substrate as FR4 with r=4.4 and dimensions of the patch are adjusted to improve the parameters like return loss and bandwith. The effect of addition of slot on bandwidth has been carefully analyzed. An optimum position for feed to get maximum bandwidth for the H shaped patch antenna with U-slot is proposed in this study.
The simulations are performed using HFSS 13.0 which is a high performance full wave EM field simulator for arbitarary 3D volumetric passive device modelling that takes advantage of the familiar Microsoft Windows graphical user interface. It integrates simulation, visualization, solid modelling, and automation in an easy to learn environment where solutions to 3D EM problems are quickly and accurately obtained.
II. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
I.
INTRODUCTION
The BLUETOOTH technology provides short range of wireless connections between electronic devices like computers, mobile phones and many others thereby exchanging voice, data and video. The rapid increase in communication standards has led to great demand for antennas with low real estate, low profile and size, low cost of fabrication and ease of integration with feeding network [1]. Microstrip patch antennas are widely used because they are of light weight, compact, easy to integrate and cost effective. The radiation mechanism arises from discontinuities at each truncated edge of the microstrip transmission line. The radiation at the edges causes the antenna to act slightly larger electrically than its physical dimensions, so in order for the antenna to
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Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013
A. H-shaped patch without slot
A. The proposed structure[1] of the antenna is shown in Fig 1. The antenna is simulated on an FR4 substrate with a dielectric constant of 4.4. The thickness of the substrate is 6.7 mm. The size of the antenna is 80 80 mm2 , which is suitable for most Bluetooth devices. Rectangle shaped patches are cut at middle to form shaped patch antenna and width of each arm is 25mm.
Fig. 2: Patch antenna with U-Shaped slot
C. H shaped patch with dual U-Shaped slots
Here one slot is the mirror image of other so that design complications can be avoided (Fig.3). The size of each slot is made same as discussed in the previous section.
Fig. 1: Geometry of Patch antenna without slot
B. H-shaped patch with single U-Shaped slot
Now a U shaped slot is created on antenna with suitable dimensions as shown in Fig. 2. The slot contains no conductive material like other parts of antenna. Initially a patch antenna is created with the dimensions previously discussed i.e. an H shaped structure with 80 mm length, width of each leg 20mm and a gap of 20 mm is created on a FR4 substrate having a thickness of 6.7 mm. The size of substrate and ground plane is selected as 100mm 80mm. The H shape is made at the centre part of substrate in order to simplify the calculation.
Fig. 3: H-shaped patch antenna with dual slots
III. SIMULATION RESULTS A. Without slot
The antenna has minimum reflected power at the designed frequency i.e. at 2.4GHz. The bandwidth obtained is small, around 30 MHz.
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A maximum bandwidth of 252.4MHz is attained for slot width of 05mm.

C. With dual slot
Fig. 4: Return loss
B. With single slot
Upon introducing a slot bandwidth is found to increase. A study is conducted by varying the feed position, width and position of slot and the effect of variation of these parameters on bandwidth is tabulated in Table 1 and is shown in Fig.5.
TABLE 1:VARIATION OF PARAMETER AGAINST WIDTH OF SLOT
Initially in this part of study, the length of slot is varied. Each value of length has two different bandwidths, say BW1 and BW2. The BW1 value decreases slightly as length increases from 27mm, but after certain value it increases so it reaches a maximum value at 58mm. In case of BW2, it decreases from the beginning itself at length = 45mm, the value of return loss decreases below 10dB results in zero bandwidth. But there after it increases and reaches a value of 80MHz.
Width (mm) 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 1.5 1.8 2

Fig. 5: Effect of width of slot on bandwidth
Freq (GHz) 2.33 2.301 2.301 2.301 2.317 2.269 2.33
Return Loss(db) -15.6224 -15.2942 -14.34 -13.93 -14.21 -14.13 -14.3
Impedance ( ) 37.33-7.014j 35.72-3.69j 36.14-9.14j 35.2-11.6j 37.5-15.1j 38.42-16.7j 34.3-5.98j
Bandwidth (GHz) 0.0879 0.0814 0.2524 0.1198 0.0916 0.0887 0.0939
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Hence it is possible to attain a maximum value of 345.3

Length (mm) Freq GHz 1.755 27 3.056 1.755 32 3.0402 1.771 38 3.04 1.755 45 3.008 1.7711 50 4.7751 1.739 58 3.9076 -22.1353 120.3-166j 0.08 -14.0782 -28.0354 73.67-53.8j 38.92-18.9j 0.3453 0.0704 -9.47 -13.8711 33.43+22.8j 30+2.8j 0.0679 -11.305 -12.184 35.6+5.3j 33.9-7.9j 0.04 0.0577 -13.096 -11.7128 35.6+5.3j 30.3+2j 0.0687 0.0514
Fig. 6: Effect of length of slot on bandwidth
Return Loss(db) -12.333 -16.27 -12.0478
Impedance 33.86-7.53j 34.9+11.69j 33.88-7.54j
Bandwith GHz 0.0552 0.1087 0.0531
IV. CONCLUSIONS
MHz (for BW2) at length = 50mm if we use two slots of equal dimension. But the frequency of operation is shifted to 4.77 GHz. Fig. 6 shows the variation of BW2 against the variation of length. It clearly indicates a sudden increase in bandwidth (BW2) to a value of 345.3MHz which is well above the bandwidth of ordinary patch antenna.
TABLE 2:VARIATION OF PARAMETERS AGAINST LENGTH
OF SLOT
The performance parameters are analyzed for the optimized dimensions and the proposed antenna works well at the required 2.4GHz BLUETOOTH frequency band. The effect on bandwidth upon introduction of slot is noted down carefully in the study. The bandwidth significantly improves when slots are added. For a normal H shaped patch antenna the observed bandwidth was 30MHz. The bandwidth was increased to 252.4 MHz when a single slot is introduced. The bandwidth further increased to 345.3 MHz with the introduction of two slots. For the dual slotted patch antennas, two frequencies of operation were observed. Both were shifted slightly from the designed operating frequency.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the Chairman, FISAT and the Principal, FISAT for providing the necessary laboratory facilities. We would also like to thank Mrs. P R Mini, HOD, ECE, FISAT for her constant support and encouragement.
REFERENCES
[1] Design of coaxial fed microstrip patch antenna for 2.4 Ghz Bluetooth applications (Govardhani Immadi, Nanilbabu, G.Anupama, M.Mani, 2009-11 CIS journal volume 2,No.12 Dec 2012) The Basics of Patch Antennas By D. Orban and G.J.K. Moernaut Balanis, C. A., Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, 3rd edition, 2005.
[2] [3]
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[4] [5]
[6]
Users guide High Frequency Structure Simulator, ANSOFT CORPORATION D.M. Pozar, D.H. Schaubert, 'Microstrip Antenna, The Analysis and Design of Microstrip Antennas andArray'. New York, IEEE Press, 1995. Dr. Otman El Mrabet, High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) Tutorial
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A Survey on Contributing Entities for Seamless Streaming

Namitha Murugesh and Gowri Shankar Dept of Computer Science and Engineering B M S College of Engineering Bangalore, India
Abstract A growing number of mobile users require uninterrupted audio/video streaming while they are moving through the heterogeneous networks. They expect seamless mobility as they move with their devices equipped with multiple interfaces across different wireless infrastructures, spanning from Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11 (WiFi) to cellular 3G or 4G networks. The provisioning of mobile multimedia services in this novel scenario is still a very challenging task due to the diverse nature of the different networks and end user devices. One of the most challenging problems is supporting the continuous provisioning of multimedia flows i.e., service continuity during handoffs when a wireless device disconnects from one network and re-connects to a new one. In particular vertical handoff situations that occur when mobile devices dynamically change not only their access points but also the wireless access technology/infrastructure they are using, e.g., from WiFi to 3G possibly requiring dynamic content adaptation. This survey concentrates on various dynamic content adapting techniques, protocols that aid in streaming, handoff procedures that affect continuity in streaming and proxy nodes that are used to maximize the QoS and experience of user. Keywords- content adaptation; ubiquitous; heterogeneous networks; streaming; vertical handoff
such as MPEG have developed various technologies for multimedia transport and encapsulation, e.g., MPEG2-TS (Transport Stream) and MPEG4 file format. MPEG-DASH Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP (DASH), also known as MPEG-DASH, enables high quality streaming of media content over the Internet delivered from conventional HTTP web servers is in the process of standardization. At the same time, many other SDOs such as the IETF, IEEE and 3GPP have provided various protocols to deliver multimedia content. Adaptation is a process which repackages the content being streamed according to the present eco-system characteristics. Here the eco-system consists of the end-user device, network characteristics, content requested for streaming and the intermediate nodes like proxy. Different combinations of these entities would affect the QoE (Quality of Experience) of the user. The end user's device's screen size, computational capacity, battery power, available bandwidth, loss due to wireless network play an important role in deciding the final version of the content viewed by the user. In an ongoing streaming application when a user roams from one network to another network the network parameters change and the session has to be transferred seamlessly. When the user wanders through heterogeneous networks vertical handoff takes place. The transfer of session must be done seamlessly such that the user does not experience an interruption with the service. The efficiency of the adaptation system is many ways related to the handoff procedures. The combinations of both activities play a vital role in the QoE of the user. Researchers in Ref. [1] explain how QoE could be improved by both network QoS and application QoS management. The survey focuses on the different technologies, mechanisms and protocols that help to adapt the content being streamed from the source to the client in a seamless way as the client roams around in a heterogeneous network. Section II describes the codecs and video formats that aid in content adaptation. Section III describes the different transport protocols that are used for streaming. Section IV explores the different handoff procedures. Section V explores the role of proxy in content adaptation
I.
Introduction
An evolving trend is that the customer is equipped with a mobile device (e.g. laptop, smart phone, tablet pc etc.) which is used to stream videos from the internet as the user wanders. Innovations in wireless technology dramatically improved the way people communicate untethered and on the move. The present 4G technology promises faster data rates. The user will not only have to use a single device anywhere, anytime to access seamlessly all types of media existing in the internet. To ensure this process to be a pleasant experience from the user's side an important intermediate technology has to be developed that will adapt and formulate the content according to the transmission characteristics of the end-to-end communication path and to the capabilities of the displaying device. The massive heterogeneity in terms of terminal/network capabilities and user expectations requires efficient solutions for the adaptation and transport of modern media in an interoperable and universal fashion. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is widely used on the internet and it has also become a primary protocol for the delivery of multimedia content. Additionally, Standards Developing Organizations (SDOs)
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II.
Content Formats and their impact on adaptation
The major issues to be addressed when adapting the content are the diversity of the multimedia content coupled with the variety of internet connections utilized to access it. Adaptation is the process that would bridge the gap between the content at the source and the client's expected content. Instead of having each medium stored in multiple representations, each matching the characteristics of a probable end-device and the bandwidth available, the source can provide only one or a few representations and rely on the adaptation functionality to deliver the content in the appropriate form at the receiver. Thus, users gain access to a great variety of media, virtually with any possible combination of connection and device type. The adaptation process is flexible enough to both hide the adaptation details from the typical user and give the power user the means to customize the adaptation process according to the users needs, through an explicit adaptation policy. Transcoding is a process where the content is re-coded into a new format. The transcoded video streams can have a lower spatial resolution, a lower temporal resolution, a lower quality, or even a different compression standard [2]. The new format is decided based on the target devices capability and constraints that are present in the network connection. In transcoding the content is decompressed completely or to an intermediate form and again recoded into a form that is decodable by the clients device. A single source sequence is kept in the video storage and different versions are created on-the-fly upon request using transcoding methods. An intermediate solution in [3] providing transcoding at a low complexity by the aid of control streams is proposed. The Scalable Video Coding (SVC) in H.264 [4],[5] was developed in response to the growing need for higher compression of moving pictures for various applications such as videoconferencing, digital storage media, television broadcasting, Internet streaming, and communication. It is also designed to enable the use of the coded video representation in a flexible manner for a wide variety of network environments. Here in SVC the content is encoded once and can be decoded in several layers to suit the requirements of the target device and network conditions. It is a coding standard in which the video is coded with a base layer video stream meant for connections with basic terminal capabilities or low bandwidth network conditions. The residual information between the base layer and the original content is then encoded to form one or more enhancement layers. Additional enhancement layers can be integrated with the base layer for scaling up the quality of stream. Thus giving the user the flexibility to choose the quality of stream that can be received. SVC extension of the H.264/AVC standard has achieved significant improvements in coding efficiency with an increased degree of supported scalability relative to the scalable profiles of prior video coding standards. MPEG-4/AVC outperformed MPEG-2 in terms of throughput, packet delays, packet loss and jitter. Performance of mobile video streaming in different scenarios depending on
the users movement speeds and video coding standards were presented in [6]. The authors in [7] propose a dynamic adaptation scheme of SVC to optimally adapt video stream over heterogeneous networks using the MPEG-21 Digital Item Adaptation (DIA) tool. MPEG-21 DIA framework provides systematic solutions in choosing the optimal adaptation operation to given conditions and supports interoperable video adaptation. Their experiment results showed that the proposed adaptation scheme provides QoS-enabled delivery and consumption of SVC with time-varying constraints of network, terminal, and user preference, in a robust and efficient way. In [8] Razib Iqbal and Shervin S show that the adaptation operations can be quicker, when adaptation systems are designed to adapt contents according to the encoding structure but in an intermediary node following a codec-independent technique. The adaptation is performed on-demand based on its generic Bit stream Syntax Description (gBSD). Their approach was to avoid conventional cascaded or multiple pre-coded bit stream adaptations. To sum it all up, the major downside of transcoding is the additional complexity needed to re-encode the video sequence in its new form. Scalable coding is less efficient compared to single layer coding when one fidelity version of the video stream should be transmitted. The layering is an unnecessary overhead. On the other hand layered coding gives flexibility in choosing the quality of content dynamically which plays an important role in seamless continuous streaming. III.
TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS
The content requested for can reach the client by different transport protocols. The popular protocols are RTSP, RTMP and HTTP. RTSP is specifically designed to be used for delivering streaming media. Trick-play modes such as fastforward or rewind, using VCR-like controls are supported with RTSP unlike HTTP which works best when segments are sent in sequential order. Viewing can also begin the moment the first bits reach the RTSP player; meaning that a 2- or 10second segment delay doesnt affect RTSP delivery. Adobe uses a proprietary messaging protocol called RTMP (RealTime Messaging Protocol) for its delivery from Flash Media Server (FMS) to users Flash Player in-browser playback. It is a variant of RTSP. In multicasting scenarios RTSP can support multicasting by delivering a single feed to many users, without having to provide a separate stream for each of them. HTTP is a true one-to-one delivery system. RTMP like RTSP is defined as a protocol that saves the state of session. From the first time a client player connects until the time it disconnects, the streaming server keeps track of the clients actions or states for commands such as play or pause. When a session between the client and the server is established, the server begins sending video and audio content as a steady stream. This behaviour continues and repeats until the server or player client closes the session. Recent advancements also accommodate for potential brief interruptions in the server-client connection, allowing for a small amount of content to be played back from a local buffer. Encryption is another hallmark of RTMP, as
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RTMP encrypted (RTMPE) protects packets on an individual basis (more on this later). Some HTTP-based solutions are beginning to address integrated digital rights management (DRM), but the majority of HTTP delivery cannot support encryption at a packet level. The tunnelling feature in RTMP called RTMPT allows RTMP to be encapsulated within HTTP requests. This allows RTMP to traverse firewalls by appearing to be HTTP traffic on Port 80. HTTP streaming has gained popularity in recent years for the following reasons. Larger segments of multimedia can now be delivered efficiently using HTTP. Support for HTTP in the present Internet infrastructure is favourable. CDNs have evolved to serve multimedia services. HTTP is firewall friendly because almost all firewalls are configured to support its outgoing connections. HTTP streaming is light on the server since the client manages the streaming without having to maintain a session state on the server. The popular streaming platforms that use HTTP streaming as their underlying delivery method are Apples HTTP Live Streaming[9], Microsofts Smooth Streaming[10] and Adobes HTTP Dynamic Streaming[11]. However, each implementation uses different manifest and segment formats and therefore to receive the content from each server, a device must support its corresponding proprietary client protocol. A standard for HTTP streaming of multimedia content would allow a standard-based client to stream content from any standard-based server, thereby enabling interoperability between servers and clients of different vendors. MPEGDynamic Adaptive Streaming (DASH) [12] is being developed to facilitate the idea of a common ecosystem of content and services that will be able to provision a broad range of devices such as PCs, TVs, laptops, set-top boxes, game consoles, tablets, and mobiles phones. The multimedia content is captured and stored on an HTTP server and is delivered using HTTP. The content exists on the server in two parts: Media Presentation Description (MPD), which describes a manifest of the available content, its various alternatives, their URL addresses, and other characteristics; and segments, which contain the actual multimedia bitstreams in the form of chunks, in single or multiple files. To play the content, the DASH client first obtains the MPD. The MPD can be delivered using HTTP, email, thumb drive, broadcast, or other transports. By parsing the MPD, the DASH client learns about the program timing, media-content availability, media types, resolutions, minimum and maximum bandwidths, and the existence of various encoded alternatives of multimedia components, accessibility features and required DRM, media-component locations on the network, and other content characteristics. Using this information, the DASH client selects the appropriate encoded alternative and starts streaming the content by fetching the segments using HTTP GET requests. After appropriate buffering to allow for network throughput variations, the client continues fetching the subsequent segments and also monitors the network bandwidth fluctuations. Depending on its measurements, the client decides how to adapt to the available bandwidth by fetching segments of different alternatives (with lower or higher bitrates) to maintain an adequate buffer. The MPEG-DASH specification only defines the MPD and the
segment formats. The delivery of the MPD and the mediaencoding formats containing the segments, as well as the client behaviour for fetching, adaptation heuristics, and playing content, are outside of MPEG-DASHs scope. Streaming paths in heterogeneous networks include IEEE 802.11 wireless as well as 3G/4G mobile networks. TCPs shortcomings on wireless paths degrade the performance and QoS for high definition media streaming while the actual bandwidth provisioning on those networks is no longer the limiting factor. Due to physical packet loss and large propagation delay the transport protocol suffers from significant underutilization of the available bandwidth. For dynamic HTTP streaming this underutilization translates directly into unnecessary quality reduction. In order to improve the quality of dynamic streaming on wireless networks, Manuel Gorius, Yongtao Shuai and Thorsten Herfet [13] implement a novel transport protocol - Predictably Reliable Realtime Transport (PRRT), a protocol layer that efficiently supports the reliability required by multimedia services under their specific time constraint. The dynamic adaptive streaming also will be benefited with this approach. IV. HANDOFF-PROCEDURES When the mobile user wanders out of the coverage area of the present network and into coverage area of a different wireless network a handoff has to take place between the networks. The handoff can be a homogeneous also known as horizontal handoff if the two networks have similar characteristics e.g. between two Wi-Fi spots. If the characteristics of the networks are different it is called a heterogeneous or vertical handover e.g. form Wi-Fi to 4G cellular network. The techniques used for managing handover can be classified depending on the layer of the network stack at which the handover is done. The possible classes are handover at network, transport or application layer. Mobility at the network layer is provided by Mobile IP [14]. This class of handoff is efficient regarding the period the stream is interrupted on down side the multimedia session cannot be adapted to the parameters of the new access network. Also MIP presents poor scalability and high packet loss. The transport layer handoff continues the transport connection during the network switch while changing the associated IP address. Transport layer mobility management is achieved through the Mobile Stream Control Transmission Protocol (mSCTP) [15]. mSCTP resolved the problem of packet loss encountered at network layer mobility by pausing the transmission during mobility induced disconnections. mSCTP offers an efficient handover management by using optimization of the pathtransition and failover mechanism. The disadvantage of mSCTP is that it does not address context aware quality of service. Several mechanisms for mobility support at application layer have also been defined. If the handover is triggered before losing connectivity, the application layer mobility performs better than the other two solutions. This approach offers another important advantage, because the multimedia session parameters can be adapted to the available resources from the connected network. The specifications for application
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layer mobility were defined by 3GPP working group. They developed a multimedia session continuity (MMSC) [14] framework for session transfer between packet switched networks (PS) in conjunction with the session transfer between packet switched networks and circuit switched network (CS), standardized already as Voice Call Continuity (VCC). Elena Apostol and Valentin Cristea [15] propose architecture that handles multimedia streaming adaptation, session management and takes into consideration user profiles and a set of quality of service criteria. To ensure session continuity when a user moves from one network to another this architecture supports handover at the application layer which offers a better quality control than the majority of mobility solutions. Session continuity during handover by integrating mSCTP into the 3GPP IMS [18] architecture is presented in [19]. IMS is the service control layer to add QoS control and context-aware functions. V.
PROXY
An intermediate node between the server and the client identified as appropriate for performing the content adaptation, store and forward is called the proxy. The proxy or gateway, receives instructions from the receiver prior to the streams initiation, regarding the parameters of the adaptation process. For the mobile devices featured with lower bandwidth network connectivity, transcoding can be used to reduce the object size by lowering the quality of a multimedia object. In view of the monolithic transcoders which only provide transcoding services and have limited performances due to the unknown data types and protocols in the prior research the authors of [20] propose the architecture of versatile transcoding proxy (VTP). Based on the concept of the agent system, the VTP architecture can accept and execute the transcoding preference script provided by the client or the server to transform the corresponding data or protocol according to the user's specification. Media cloud services offer a unique opportunity for alleviating many of the technical challenges faced by mobile media streaming, especially for applications with stringent latency requirements. A novel cloud-assisted architecture is proposed in [21] for supporting low-latency mobile media streaming applications such as online gaming and video conferencing. A media proxy at the cloud is envisioned to calculate the optimal media adaptation decisions on behalf of the mobile sender, based on past observations of packet delivery delays of each stream. The proxy-based intelligent frame skipping problem is formulated within the Markov Decision Process (MDP) framework, which captures both the time-varying nature of video contents as well as bursty fluctuations in wireless channel conditions. The optimal frame skipping policy is calculated using the stochastic dynamic programing (SDP) approach, and is shown to consistently outperform greedy heuristic schemes. In general, the sizes of multimedia files are much larger than those of regular webpages. It is unlikely that a steaming proxy server can constantly store entire contents of multimedia files in its memory. As a result, the streaming proxy server needs to split individual multimedia files into segments and only store
popular segments in its memory. Researchers had proposed various ways to do the segmentation. However, the sizes of individual segments are often fixed once the segmentation is done. Tsozen Yeh and Zongwei Yang [22] argue that the sizes of individual segments should vary according to their popularity. A popular segment can have a longer length so the overall performance can be increased accordingly. A novel design, Dynamic Segment Size (DSS), which dynamically adjusts the length of segments by their popularity, is proposed. The design is applied to a sophisticated algorithm, Adaptive and Lazy Segmentation (ALS), which performs the work of splitting multimedia files into segments and handling memory replacement in a streaming proxy server. The advantages that come with the adoption of the proxy solution is that it can be located at the most critical position in the end-to-end path. The complexity of the proxy architecture is significantly higher and requires gateways with powerful CPUs and a lot of memory. The degree of the receivers participation in the adaptation process can dictate the applicability and the effectiveness of the proxy adaptation scheme. VI. CONCLUSION Though there are numerous research efforts in adapting streaming media according to the network characteristics and end-user equipment. Seamless transfer of the on-going session as the client wanders through heterogeneous networks is still a challenging process. Here we have surveyed the different components of the framework required to achieve a seamless content adaptation during a streaming service
(1)
References
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[3]
Ricky K. P. Mok, Edmond W. W. Chan, and Rocky K. C. Chang, Measuring the Quality of Experience of HTTP Video Streaming, IEEE International Symposium on Integrated Network Management (IM), 2011 IFIP, 2011,pp. 485-592. Amon. P, Haoyu Li, Hutter. A, Renzi. D ans Battista. S, Scalable Video Coding and Transcoding, IEEE International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing, Robotics, pp. 336-341, May 2008. Glenn Van Wallendael, Jan De Cock, and Rik Van de Walle, Fast Transcoding For Video Delivery By Means Of A Control Stream, Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), 2012 19th IEEE International, pp. 733-736, 2012. Advanced video coding for generic audiovisual services, ITU-T-RECH.264, ITU-T,Jan-2012. Heiko Schwarz, Detlev Marpe and Thomas Wiegand, Overview of the Scalable Video Coding Extension of the H.264/AVC Standard, IEEE Trans. on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, vol. 17, no. 9, September -2007. Saleh Abdallah- Saleh, Qi Wang and Christos Grecos, Evaluation of Mobile Video Streaming in Heterogeneous Wireless Networks, Telecommunications Forum (TELFOR), 2011 19th, pp. 262-265 ,November-2011. Haechul Choi, Jung Won Kang and Jae-Gon Kim, Dynamic and interoperable adaptation of SVC for QoS-enabled streaming, IEEE Trans. on Consumer Electronics, vol.53, pp. 384-389, May 2007. Iqbal, R. and Shirmohammadi, S, MP EG-21 based temporal video adaptation for heterogeneous devices and mobile environments, IEEE
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International Conf. on Multimedia and Expo, 2009. ICME 2009, pp. 1845-1846, 2009. [9] R. Pantos and E.W. May, HTTP Live Streaming, IETF Internet draft, work in progress, Mar. 2011. [10] Microsoft, IIS Smooth Streaming Transport Protocol, Sept. 2009; http://www.iis.net/community/files/media/smoothspecs/[MSSMTH].pdf. [11] http://www.adobe.com/products/httpdynamicstreaming [12] Sodagar, I, The MPEG-DASH Standard for Multimedia Streaming Over the Internet, MultiMedia, IEEE, vol. 18, pp. 62 67, April-2011. [13] Gorius. M, Yongtao Shuai and Herfet. T, Dynamic media streaming over wireless and mobile IP networks, IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics - Berlin (ICCE-Berlin), pp. 158-162, September 2011. [14] Xinyi Wu and Gang Nie, Design and Simulation of an Enhanced Handover Scheme in Heterogeneous Mobile IPv6 Networks, Conference on Information Processing, pp. 448-451, July 2009. [15] ukasz Budzisz, Ramon Ferrus and Ferran Casadevall, Design principles and performance evaluation of mSCTP-CMT for transportlayer based handover, Vehicular Technology Conference,pp. 1 -5, 2009. [16] The Third Generation Partnership Project, Feasibility Study on Multimedia Session Continuity. VCC Release 8, June 2008, [17] Elena Apostol and Valentin Cristea, Multimedia Mobility Service across Heterogeneous Environments, International Conference on Emerging Intelligent Data and Web Technologies, pp. 172-177, September 2011. [18] TS 23.328, IP Multimedia Subsystem, 3GPP, Release 6. [19] Nguyen Huu Thanh, Le Thi Hang, Ngo Quynh Thu, Vu Van Yem, Nguyen Xuan Dung, Multimedia Session Continuity with Context Aware Capability in IMS-based Network, International Symposium. on Wireless Communication Systems, pp. 383-387, September-2009. [20] Jung-Lee Hsiao, Hao-Ping Hung and Ming- Syan Chen, Versatile Transcoding Proxy for Internet Content Adaptation, IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, pp. 646- 658, 2008. [21] Xiaoqing Zhu, Jiang Zhu, Rong Pan, Prabhu, M.S and Bonomi. F, Cloud-assisted streaming for low-latency applications, International Conference on Computing, Networking and Communications (ICNC), pp: 949- 953, 2012. [22] Tsozen Yeh and Zongwei Yang, Using dynamic segmentation adjustment to improve the performance of streaming proxy servers,IEEE International Symposium on Broadband Multimedia Systems and Broadcasting (BMSB), pp. 1 5, 2012.
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Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013
CPW Fed Slot Antenna for Wideband Applications

Deepthi V1, Gayathri N2, Meeranath R3, Merin Alexander4, Srijith K5
14
Student, Department of ECE, Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, Ernakulam 683 577, Kerala, India
1 2 3 4
ecnihon136@gmail.com , gayathrifisat@yahoo.com , lilyofvaly@yahoo.com ,alexandermerin@yahoo.com

5
Assistant Professor, Department of ECE, Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, Ernakulam 683 577, Kerala, India
,srijith87@gmail.com
Abstract A Coplanar Waveguide (CPW) fed slot antenna for wideband applications is presented. The simulations were performed for S11 and the radiation patterns. The structure was modified for increasing the bandwidth and then the parameters were measured. In order to examine the performances of this antenna, a prototype was designed at frequency 2.4 GHz and simulated with various widths of slots on both sides by HFSS software package. The simulation result of bandwidth is 1.98 GHz which covers the standard frequency of IEEE 802.11 b/g and WiMAX. Keywords Coplanar waveguide, Return loss, radiation pattern, slot antenna.
substrate with thickness (h) of 1.575mm and dielectric constant r of 2.2. The coplanar waveguide (CPW) is designed to be 50 ohms in order to match the characteristic impedance of transmission line. The dimension of the slot antenna is referred to the guide wavelength g which given by, c f
g reff
I. INTRODUCTION
Microstrip slot antennas are used in satellite and communication application because of its lightweight and ease of integration with monolithic microwave integrated circuits. Microstrip antennas can be divided into two basic types by structure, namely microstrip patch antenna and microstrip slot antenna [1,2]. The slot antennas can be fed by microstrip line, slot line and CPW [3,4]. The CPW is the feeding which side-plane conductor is ground and center strip carries the signal. In this paper, we proposed the slot antenna fed by CPW at a designed frequency of 2.4 GHz and for the frequency range from 1.96-3.94GHz which covers the standard frequency of IEEE 802.11 b/g (2.4-2.4835 GHz) and WiMAX (2.3-3.6 GHz).
II. ANTENNA STRUCTURE
(2.1)
where reff is the effective dielectric constant.
r reff
2 (2.2) In this case, g at frequency 2.4 GHz is 98.81 mm. The total length of slot antenna ( L1+L2+ W2) is 0.81 g (80.0mm) and width of slot (H1; H2) is 0.1 g (10.5 mm). For matching impedance with characteristic impedance of transmission line 50 ohms, the gap ( W1), width of the center strip ( W2) and length of CPW line (H3) are 0.5 mm, 2.4mm and 23 mm, respectively.
III. DESIGN PROCEDURE
The antenna is designed at 2.4GHz with the symmetric structure, as shown in Fig 1. This antenna is designed on RT/Duroid 5880, the
The design procedure for the proposed CPW fed slot antenna is described here. This slot antenna composed of two small slots on the ground plane that are left and right slots. For each case, the gap
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( W1), width of the center strip ( W2) and length of CPW line ( H3) are fixed to 0.5 mm, 2.4mm and 23 mm, respectively.
A. Design I
Two slots (left and right slot) with equal length and width: The parameters of this structure are as following: L1 = L2 = 38.8mm H1 = H2 = 10.5mm
Fig 2. Structure of CPW fed slot antenna for Design2.
C. Design III
Two slots with unequal length and width (Fig.3): The parameters of this structure are as following: L1 = 43:8mm; L2 = 33:8mm H1 = 7:8; H2 = 4:1mm
Fig 1.Structure of CPW fed slot antenna for Design1.
B. Design II
Two slots with equal width and unequal length (Fig. 2). The parameters of this structure are as follows: L1 = 43.8mm; L2 = 33.8mm H1 = H2 = 10.5mm
D. Design IV
Three slots of length (L3) 10mm and width (H3) 5mm are introduced to increase the bandwidth of the slot antenna. Three slots are introduced adjacent to the left slot as shown in fig 4.
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(b)
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
The simulated return losses for various designs are shown in Fig 5 (a) to (d). While varying the length the variation in bandwidth is as shown in Fig 5 (b).
(c)
(d) Fig. 5. Simulated return loss S11 of the four designs (a) (d)
(a)
The decrease in width of the slots changes bandwidth as shown in Fig. 5 (c). The addition of slots adjacent to the left slots increases the bandwidth as shown in Fig 5 (d). The simulation results are listed in table 1.
TABLE 1 SIMULATION RESULTS OF CPW-FED SLOT ANTENNA FOR DIFFERENT DESIGNS.
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Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013 Bandwidth Return L1 L2 H1 H2 Loss (-10dB) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (dB) GHz Before introducing slots adjacent to the left slot 38.8 43.8 43.8 38.8 33.8 33.8 10.5 10.5 07.8 10.5 10.5 04.1 1.00 0.95 1.60 -80.0 -23.5 -22.0
After introducing slots adjacent to the left slot 43.8 33.8 07.8 4.1 1.96 -25.5
The radiation patterns in the x-z plane for the different designs are shown in Fig 6 and 7.
Fig 7. Radiation pattern for design 4 for different values of at 2.4 GHz.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The design of slot antenna fed by CPW is considered on the basic structure. It is proved by varying the length and the width of the slot for achieving the wideband for use in WLAN applications. This paper shows the maximum bandwidth of 1.65 GHz at design frequency of 2.4 GHz. The wideband is created with the different length and the different width of the slot antenna.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the Chairman, FISAT and the Principal, FISAT for providing the necessary laboratory facilities. We would also like to thank Mrs. P R Mini, HOD, ECE, FISAT for her constant support and encouragement.
Fig 6. Radiation pattern for design 1,2,3 for different values of at 2.4 GHz. [7] [8]
REFERENCES
Benson, F. A. and T. M. Benson, Fields Waves and Transmission Lines, Chaman and Hall,1991. Balanis, C. A., Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.
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[9] Giauffret, L., J.-M. Laheurte, and A. Papiernik,Study of various shapes of the coupling slot in CPW-fed microstrip antenna, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation , Vol. 45, No. 4, 642-647,1997. Bhobe, A. U. and C. L. Holloway, Wide -band slot antennas with CPW- feed line: hybride and log-periodic design, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation ,Vol. 52, No. 10, 2545-2554, 2004. Wang, C.-J., Member, IEEE, J.-J. Lee, and R.-B. Huang, Member, IEEE, Experimental studies of a miniaturized CPW-fed slot antenna with the dual- frequency operation, IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters,Vol.2,2003.
1. INTRODUCTION
IN mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), since mobile nodes move freely, network partition may occur, where nodes in one partition cannot access data held by nodes in other partitions. Thus, data availability (i.e., the number of successful data accesses over the total
[10]
[11]
Balancing the Query Delay In Mobile ad-hoc Networks With High DataAvailability
Dr.M.Jayaprasad, Sunita.T.N, Jyothi.B.K Principal , RGIT College, Bangalore, M.Tech Student, Dept of Computer Science, RGIT, Bangalore, mj_prasad@yahoo.com,sunita.neelagiri@gmail.com number of data accesses) in MANETs is lower than that in conventional wired networks. Data replication has been widely used to improve data availability in distributed systems, and we will apply this technique to MANETs By replicating data at mobile nodes which are not the owners of the original data, data availability can be improved because there are multiple replicas in the network and the probability of finding one copy of the data is higher. Also, data replication can reduce the query delay since mobile nodes can obtain the data from some nearby replicas. However, most mobile nodes only have limited storage space, bandwidth, and power, and hence it is impossible for one node to collect and hold all the data considering these constraints. By taking these issues into consideration, we expect that mobile nodes should not be able (or willing) to replicate all data items in the network (more discussions in Appendix A, which can be found on the Computer Society Digital Library http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/TPDS.2011. 222) B. One solution to improve the data access performance considering the resource constraints of mobile nodes is to let them cooperate with each other; That is, contribute part of their storage space to hold
Abstract In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), nodes move freely and link/node failures are common, which leads to frequent network partitions. When a network partition occurs, mobile nodes in one partition are not able to access data hosted by nodes in other partitions, and hence significantly degrade the performance of data access. To deal with this problem, we apply data replication techniques. Existing data replication solutions in both wired or wireless networks aim at either reducing the query delay or improving the data availability, but not both. As both metrics are important for mobile nodes, we propose schemes to balance the trade-offs between data availability and query delay under different system settings and requirements. Extensive simulation results show that the proposed schemes can achieve a balance between these two metrics and provide satisfying system performance. Index
replication, data availability, data modification, network monitoring, query delay, mobile ad hoc network (MANET).
TermsData
Architecture
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data of others When a node only replicates part of the data, there will be a trade-off between query delay and data availability. For example, replicating most data locally can reduce the query delay, but it reduces the data availability since many nodes may end up replicating the same data locally, while other data items are not replicated by anyone. To increase the data availability, nodes should not replicate the same data that neighboring nodes already have. However, this solution may increase the query delay since some nodes may not be able to replicate the most frequently accessed data, and have to access it from neighbors. Although the delay of accessing the data from neighbors is shorter than that from the data owner, it is much longer than accessing it locally. In this paper, we propose new data replication techniques to address query delay and data availability issues. As both metrics are important for mobile nodes, we propose techniques to balance the trade-offs between data availability and query delay under different system settings and requirements. Simulation results show that the proposed schemes can achieve a balance between these two metrics and provide satisfying system performance. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The next section presents some preliminaries of data replication. In Section 3, we describe the proposed schemes in detail. Section 4 evaluates the proposed schemes through extensive simulations and Section 5 concludes the paper.
In a MANET, mobile nodes collaboratively share data. Multiple nodes exist in the network and they send query requests to other nodes for some specified data items. Each node creates replicas of the data items and maintains the replicas in its memory (or disk) space. During data replication, there is no central server that determines the allocation of replicas, and mobile nodes determine the data allocation in a distributed manner. The MANET studied in this paper can be represented as an undirected graph G(V,E) where the set of vertices V represent the mobile nodes in the network, and E V V is the set of edges in the graph, which represents the physical or logical links between the mobile nodes. Two nodes that can communicate directly with each other are connected by an edge in the graph. Let N denote a network of m mobile nodes, N,N, ...Nm and let D denote a collection of n data items d ,d, ... ,dn distributed in the network. For each pair of mobile nodes Ni and Nj, let tij denote the delay of transmitting a data item of unit-size between these two nodes. Similar to [4], we assume that the delay function defines a metric space; that is, they are nonnegative, symmetric, and satisfy the triangle inequality. Links between mobile nodes may fail and the link failure probability between Ni and Nj is denoted as fij, which is equal to fji as we assume symmetric links. The failed links may cause network partitions. Queries generated during network partition may fail because the requested data items are not available in the partition to which the requester belongs. Each node maintains some amount of data locally and the node is called the original owner of the data. Each data item has one and only one original owner. For simplicity, we assume that data items are not updated and can be used to extend the proposed scheme to handle data update or data consistency issues. To improve the data availability, these data items may be replicated to other nodes. Because of limited memory size, each node can only host C(C< n) replicas besides its original data. The data replication problem, either
2. DATA REPLICATION Data replication has been extensively studied in the web environment and distributed database systems (See Appendix B, available in the online supplemental material, for detailed literature review). However, most of them either do not consider the storage constraint or ignore the link failure issue. Before addressing these issues by proposing new data replication schemes, we first introduce our system model.
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optimizing the query delay or optimizing the availability, has been proved to be a reduction from the metric incapacitated facility location problem, which is known to be NP-hard (see Appendix C, available in the online supplemental material). Therefore, instead of trying to find a complex algorithm that is not practical to solve or approximate the problem, we use heuristics that can provide satisfying performance with much less computation overhead. The following notations are used in this paper. N: the set of mobile nodes in the network. m: the total number of mobile nodes. D: the set of available data items in the network. n: the total number of data items. s i: the size of d i.
frequently accessed data. Therefore, N1 replaces d2 with d3 and N2 replaces d1 with d4. The final replication result is: N1 hosts d1 and d3 whereas N2 hosts d2 and d4. From this example and verified by simulations in DAFN is a good scheme because duplicated data can be removed from neighboring nodes and the memory size can be used effectively. However, the data availability may be affected when the link failure probability is high.DAFN scheme because DAFN does not consider two important factors: the link stability between mobile nodes and the query delay. Due to the complexity of the data replication problem shown in Appendix C, available in the online supplemental material, we propose some heuristics. Heuristics. Because mobile nodes have limited memory, it is impossible for them to hold all their interested data items. As a result, they have to rely on other nodes to get some data. If mobile nodes only host their interested data, it is possible that some data items are replicated by every node while some other data items are not replicated by anyone. Therefore, it is important for mobile nodes to cooperate with each other and contribute part of their memory to hold data for other nodes. The problem is to determine the memory space that a mobile node should contribute because bad cooperation may actually degrade the performance, as shown in the above example. We have the following heuristics: For a mobile node, if its communication links to other nodes are stable, more cooperation with these nodes can improve the data availability; if the links to other nodes are not very stable it is better for the node to host most of the interested data locally. The above heuristic mainly addresses the issue of data availability. For query delay, it is better to allocate data near the interested nodes. The degree of cooperation affects both the data availability and the query delay. In the following, we propose various schemes to achieve various performance goals.
3. THE PROPOSED DATA REPLICATION SCHEMES

In this section, we propose several schemes to address the data replication problem based on heuristics. Before presenting these heuristics, we first use an example to illustrate the basic ideas. 3.1 A Motivating Example Suppose a network has only two nodes N1 and N2. These two nodes may access four data items d1, ... ,d4 with equal size, and each node only has enough space to host two data items. we assume that the access probability of a mobile node to a data item is available. According to the Dynamic Access Frequency and Neighborhood (DAFN) scheme proposed by Hara neighboring nodes should try to remove duplicated data items to save storage space and increase data availability. In the first replication step, nodes replicate the data that they are interested in, and hence both nodes replicate d1 and d2 locally. In the second step of DAFN, when two neighboring nodes have the same data item di, the node that has a lower access probability should replace di with the next most
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3.2 The Greedy Data Replication Scheme One naive greedy data replication scheme is to allocate the most frequently accessed data items until the memory is full. However, this naive scheme, referred to as Greedy, does not consider the data size difference between different data items. The data size should be considered because smaller data require less memory space, and hence replicating them can save some memory space for other data items. Therefore, a better greedy scheme is to calculate the data access frequency of a data item d k by normalizing it against the data size, i.e., aik/sk. This greedy scheme, referred to as Greedy-S, lets node Ni repeatedly pick the data item with the largest aik/sk value from the data set that has not yet been replicated at Ni until no more data can be replicated in the memory. One drawback of the greedy scheme is that it does not consider the cooperation between the neighboring nodes and hence its performance may be limited. We present the performance analysis and numerical results in Appendix D, available in the online supplemental material. The following sections present schemes that apply different levels of cooperation between neighboring nodes following our heuristics. 3.3 The One-To-One Optimization (OTOO) Scheme In this scheme, each mobile node only cooperates with at most one neighbor to decide which data to replicate. Suppose node Ni and Nj are neighboring nodes. Ni calculates the combined access frequency value of N i and Nj to data item dk at Ni, denoted as CAF ij, by using the following function: CAF ij = (a ik + a jk (1-fij))/s i (1) Similarly Nj calculates its combined access frequency to dk with the following function: CAF ji = (a jk + a ik (1-fij))/s i (2)
We also need to consider the increased data availability due to neighboring nodes. If the neighboring node Nj of Ni has already replicated the data and the link failure probability between Ni and Nj is low, Ni is less likely to replicate this data because it can always get the data from Nj. However, if the link failure probability is high, Ni may like to replicate the data locally. Therefore, we define a priority value for node Ni to replicate data dk given its neighboring node Nj, denoted as P ij, by using the following function: P ij= CAF ij w ij (3) where w ij indicates the impact on data availability by the neighboring node and the link failure probability. The value of w ij is calculated as follows: j
if data dk is replicated at Nj,
w ij =
{1
if data dk is not replicated at Nj.
Each node sorts the data according to the priority value P and picks data items with the highest P to replicate in its memory until no more data items can be replicated. The P value function is designed so that 1. it considers the access frequency from a neighboring node to improve data availability; 2. it considers the data size. If other criteria are the same, the data item with smaller size is given higher priority for replicating because this can improve the performance while reducing memory space; 3. it gives high priority to local data access, and hence the interested data should be replicated locally to improve data availability and reduce query delay; 4. it considers the impact of data availability from the neighboring node and link quality. Thus, if the links between two neighboring nodes are stable, they can have more cooperations in data
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replication. It is possible that according to OTOO, node Ni should host dj but Ni is separated from nodes that have d j because of network partitions. In this situation, Ni selects the next best candidate (data item) according to the replication scheme. This rule is also applied to other replication schemes proposed in the following. The detailed pseudo-code and descriptions of the OTOO scheme and the following schemes are provided in Appendix E, available in the online supplemental material. 3.4 The Reliable Neighbor (RN) Scheme. OTOO considers neighboring nodes when making data replication choices. However, it still considers its own access frequency as the most important factor because the access frequency from a neighboring node is reduced by a factor of the link failure probability. To further increase the degree of cooperation, we propose the Reliable Neighbor scheme which contributes more memory to replicate data for neighboring nodes. In this scheme, part of the nodes memory is used to hold data for its Reliable Neighbors. For node Ni, a neighboring node Nj is considered to be Nis reliable neighbor if 1-fij > T , where T is a threshold value. Let nb(i) be the set of Nis reliable neighbors. The total contributed memory size of Ni, denoted as Cc(i), is set to be Cc(i) = Cmin(1,
memory to hold data for neighboring nodes; 2) when fij= 1, Njnb(i), Ni does not contribute any memory. The reason behind the RN scheme is that when links to neighboring nodes of Ni are stable, Ni can hold more data for neighboring nodes as they also hold data for Ni. Because links are stable, such cooperation can improve the data availability. If links are not stable, data on neighboring nodes have low availability and may incur high-query delay. Thus, cooperation in this case cannot improve data availability and nodes should be more selfish in order to achieve better pe rformance. The data replication process works as follows: Node Ni first allocates its most interested data to its memory, up to C-Cc(i) memory space. Then all the rest of the data are sorted according to P to a list called the neighbors interest list. The P value of Ni to dk is defined as
(5) The memory space of Cc(i) is used to allocate data with the highest P values. There may be some overlap between Nis interested data and the allocated data interested by Nis neighbors. If during the allocation, a data item is already in the memory, this data item will not be allocated again and the next data item on the neighbors interest list is chosen instead. 3.5 Reliable Grouping (RG) Scheme OTOO only considers one neighboring node when making data replication decisions. RN further considers all one-hop neighbors. However, the cooperations in both OTOO and RN are not fully exploited. To further increase the degree of cooperation, we propose the reliable grouping scheme which shares replicas in large
(1-f )/)
ij
(4)
Where is a system tuning factor which affects the memory allocated to itself and its neighbors. Intuitively, Ni contributes more memory if its links with neighboring nodes are more stable. The two extreme cases are: 1) when Cc(i) = C, Ni contributes all its
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and reliable groups of nodes, whereas OTOO and RN only share replicas among neighboring nodes. The basic idea of the RG scheme is that it always picks the most suitable data items to replicate on the most suitable nodes in the group to maximize the data availability and minimize the data access delay within the group. In the RG scheme, there is no redundant replication until every data item is replicated at least once. Therefore, the maximum degree of cooperation within the reliable group can be achieved. Because the function for selecting the best node to place each data replica considers the access delay between the query node and the nearest replication node in the group, the RG scheme can reduce the number of hops that the data need to be transferred to serve the query. Due to the page limitation, the detailed protocol description and a comprehensive performance complexity and bound analysis of the proposed schemes are presented in Appendices E and F, available in the online supplemental material. 4. PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS In this section, we evaluate the performance of the proposed schemes: OTOO, RN2 (RN with =2), RN8 (RN with =8), RN16 (RN with =16), and RG by comparing them with the DAFN scheme and the Greedy scheme through extensive simulations. 4.1 Simulation Setup We have developed a simulator based on CSIM 19 to evaluate the performance of the data replication schemes. At the beginning of the simulation, m nodes are placed randomly in a 2500 m 2500 m area. The radio range is set to be D. If two nodes Ni and Nj are within the radio range (i.e., D(i,j) <D), they can communicate with each other. The communication link between them may fail and the link failure probability fij is defined as
(6) Equation (6) is adopted according to the facts that the wireless signal strength decreases with a rate between the order of , where r is the distance to the signal source. For example, if two connected nodes have a long distance, they are easier to disconnect and the link failure probability between them is higher. is used to adjust fij to a more reasonable value. The proposed schemes do not depend on the failure model in (6) and they are able to work as long as the failure probability between neighboring nodes can be estimated.the number of data items n is set to be the same as the number of nodes m. Data item d is original host is N i, for all I[1,m]. The data item size is uniformly distributed between smin and smax. Each node has a memory size of C. Two access patterns are used in the simulation. 1. All nodes follow the Zipf-like access pattern, but different nodes have different hot data items. This is done by randomly selecting an offset value for each node Ni: offset i, which is between 1 and n-1. The actual access probability of Ni to data item dk is given by This means that the most frequently accessed data item id is moved to be offset instead of 1; the second frequently accessed data item id is offset + 1 instead of 2, and so on. 2. All nodes have the same access pattern and they have the same access probability to the same data item. In order to avoid routing cycles on the query path, a maximal hop count is used to limit the number of hops for each query. It is set to be size of the simulation area. where 2,500 is the
The performance metrics used in the simulation are mainly data availability and query delay. The amount of query traffic is also evaluated to show the protocol overhead. Here, we note that the amount of query traffic
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can also be used as a metric of system power consumption. This is because in wireless communication, data transmission is the key factor affecting the system power consumption compared to other factors such as disk or CPU operations Therefore, if there is more query traffic, more energy consumption is expected. If one replication scheme generates less traffic, it is more power efficient. When a query for data dk is generated by node Ni, if dk can be found locally, or at a node that is reachable through single or multi-hops, this access is considered successful. The query delay is the number of hops from Ni to the nearest node that has d k multiplied by the data size, and query traffic is defined as all messages involved to serve the query. If d k is in the local memory of Ni, the query delay and query traffic are both 0. Most system parameters are listed in Table 2. 4.2 Simulation Results Experiments were run using different workloads and system settings. The performance analysis presented here is designed to compare the effects of different workload parameters such as Zipf parameter, network size, radio range, memory size, and node mobility (due to the space limitation, the effects of different mobility models are provided in Appendix G, available in the online supplemental material). For each workload parameter (e.g., the mean update arrival time or the mean query generate time), the mean value of the measured data is obtained by collecting a large number of samples such that the confidence interval is reasonably small. In most cases, the 4.2.1 Fine-Tuning T r In Fig. 2, we evaluate the effects of T r, which affects the number of cooperative neighbors in the RN scheme and the RG scheme. Larger Tr results in smaller number of cooperative neighbors, and vice versa. We can see that Tr has more significant effects on the performance of RN2 (RN with = 2) than RN8 and RN16, because RN2 contributes the largest portion of the memory size to neighbors. The performance of the RG scheme is
also affected by Tr, because the change of Tr affects the number of nodes in a reliable group. From Fig. 2a, we can see that when Tr < 0.4, as long as Tr increases, the data availability of RG, RN8, and RN16 are decreasing while the data availability of RN2 is increasing; when 0.4 < Tr < 0.6, all schemes have a decreasing trend in data availability as Tr increases; similar trend can be found when Tr > 0.6. In Fig. 2b, when Tr changes from 0.2 to 0.4, RG and RN2 have a large decrease in query delay; however, when Tr becomes larger than 0.4, all four schemes have stable and small delay decrease. When Tr is around 0.6, all schemes have relatively stable performance, which means the change of T r does not have significant effect on the relative performance of different data replication schemes. Thus, we use T r = 0.6 in the following 4.2.2 Fine-Tuning By controlling the link failure probability can be adjusted. When the link failure probability deceases, data availability increases as shown in Fig. 3. We choose = 0.95 to achieve a balance among all replication schemes. As can be seen from the figure, DAFN has highquery delay because it tries to avoid duplicated data among neighboring nodes. Even if a data item is popular among two neighboring nodes, it is still allocated at only one of the neighboring nodes. Therefore, many accesses have to be satisfied by the querying neighboring nodes, which increase the query delay. For similar reasons, the query delay of RG is also high. However, RG considers all nodes in a reliable group during data replication. It organizes data better within each reliable group, which helps RG achieve higher data availability 4.2.3 Effects of the Zipf Parameter ()
In this section, we evaluate the effects of the Z ipf parameter on the system performance. As
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increases, more accesses focus on hot data items and data availability is expected to increase. Fig. 4 demonstrates the effects of the Zipf parameter
on the system performance when nodes have

different access pattern. Fig. 4a shows that the proposed schemes outperform the DAFN scheme in terms of data availability in most cases. The reasons are as follows: first, our schemes consider the link failure probability when replicating data (for OTOO and RN) or organizing groups (for RG); second, the OTOO and RN schemes avoid replicating data items that are not frequently accessed by using the P value. On the other hand, the DAFN scheme does not consider the link failure probability and it sometimes replicates data items with low-access frequency instead of frequently accessed data items, as shown in the example in Section 3.1. Fig. 4b shows the query delay of different schemes. The DAFN scheme is outperformed by the proposed schemes in all situations. This shows that our schemes can achieve better performance in terms of data availability and query delay. From Fig. 4b, we can also find that the relation of query delay is RG > RN2 > RN8RN16 > OTOO. This shows that when nodes have different interests, to achieve a low-query delay, it is better for them to host the data that they are interested in, and cooperation among them does not show significant advantage. Fig. 5 shows the effects of the Zipf parameter on the system performance when nodes have the same access pattern. We can see from Fig. 5 that all the proposed schemes perform much better than the DAFN scheme in terms of data availability and all the proposed schemes in most situations perform better than DAFN in terms of query delay. Greedy-S performs better than Greedy because it gives higher priority to data items with smaller size, and thus more important data can be replicated and the performance is improved. Comparing RN2, RN8, RN16, OTOO, and RG, we find
that the relation of their data availability is RG > RN2 > RN8 > RN16 OTOO (RG performs the best as expected) while the relations of their query delay is RG > RN2 > RN8 > RN16 > OTOO (OTOO performs the best). This clearly shows the trade-offs between these two performance metrics. Higher degree of cooperation improves the data availability, but it also increases the query delay because more data items need to be retrieved from neighboring nodes. This figure also gives us directions on how to achieve certain performance goals. If high data availability is required, nodes should be more cooperative with neighboring nodes so that more data can be replicated in the network. If low-query delay is more important, nodes should be more selfish so that requests can be served locally instead of by neighboring nodes. Since RN2, RN8, and RN16 exhibit similar performance when other parameters change, to make the simulation figures clear, we will only use RN8 to represent the RN schemes.
Fig:Tranferring the Files From One to Another node
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4.2.4
Effects of the Number of Nodes in the Network (m)
The number of nodes in the network indicates the node density of the network. When the number of nodes increases, the density of the network increases and it becomes better connected and the data availability increases. Fig. 6 shows the effects of the number of nodes on the system performance. In Fig. 6a, we can see that when there are only 100 nodes in the network, all schemes have relatively lower data availability due to the sparse network connectivity. As the number of nodes increases, nodes have more opportunities to get the data from their neighboring nodes, and all schemes have performance improvements in terms of data availability as expected. When the network density further increases, e.g., in a 500-nodes scenario, the data availability of all schemes approaches to 0.9. Similar observations can be found in Fig. 6b. Therefore, we choose m =300 as the default setting to see the effects of different schemes on the system performance. 4.2.5 Effects of the Radio Range (D)
query delay and traffic than the DAFN scheme. When the radio range is extremely small, the query delay of all schemes reduces to near zero, since it is hard to find a neighbor with such small radio range and almost all requests are served locally. 4.2.6 Effects of Memory Size (C)
In this section, we evaluate the system performance when the memory size (C) changes. As C increases, more data can be hosted by a node and the data availability increases. Similarly, more data can be found locally as C increases and the query delay and query traffic decrease. Fig. 8 shows that when nodes have different access patterns, the proposed schemes increase the data availability while providing lower query delay and query traffic compared to the DAFN scheme. The difference of data availability for OTOO, RN8, Greedy, Greedy-S, and DAFN is not very large because when nodes have different access pattern, they can simply replicate their interested data locally to achieve a high data availability. Thus, the room for improvement is small. RG, however, organizes data replications within each reliable group. It can provide more different data items in each group. Thus, its data availability is much higher than other schemes.
Fig. 7 shows the effects of the radio range on the system performance under different access pattern. When the radio range increases, the network is better connected and the data availability is expected to increase. Fig. 7a shows that all schemes perform as expected. The proposed schemes perform much better than DAFN when the radio range is small. When the radio range is very large, different schemes have similar data availability. This is because the network partition is very rare in this situation and most data can be found in a reachable node. Figs. 7b and 7c show that the query delay and query traffic increase as the radio range increases. This is because when the network is better connected, some previously unavailable data can be found at faraway nodes. The proposed schemes always result in lower
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Fig:Replicating The data items 5. CONCLUSIONS In MANETs, due to link failure, network partitions are common. As a result, data saved at other nodes may not be accessible. One way to improve data availability is through data replication. In this paper, we proposed several data replication schemes to improve the data availability and reduce the query delay. The basic idea is to replicate the most frequently accessed data locally and only rely on neighbors memory when the communication link to them is reliable. Extensive performance evaluations demonstrate that the proposed schemes outperform the existing solutions in terms of data availability and query delay. Results also show that there is a fundamental trade-off between data availability and query delay. Higher degree of cooperation improves the data availability, but it also increases the query delay because more data need to be retrieved from neighboring nodes. REFERENCES [1] Data Replication for Improving Data Accessibility in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing,vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 1515-1532, Nov. 2006 [2] Supporting Cooperative Caching in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 5, no. 1pp. 77-89,Jan. 2006. [3] Benefit-Based Data Caching in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 289304, Mar. 2008 [4] Approximation Algorithms for Data Placement in Arbitrary Networks, Proc. 12th Ann.ACM -SIAM Symp. Discrete Algorithms (ACM-SIAM) [5] Consistency Management Strategies for Data Replication in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 950-967
[6] Replica Allocation in Ad Hoc Networks with Periodic Data Update, Proc. Intl Conf. Mobile Data Management (MDM),2002. [7] Data Consistency for Cooperative Caching in Mobile Environments, Computer vol. 40,no. 4, pp. 60 66, Apr. 2007. [8] Effective Replica Allocation in Ad Hoc Networks for Improving INFOCOM, Data Accessibility, Proc. IEEE
[9] A Powerful Tool for Building System Models, Proc. 33rd Conf. Winter Simulation
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Securing the Wireless Sensor Network Communication

Thaseen Taj1, Shambhu Prasad Sah 2,
1
Assistant Professor,Dept of CSE,Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bangalore ,Karnataka,India 2 Assistant Professor, Dept of CSE, Graphics Era Hill University Bhimtal,Nainital,Uttarkhand,India thsn_taj@yahoomail.co.in somusuman@gmail.com
Abstract: Wireless sensor networks are a new type of networked systems, characterized by severely constrained computational and energy resources, and an ad hoc operational environment. When wireless sensor networks are deployed in a hostile terrain, security becomes extremely important, as they are prone to different types of malicious attacks. Due to the inherent resource limitations of sensor nodes, existing network security methods, including those developed for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks, are not well suitable for wireless sensor networks. As a crucial issue security in wireless sensor networks has attracted a lot of attention in the recent year. This paper made a thorough analysis of the major security issue and implemented the most secure AES-256 algorithm for effectively securing the network and hence encrypting and decrypting data transferred between the nodes in a wireless sensor network. Keywords: Wireless sensor network; AES; Decryption Encryption; Initialization Vector; security; threat; attack; benchmark
be exposed to the risk of being captured by an active adversary. So with the demanding constraints of nodes limit ed capability, the key issue for WSN is designing viable security mechanisms for the protection of confidentiality, integrity and authentication to prevent malicious attacks, involved. Besides the inherent limitations in communication and computing, the deployment nature of sensor networks makes them more vulnerable to various attacks. Largely deployed sensor nodes may cover a huge area further exposing them to attackers who may capture and reprogram the individual nodes as shown in Fig.1. The adversary may use its own formula of attacking and induce the network to accept them as legitimate nodes. Falsification of original data, extraction of private sensed data, hacking of collected network readings and denial of service are also certain possible threats to the security and the privacy of the sensor networks. Though hardware and software improvements may address many of such security issues, but development of new supporting technologies and security principles are challenging research issues in WSNs.
I. INTRODUCTION A. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) consists of hundreds or thousands of self organizing, lowpower, low cost wireless nodes and is used in a variety of applications such as military sensing and tracking, environmental monitoring, disaster management, etc. But when WSN is deployed in open, un-monitored, hostile environment [1], or operated on an unattended mode, sensor nodes will
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4.Final Round The Key Expansion step is performed using Rijndaels key schedule. The Initial Round consists only of an AddRoundKey operation. The Rounds step consists of a SubBytes, ShiftRows, MixColumns, and an AddRoundKey operation. The number of rounds in the Rounds step varies from 10 to 14 depending on the key size. Finally, the FinalRound performs a SubBytes, ShiftRows, and an AddRoundKey operations. Decryption in AES is done by performing the inverse operations of the simple operations in reverse order. The structure of AES is as shown in the figure-2. Hence for the AES algorithm, the length of the input block and the output block is same. It is a point to be noted here that no weak or semi-weak keys have been identified for the AES algorithm and there is no restriction on key selection, only the Key Expansion routine for 256-bit Cipher Keys is slightly different than for 128- and 192-bit Cipher Keys. Here in this application we are using 256 bit key AES, in which there are 14 iterations called the round key- for being used in the last stage of AES. First three stages are Sub Bytes, Shift Rows and Shift Columns. The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either 192 or 256 key lengths.Design of AES is highly conservative that enables us to demonstrate its security against all known types of active and passive attacks
Fig 1. Scenario of wireless sensor nodes deployment
B. AES SYSTEM
An AES system is a symmetric-key system in which the sender and receiver of a message share a single, common key, which is used to encrypt and decrypt the message. The data length of a key or message may be chosen to be any of 128 or 256 bits.The AES encryption/decryption algorithms are shown in Table AES operates on a 4x4 array of bytes (referred to as state). The algorithm consists of performing four different simple operations. Those are as follows: SubBytes ShiftRows MixColumns AddRoundKey SubBytes perform byte substitution which is derived from a multiplicative inverse of a finite field. ShiftRows shifts elements from a given row by an offset equal to the row number. The MixColumns step transforms each column using an invertible linear transformation. Finally, the AddRoundKey step takes a 4x4 block from a expanded key (derived from the key), and XORs it with the state. AES is composed of four high-level steps. These are: 1.Key Expansion 2.Initial Round 3.Rounds
every node of the system. This is due to the possibility that a component implemented without any security could easily become a point of attack. This dictates that security must pervade every aspect of the design of a wireless sensor network application that will require a high level of security [4].
III. SECURITY REQURIEMENT
Figure 2. Structure of AES
II. SENSOR NETWORK SECURITY ISSUE
Two of the most security-oriented applications of wireless sensor networks are military and medical solutions. Due to the nature of the military, it is obvious that the data (sensed or disseminated) is of a private nature and is required to remain this way to ensure the success of the application. Enemy tracking and targeting are among the most useful applications of wireless sensor networks in military terms. The most up to date work can be found on the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) website [2, 3]. The choice of which security services to implement on a given sensor mainly depends on the type of application and its security requirements. Amongst these we examined: Authenticity - it makes possible that the message receiver is capable of verifying the identity the message sender, hence preventing that likely intruder nodes inject malicious data into the network. Confidentiality - it ensures that the content of the message is accessed only by authorized nodes. Integrity - it guarantees that should a message have its content modified during the transmission, the receiver is able to identify these alterations. In order to design a completely secure wireless sensor network, security must be integrated into
The goal of security services in WSNs is to protect the information and resources from attacks and misbehavior. The security requirements in WSNs include: Availability, which ensures that the desired network services are available even in the presence of denial-of-service attacks require configuring the initial duty cycle carefully. Authorization, which ensures that only authorized sensors can be involved in providing information to network services. Authentication, which ensures that the communication from one node to another node is genuine, that is, a malicious node cannot masquerade as a trusted network node. Confidentiality, which ensures that a given message cannot be understood by anyone other than the desired recipients. Integrity, which ensures that a message sent from one node to another is not modified by malicious intermediate nodes. Nonrepudiation, which denotes tha t a node cannot deny sending a message it has previously sent. Freshness, which implies that the data is recent and ensures that no adversary can replay old messages. Moreover, as new sensors are deployed and old sensors fail, we suggest that forward and backward secrecy should also be considered: Forward secrecy: a sensor should not be able to read any future messages after it leaves the network.
Backward secrecy: a joining sensor should not be able to read any previously transmitted message. The security services in WSNs are usually centered around cryptography. However, due to the constraints in WSNs, many already existing secure algorithms are not practical for use.
V. SECURITY BENCHMARKS
A) Text Encryption & Decryption:
We suggest using the following metrics to evaluate whether a security scheme is appropriate in WSNs: Security: a security scheme has to meet therequirements discussed above. Resiliency: in case a few nodes are compromised, a security scheme should still protect against theattacks. Energy efficiency: a security scheme must be energyefficient so as to maximize node and networklifetime. Flexibility: key management needs to be flexible so as to allow for different network deployment methods, such as random node scattering and predetermined node placement. Scalability: a security scheme should be able to scale without compromising the security requirements. Fault-tolerance: a security scheme should continue to provide security services in the presence of faults such as failed nodes. Self-healing: sensors may fail or run out of energy. The remaining sensors may need to be reorganized to maintain a set level of security. Assurance: assurance is the ability to disseminate different information at different levels to end-users [12]. A security scheme should offer choices with regard to desired reliability, latency, and so on.
VI. IMPLEMENTATON
On connection establishment using UDP protocol [7] by specifying IP address of an adhoc node, adhoc nodes can communicate using encrypted chat. Here the node which wants to communicate with other node should know must password in prior. The information which travels on the unsecured network is not in the plain text form, it is encrypted using password derived AES algorithm before sending. The cipher text generated from the algorithm is sent to the other node. On receiving, the receiver in the receiving side gets a notification, saying a new message received. The message displayed on the receiver node is a cipher text, which needs to be decrypted using the known password. Here the nodes wishing to communicate have to know the password. The nodes that are not aware of the password are not allowed to communicate.
B) File Encryption & Decryption:
In this section, the important functions of the communication application are discussed. The application architecture is as shown in the fig 4.
The nodes establish communication setup either using TCP or UDP. By knowing the IP address the file is sent form one node to the other. The file to be sent can be an image, text, audio or video file. Before sending the file, it is being encrypted. So the file which goes through the unsecured network is in the encrypted form, thus avoiding the intruder to know the contents of the file. The receiver decrypts the file using the password. On decrypting with the correct password, the authorized receiver will get the original file which was sent from the authorized node. If the intruder gets the encrypted file via unsecured network, the file will be decrypted but it would give wrong output. If the intruder replaces the encrypted file with some other file, the authorized node will get to know, as it will not get decrypted. The original file, encrypted file and the correct password, all go hand in hand. If any one among them is replaced, it can be found out very easily. Hence the file encryption & decryption process.
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013 C) Voice Encryption & Decryption:
The nodes establish communication setup either using UDP. The call set up is established using the IP address. When the user wants to make a call, we send an Invite message and wait for an OK response. When we receive an OK, we start receiving/sending audio captured from the microphone. If the remote party rejects the call then a Busy response is sent. To drop a call, we simply send a Bye message. The application will asynchronously receive/send call messages on specified port and synchronously receive/send audio data on specified port. In other words, the application listens on two ports: When we receive an OK, we start receiving/sending audio captured from the microphone. If the remote party rejects the call then a Busy response is sent. To drop a call, we simply send a Bye message. The application will asynchronously receive/send call messages on specified port and synchronously receive/send audio data on specified port. In other words, the application listens on two ports:
is a sequence of "moving images" that are sent in the form of bytes, before sending over the network, those bytes are encrypted and at the receiving end those bytes are decrypted before being displayed by the viewer as they arrive. If a user is receiving the video data as streams then he/she does not have to wait to download a large file before watching the video or listening to the audio. VII. CONCLUSION The implementation of password based AES-256 in wireless sensor networks provides the facility to encrypt the data transferred across the nodes to transmit data securely decrypt the data by the authorized nodes to get the original information. Making the AES algorithm password independent can be the future work.
REFERENCES
[1] Seong-Yeon Lee and Jong-Nam Kim,Real-Time DMB Video Encryption in Recording on PMP, International Journal of Signal Processing, Image Processing and Pattern,Vol. 2, No.1, March, 2009 Mamoona Asghar, Saima Sadaf, Kamran Eidi, Asia Naseem and Shahid Naweed ,SVS - A Secure Scheme for Video Streaming Using SRTP AES and DH , European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.40 No.2 (2010), pp.177-188 Wail S. Elkilani, et.al, Performance of Encryption Techniques for Real Time Video Streaming, Networking and Media Convergence, 2009. International Conference, 24-25 March 2009 pg:130 - 134 Jayshri Nehete, K.Bhagyalakshmi, M.B.Manjunath,Shashikant Chaudhari, T.R.Ramamohan,A Real -time MPEG Video Encryption Algorithm using AES, NCC 2003 9th national conference. Abdul Samiah, Arshad Aziz and Nassar Ikram, An Efficient Software Implementation of AES-CCM for IEEE 802.11i Wireless Standard, 31st Annual International Computer Software and Applications Conference(COMPSAC 2007) ,07695-2870-8/07 Federal Information Processing Standards Publications (FIPS PUBS) are issued by the Name of Standard. Advanced
[2]
[3]
[4]
Fig.4.Design of the application
D) Video Encryption & Decryption:
[5]
In streaming mechanism, the file is sent to the end user in a (more or less) constant stream. It is simply a technique for transferring data such that it can be processed as a steady and continuous stream and it is called Streaming. Streaming video
[6]
OFDMA and SCFDMA Analysis in LTE

Encryption Standard (AES) available publications/fips/fips197 /fips-197.pdf [7] at csrc.nist.gov/ J. Postel, User Datagram Protocol, Request for Comments: 768, 28 August 1980. I. F. Akyildiz,W. Su, Y. Sankasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci.Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey, Computer Networks,38:393422, 2002. Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (13 Oct 2006) Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency Home [online],available: http://www.darpa.mil/index.html [accessed 13 Dec 06]
LFDMA(Localized Frequency Division Multiple Access), DFDMA(Distributed Frequency Division Multiple Access), PAPR (Peak to Average Power Ratio), Interim Standard-95 (IS-95) I. Introduction
[8]
[9]
[10] Security architecture for the Internet Protocol. RFC 2401,November 1998.
Mobile communication has become an everyday commodity and digital communication techniques appeared in the Second Generation (2G) systems, and main access schemes are TDMA and CDMA. The two most commonly accepted 2G systems are GSM and IS-95. These systems mostly offer speech communication, but also data communication limited to rather low transmission rates. The concept of the Third Generation (3G) system and The LTE marketed as 4G came in picture for high data transmission. The main targets and requirements for designing the LTE Systems can be summarized as. Data rate: for 20 MHz spectrum, the targets for peak data rate are 50 Mbps (for uplink) and 100 Mbps (for downlink). Bandwidth: the new system is now required to facilitate frequency allocation flexibility with 1.5, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20MHz allocation.
[11] Samuel R. Madden, Michael J. Franklin, Joseph M. Hellerstein,and Wei Hong. TAG: A tiny aggregation service for ad-hoc sensor networks. In The Fifth Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI 2002),2002. [12] Samuel R. Madden, Robert Szewczyk, Michael J. Franklin, and David Culler. Supporting aggregate queries over ad-hoc wireless sensor networks. In Workshop on Mobile Computing and Systems Applications, 2002. [13] J. Deng, R. Han, and S. Mishra, Enhancing Base Station Security in Wireless Sensor Networks, Department of Computer Science,University of Colorado, Tech. Report CUCS-951-03, 2003.
2 Abstract - The Long term 1, Evolution Uses Orthogonal Latency: Bangalore, the LTE control-plane latency is less than Dept. of(LTE) Telecommunication, R.V. College of Engineering, India Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) in the downlink mallikarjunbale@gmail.com 100 ms (for idle to active), and is less than 50 ms and Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access mithuntp@rvce.edu.in (for dormant to active). The User Plane latency is (SCFDMA) in the uplink. This paper introduces the transceiver less than 10 ms from UE (user end) to server. of OFDMA and SCFDMA, discusses the strength and weakness of the OFDMA and SCFDMA, and highlight the factor that Supported antenna configuration for Downlink: leverages the performance of both multiple access technique, the 4X2, 2X2, 1X2, 1X1 and for uplink: 1X2, 1X1. graphical results shows the relation between SNR, BER, P e with the type of modulation used in LTE, and the PAPR graphical Mobility: Optimized for low speeds (<15 km/hr), results shows the main reason of choosing the SCFDMA for the uplink. High performance at speeds up to 120 km/hr.,
Bale Mallikarjun Sidram1, TP Mithun2
Keywords:- LTE (Long Term Evolution), OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access), SCFDMA(Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access), GSM(Global System for Mobile), TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access), E-UTRA(Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access), FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access), ISI(Inter Symbol Interference),
Maintain link at speed up to 350 km/hr. 3GPP specified LTE, also called E-UTRA to promote higher data rate performance through reducing overhead. The LTE Downlink is based on the on OFDM which provides multi user access, robustness to time dispersion of radio channel, and low complexity for receiver design. SC-FDMA is
employed in uplink that provides low peak-to-average power ratio [1]-[2]. II. OFDMA
I/P Serial to parallel Modulator Subcarri -er Mapping I F F T C P Paralle l to Serial
used for high frequencies and extended CP for lower frequencies.
OFDMA is a multi-user version of a digital modulation scheme OFDM. In OFDM the signal is first split into independent, closely-spaced orthogonal subcarriers which are used to carry the data. The data is divided into several parallel data streams or channels. Each data stream is associated with one subcarrier. OFDMA is a modulation & access technique that combines both TDMA & FDMA technologies. As shown in the following figure 1 Frequency
AWGN
Rayleigh Fading.
Remo -ve CP
Serial to parallel
F F T
Subcarri -er DeMapp -ing
Demodulator
Parallel O/P to Serial
Receiver
User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4

CP Data1 CP Data2
Figure 2. The block diagram of OFDMA-LTE
Time
Figure 3.OFDM symbol with cyclic prefix Figure1. OFDMA
IV. III. Transmitter and receiver for OFDMA [1][5].
Transmitter and receiver for SC-FDMA
OFDMA transmitter and receiver are shown in figure2, in this figure the available spectrum is divided into number of orthogonal subcarriers. The subcarrier spacing for LTE system is 15 KHz with 66.67 s OFDMA symbol duration. The high bit-rate data stream passes through the modulator, where adaptive modulation scheme such as BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM 64-QAM is applied. This multilevel sequence of modulated symbol is converted into parallel frequency component by serial to parallel converter. The IFFT stage converts these complex data symbols into time domain and generates the OFDMA symbols. And in order to cancel the ISI the Cyclic prefix is added to output of the IFFT stage, and this is nothing but the guard period. Addition of cyclic prefix is shown in figure 3. OFDMA uses two type of CP namely normal CP and extended CP. The normal CP is
Transmitter
A block diagram describing the SC-FDMA transceiver structure is shown in figure 4. Relative to the OFDMA, the SC-FDMA transmitter has an extra L-point DFT Stage combined with Subcarrier Mapping Module, as well as an extra L-point IDFT stage at the receiver. The Lpoint DFT transforms L-modulated symbol into the frequency domain, which are then mapped to the N-point IFFT (where L<N) by the subcarrier mapping module where L subcarrier belong to a single user. SC-FDMA is categorized as LFDMA and DFDMA. In LFDMA, the L subcarriers are adjacent in the available N bins whereas in DFDMA they are spread in the available N bins. Usually, in D-FDMA the L subcarrier are spread equidistantly [6],
Transmitter
Serial to parall el Modulator Subcarri -er Mapping I F F T Parallel to Serial
I/P
F F T
C P
AWGN Rayleigh Fading. Subcarri -er DeMapp -ing
Figure 6. Distributed FDMA

Demodulator Parallel O/P to Serial
Remo -ve CP
Serial to parallel
F F T
I F F T
V.
Performance calculation
Receiver
Figure 4. The block diagram of SC-FDMA transceiver
The performance analysis of OFDMA and SC-FDMA in LTE are characterized by following parameters [5]-[9]. 1) BER (Bit Error Ratio) : The BER is ratio of errors bits to the total number of bits transmitted during the time interval i.e. BER = (error bits) / (number of transmitted bits) 2) SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio): The SNR is the ratio of bit energy (Eb) to the noise power spectral density (N0) and is expressed in db. SNR = Eb / N0
The LFDMA and DFDMA are shown in the figure 5, 6 respectively.
Adding zeros
DFT
IDFT
For any modulation scheme, the BER is expressed in terms of SNR. BER is measured by comparing the transmitted signal with received signal, and compute the error counts over the total number of bits transmitted 3) Pe (Error Probability): The probability of error or error probability (Pe) is the rate of errors occurs in the received signal. For the coherent detection the symbol error probability of M-ary PSK and M-ary QAM in the AWGN channel is determined by following expressions,
Adding zeros
Figure 5. Localized FDMA
For M-ary PSK the Pe is given by Pe 2 ( 1 1/M) erfc [(3Eav/2(M-1)N0)] Where, N0 = Noise density in AWGN Adding zeros Eav = Average value of transmitted symbol energy in M-ary QAM or M-ary PSK 4) PAPR (Peak to Average Power Ratio): The PAPR is calculated by representing a CCDF (Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function) of PAPR. The CCDF of PAPR is the probability that the PAPR is higher than a certain PAPAR value PAPR0 (Pr {PAPR>PAPR0}).
DFT
IDFT
Figure 9. The SNR Vs BER in SCFDMA for different modulation.
Figure 7. The SNR Vs BER in OFDMA for different modulation.
Figure 10. The relation between SNR and Pe in SC-FDMA for different modulation.
Figure 8. The relation between SNR and Pe in OFDM for different modulation.
Figure 11. PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for BPSK
hence low order modulation i.e. BPSK, QPSK are adopted in the uplink in order to have less PAPR at user end.
References
[1] S.S Prasad, C.K. Sukla, Raad Farhood Chisab, Performance Analysis of OFDMA in LTE, IEEE 20180 [2] Sortiris Karabetsos, Evagelos Pikasis, Thomas Nikas, Elias Zois and Athanase Nassiopoulos, An Educational baseband SC -FDMA transceiver using Matalab and the TMS320C6713 DSK, 4 th European DSP in Education and Research Conference Figure 12. The PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for QPSK [3] Hyung G. Myung, Junsung Lim, David J. Goodman, Peak to average power ratio of single carrier FDMA signals with pulse shaping, 17 th Annual IEEE International symposium on personal, Indoor and mobile radio communications [4] Fahimeh Rezaei, Michael Heppel, Hamid Sharif, LTE PHY Performance Analysis under 3GPP standards parameters [5] Abhijyoti Ghosh, Bhaswati Majumder, Parijat Paul, Pinky Mullick, Comparative study of bit error rate (BER) for MPSK -OFDM in multipath Fading channel, International journal of Advances in Engineering and technology, july 2012 [6] Hyung G. Myung, Junsung Lim, and David J. Goodman, Single Carrier FDMA for Uplink Wireless Transmission, IEEE Vehicular technology Magazine 2006 [7] Jun Zhang, Zhongpei Zhang, Simulation and analysis of OFDM system based on simulink IEEE March 25, 2010 [8] 3GPP LTE Specification http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/html-info/36-series.htm
Figure 13. The PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for 16-QAM
VI.
Conclusion
The performance of OFDMA and SC-FDMA in LTE depend mainly on the type of modulation which are BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM. From figure 7, 8, 9, 10 we can conclude that as we go for higher modulation the probability of error, Bit Error rate and SNR increases in both OFDMA and SC-FDMA. The power consumption at the user end such as portable devices is again a vital issue for uplink transmission in LTE system. From the figure 11, 12, 13 we can conclude that the higher order modulation scheme have an impact on the PAPR of both OFDMA and SC-FDMA. The PAPR increases in SC-FDMA and slightly decreases in the OFDMA for higher modulation scheme but the overall value of PAPR in SC-FDMA is still less than that of OFDMA in all modulation schemes, and thats why it has been adopted for the uplink transmission in LTE system,
[9] John G. Proakis, Digital communications, 4th edition, McGraw Hill, 2001. [10] Stefania Sesia, Issam Taufik, Matthew Baker, LTE The UMTS Long Term Evolution from theory to practice, John wilely and Sons ltd 2009. [11] S L Miller and D C childers, Probability and random proc esses: application to signal processing and communication Academic Press 2004
A NOVEL APPROACH TO ENHANCE WIRELESS PRIVACY WITH JAMMER RESISTANT CONCEALING TECHNIQUES
Mr. Bhaskar.B 1, Navyashree.S 2
1
Assistant Professor, ECE Dept, S.J.B.I.T, Bangalore, India PG Student, ECE Dept. S.J.B.I.T, Bangalore, India
2
1 2
E-mail: bhaskar.brv@gmail.com E-mail:navyacs.063@gmail.com launched by performing real-time packet classification at the physical layer is shown. To mitigate these attacks, three schemes that prevent real-time packet classification by combining cryptographic primitives with physicallayer attributes are developed. Keywords Denial-of-Service, Wireless Networks, Packet Classification. I. INTRODUCTION Wireless networks rely on the uninterrupted availability of the wireless medium to interconnect participating nodes. However, the open nature of this medium leaves it vulnerable to multiple security threats. Anyone with a transceiver can eavesdrop on wireless transmissions, inject spurious
Abstract The open nature of the wireless medium leaves it vulnerable to intentional interference attacks, typically referred to as jamming. This intentional interference with wireless transmissions can be used as a launch pad for mounting Denial-of-Service attacks on wireless networks. Typically, jamming has been addressed under an external threat model. However, adversaries with internal knowledge of protocol specifications and network secrets can launch low-effort jamming attacks that are difficult to detect and counter. In this paper, the problem of jamming attacks in wireless network is addressed. In these attacks, the adversary is active only for a short period of time. It illustrate the advantages of jamming in terms of network performance degradation and adversary effort by presenting two case studies; a attack on TCP and one on routing. The jamming attacks can be
messages, or jam legitimate ones. While eavesdropping and message injection can be prevented using cryptographic methods, jamming attacks are much harder to counter. They have been shown to actualize severe Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks against wireless networks. In the simplest form of jamming, the adversary interferes with the reception of messages by transmitting a continuous jamming signal, or several short jamming pulses. Typically, jamming attacks have been considered under an external threat model, in which the jammer is not part of the network. Under this model, jamming strategies include the continuous or random transmission of highpower interference signals. However, adopting an always-on strategy has several disadvantages. First, the adversary has to expend a significant amount of energy to jam frequency bands of interest. Second, the continuous presence of unusually high interference levels makes this type of attacks easy to detect. Conventional antijamming techniques rely extensively on spread-spectrum communications, or some form of jamming evasion (e.g., slow frequency hopping, or spatial retreats. SS techniques provide bit-level protection by spreading bits according to a secret pseudonoise code, known only to the communicating parties. These methods can only protect wireless transmissions under the external threat model. Potential disclosure of secrets due to node compromise neutralizes the gains of SS. Broadcast communications are particularly vulnerable under an internal threat model because all intended receivers must be aware of the secrets used to protect transmissions. Hence, the compromise of a single receiver is sufficient to reveal relevant cryptographic information. In this paper, the problem of jamming under an internal threat model is addressed. A sophisticated adversary who is aware of network secrets and the implementation details of network protocols at any layer in the network stack is considered. The adversary exploits his internal knowledge for launching selective jamming attacks in which specific messages of high importance are targeted. For example, a jammer can target route-request/route-reply messages at the routing layer to prevent route discovery, or target TCP acknowledgments in a TCP session to severely degrade the throughput of an end-to-end flow. To launch selective jamming attacks, the adversary must be capable of implementing a classify-then-jam strategy before the completion of a wireless transmission. Such strategy can be actualized either by classifying transmitted packets using protocol semantics or by decoding packets on the fly. In the latter method, the jammer may decode the first few bits of a packet for recovering useful packet identifiers such as packet type, source and destination address. After classification, the adversary must induce a sufficient number of bit errors so that the packet cannot be recovered at the receiver. Selective jamming requires an intimate knowledge of the physical (PHY) layer, as well as of the specifics of upper layers. The paper investigates the feasibility of real-time packet classification for launching selective jamming attacks, under an internal threat model. It shows that such attacks are relatively easy to actualize by exploiting knowledge of network protocols and cryptographic primitives extracted from compromised nodes. It investigates the impact of selective jamming on critical network functions. Its findings indicate that selective jamming attacks lead to DoS with very low effort on behalf of the jammer. To mitigate such attacks, three schemes are developed that prevent classification of transmitted packets in real time. The schemes rely on the joint consideration of cryptographic mechanisms with PHYlayer attributes. The security of the scheme are analyzed and show that they achieve strong security properties, with minimal impact on the network performance.
Fig.1 (a) Realization of a selective jamming attack. (b) A generic frame format for a wireless network.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY In [33], Thuente and Acharya studied the impact of an external selective jammer who targets various control packets at the MAC layer. To perform packet classification, the adversary exploits inter-packet timing information to infer eminent packet transmissions. In [11], Law et al. proposed the estimation of the probability distribution of inter-packet transmission times for different packet types based on network traffic analysis. Future transmissions at various layers were predicted using estimated timing information. In [1], Brown et al. illustrated the feasibility of selective jamming based on protocol semantics. They considered several packet identifiers for encrypted packets such as packet size, precise timing information of different protocols,
and physical signal sensing. To prevent selectivity, the unification of packet characteristics such as the minimum length and inter-packet timing was proposed. Similar packet classification techniques were investigated in [4]. Liu et al. considered a smart jammer that takes into account protocol specifics to optimize its jamming strategy. The adversary was assumed to target control messages at different layers of the network stack. To mitigate smart jamming, the authors proposed the SPREAD system, which is based on the idea of stochastic selection between a collection of parallel protocols at each layer. In [8], Greenstein et al. presented a 802.11-like wireless protocol called Slyfi that prevents the classification of packets by external observers. This protocol hides all explicit identifiers from the transmitted packets, by encrypting them with keys only known to the intended receivers. In [34], Wilhelm et al. implemented a USRP2-based jamming platform called RFReact that enables selective and reactive jamming. RFReact was shown to be agnostic to technology standards and readily adaptable to any desired jamming strategy. In [32], Thapa et al. studied selective jamming attacks against the rate-adaptation mechanism of 802.11. They showed that a selective jammer targeting specific packets in a point-to-point 802.11 communication was able to reduce the rate of the communication to the minimum value of 1 Mbps, with relatively little effort. Several researchers have suggested channel-selective jamming attacks, in which the jammer targets the broadcast control channel. It was shown that such attacks reduce the required power for performing a DoS attack by several orders of magnitude [3]. To protect control-channel traffic, the replication of control transmission in multiple channels was suggested in [3], [30], [31]. The locations of the control channels where cryptographically protected. In [12], Lazos et al. proposed a randomized frequency hopping algorithm to protect the control channel from inside jammers. In [28], Strasser et al. proposed a frequency hopping anti-jamming technique that does not require the existence of a secret hopping sequence, shared between the communicating parties. III. PROPOSED SCHEME A. Adversary Design Adversary is in control of the communication medium and can jam messages at any part of the network of his choice. The adversary can operate in full-duplex mode, thus being able to receive and transmit simultaneously. This can be achieved, for example, with the use of multi-radio transceivers. Adversary is equipped with directional antennas that enable the reception of a signal from one node and jamming of the same signal at another. It is assumed that the adversary can pro-actively jam a number of bits just below the ECC capability early in the transmission. When the adversary is introduced, the data packets from the node cannot be reached at receiver. B. Real Time Packet Classification At the Physical layer, a packet m is encoded, interleaved, and modulated before it is transmitted over the wireless channel. At the receiver, the signal is demodulated, deinterleaved and decoded to recover the original packet m. Nodes A and B communicate via a wireless link. Within the communication range of both A and B there is a jamming node J. When A transmits a packet m to B , node J classifies m by receiving only the first few bytes of m. J then corrupts m beyond recovery by interfering with its reception at B . C. A Strong Hiding Commitment Scheme A strong hiding commitment scheme (SHCS), which is based on symmetric cryptography. Assume that the sender has a packet for Receiver. First, S (Sender) constructs commit( message ) the commitment function is an off-the-shelf symmetric encryption algorithm is a publicly known permutation, and k is a randomly selected key of some desired key length s (the length of k is a security parameter). The role of the committer is assumed by the transmitting node S. The role of the verifier is assumed by any receiver R, including the jammer J. The committed value m is the packet that S wants to communicate to R. To transmit m, the sender computes the corresponding commitment/decommitment pair (C, d), and broadcasts C. The hiding property ensures that m is not revealed during the transmission of C. To reveal m, the sender releases the decommitment value d, in which case m is obtained by all receivers, including J. D. Cryptographic Puzzle Hiding Scheme A sender S has a packet m for transmission. The sender selects a random key k, of a desired length. S generates a puzzle (key, time), where puzzle() denotes the puzzle generator function, and tp denotes the time required for the solution of the puzzle. Parameter is measured in units of time, and it is directly dependent on the assumed computational capability of the adversary, denoted by N and measured in computational operations per second. After generating the puzzle P , the sender broadcasts (C, P ). At the receiver side, any receiver R solves the received puzzle to recover key and then computes the packet. Server to solve the
puzzle in time tp and solved puzzle should be correct get the data packet at server. E. Hiding Based On All-Or-Nothing Transformations The packets are pre-processed by an AONT before transmission but remain unencrypted. The jammer cannot perform packet classification until all pseudo-messages corresponding to the original packet have been received and the inverse transformation has been applied. Packet m is partitioned to a set of x input blocks m = {m1, m2, mx,..}, which serves as input to an AONT. The set of pseudomessages m' = {m'1, m'2, m'x', ..} is transmitted over the Node A Leader Selection SHCS wireless medium, where x' denotes the number of output pseudomessages with x' x. F. System Architecture When a sender wants to send a data to receiver, sender hides the data and sends in secure manner. There are three techniques used to for hiding the data, which are Strong hiding Commitment Scheme, Cryptography puzzle based hiding scheme, All or nothing based scheme. An attacker module is designed to show the impact of data jamming. The message hiding technique is followed to send data by avoiding jamming attack. Step 2: server Step 3: Node B CPHS Node chooses a file F to send file data to If node chooses the technique SHCS (A Strong Hiding Commitment Scheme), the message block m is encrypted and encrypted message m' sent to receiver, where receiver decrypts and receives the message block m. If node chooses the technique Cryptographic Puzzle Hiding Scheme (CPHS), the message block m is encrypted, a puzzle P and time duration tp is generated at the sender side and sent to receiver, where receive must solve the puzzle in the given duration tp and gets the decrypted message m. If node chooses the technique AONT (Hiding Based On All-Or-Nothing Transformations), the message block m is partitioned into n number of blocks. Then the blocks are encrypted and sent to receiver. In the receiver the blocks are decrypted and received. IV. CONCLUSION An internal adversary model in which the jammer is part of the network under attack, thus being aware of the protocol specifications and shared network secrets is addressed. The proposed approach consisted of three schemes that prevent real-time packet classification by combining cryptographic primitives with physical-layer attributes. The salient contribution of present work is a novel approach to enhance wireless privacy with jammer resistant concealing techniques. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ALONT
Step 4:
Node C
Norm
al
Intermedi ate Node Step 5:
Unblock/ block
Server
Figure 3.6 Overall block diagram of the approach
G. Algorithm Step 1: Start Server, Intermediate Server and n number of nodes
The authors wish to acknowledge SJB Institute of Technology for providing guidance and resources to carry out this work. REFERENCES [1] T.X. Brown, J.E. James, and A. Sethi, Jamming and Sensing of Encrypted Wireless Ad Hoc Networks, Proc. ACM Intl Symp. Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing (MobiHoc), pp. 120-130, 2006. [2] M. Cagalj, S. Capkun, and J.-P. Hubaux, WormholeBased Anti- Jamming Techniques in Sensor Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 100-114, Jan. 2007. [3] A. Chan, X. Liu, G. Noubir, and B. Thapa, Control Channel Jamming: Resilience and Identification of Traitors, Proc. IEEE Intl Symp. Information Theory (ISIT), 2007. [4] T. Dempsey, G. Sahin, Y. Morton, and C. Hopper, Intelligent Sensing and Classification in Ad Hoc Net works: A Case Study, IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 23-30, Aug. 2009. [5] Y. Desmedt, Broadcast Anti-Jamming Systems, Computer Networks, vol. 35, nos. 2/3, pp. 223-236, Feb. 2001. [6] K. Gaj and P. Chodowiec, FPGA and ASIC Implementations of AES, Cryptographic Engineering, pp. 235-294, Springer, 2009. [7] O. Goldreich, Foundations of Cryptography: Basic Applications. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004. [8] B. Greenstein, D. Mccoy, J. Pang, T. Kohno, S. Seshan, and D. Wetherall, Improving Wireless Privacy with an Identifier-Free Link Layer Protocol, Proc. Intl Conf. Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services (MobiSys), 2008. [9] IEEE, IEEE 802.11 Standard, http://standards.ieee.org/ getieee802/download/802.11-2007.pdf, 2007. [10] A. Juels and J. Brainard, Client Puzzles: A Cryptographic Countermeasure against Connection Depletion Attacks, Proc. Network and Distributed System Security Symp. (NDSS), pp. 151-165, 1999. [11] Y.W. Law, M. Palaniswami, L.V. Hoesel, J. Doumen, P. Hartel, and P. Havinga, Energy-Efficient Link-Layer Jamming Attacks against WSN MAC Protocols, ACM Trans. Sensor Networks, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-38, 2009. [12] L. Lazos, S. Liu, and M. Krunz, Mitigating Control Channel Jamming Attacks in Multi-Channel Ad Hoc Networks, Proc. Second ACM Conf. Wireless Network Security, pp.169-180, 2009.
[13] G. Lin and G. Noubir, On Link Layer Denial of Service in Data Wireless LANs, Wireless Comm. and Mobile Computing, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 273-284, May 2004. [14] X. Liu, G. Noubir, and R. Sundaram, Spread: Foiling Smart Jammers Using Multi-Layer Agility, Proc. IEEE INFOCOM, pp. 2536-2540, 2007. [15] Y. Liu, P. Ning, H. Dai, and A. Liu, Randomized Differential DSSS: Jamming-Resistant Wireless Broadcast Communication, Proc. IEEE INFOCOM, 2010. [16] R.C. Merkle, Secure Communications over Insecure Channels, Comm. ACM, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 294-299, 1978. [17] G. Noubir and G. Lin, Low-Power DoS Attacks in Data Wireless Lans and Countermeasures, Mobile Computing and Comm. Rev., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 29-30, 2003. [18] OPNET OPNET Modeler 14.5, http://www.opnet.com/, 2011. [19] C. Perkins, E. Belding-Royer, and S. Das, RFC 3561: Ad Hoc On- Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing, Internet RFCs, 2003. [20] C. Popper, M. Strasser, and S. _Capkun, JammingResistant Broadcast Communication without Shared Keys, Proc. USENIX Security Symp., 2009. [21] R. Rivest, All-or-Nothing Encryption and the Package Transform, Proc. Intl Workshop Fast Software Encryption, pp. 210-218, 1997. [22] R. Rivest, A. Shamir, and D. Wagner, Time-Lock Puzzles and Timed-Release Crypto, technical report, Massachusetts Inst. Of Technology, 1996. [23] B. Schneier, Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C. John Wiley & Sons, 2007. [24] SciEngines Break DES in Less than a Single Day, http://www. sciengines.com, 2010. [25] M.K. Simon, J.K. Omura, R.A. Scholtz, and B.K. Levitt, Spread Spectrum Communications Handbook. McGraw-Hill, 2001. [26] D. Stinson, Something about All or Nothing (Transforms), Designs, Codes and Cryptography, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 133-138, 2001. [27] D. Stinson, Cryptography: Theory and Practice. CRC press, 2006. [28] M. Strasser, C. Popper, and S. _Capkun, Efficient Uncoordinated fhss Anti-Jamming Communication, Proc. ACM Intl Symp. Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing (MobiHoc), pp. 207-218, 2009. [29] M. Strasser, C. Popper, S. _Capkun, and M. Cagalj, JammingResistant Key Establishment Using Uncoordinated Frequency Hopping, Proc. IEEE Symp. Security and Privacy, 2008. [30] P. Tague, M. Li, and R. Poovendran, Probabilistic Mitigation of Control Channel Jamming via Random Key
Distribution, Proc. IEEE Intl Symp. Personal, Indoor an d Mobile Radio Comm. (PIMRC), 2007. [31] P. Tague, M. Li, and R. Poovendran, Mitigation of Control Channel Jamming under Node Capture Attacks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 8, no. 9, pp. 1221-1234, Sept. 2009. [32] B. Thapa, G. Noubir, R. Rajaramanand, and B. Sheng, On the Robustness of IEEE802.11 Rate Adaptation
Algorithms against Smart Jamming, Proc. ACM Conf. Wireless Network Security (WiSec), 2011.
Vehicle Security System using Android Smart Phone

Dikshitha Naidu C1 , Anjana A2, Baalaksha M3 , Gayathri G Rathod4 , H.Umadevi5 1-5 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India.
Abstract - Vehicle safety plays a major role in today's world. This paper aims at high level security for the vehicle by its unique way in automotive field. The system in the vehicle section consists of GPS receiver, GSM modem and a microcontroller. The portion of the security system which protects the vehicle from being theft is automatically initiated by the insertion of the key and transmits a warning message which initiates a voice alert on the owner's android smart phone and is played until the owner responds. Android phone demands a gesture password, without proper gesture authentication from the owner the vehicle wont start. In case of an intruder, the system permits localization of the automobile and transmitting the position to the owner on his smart mobile phone as a pop up map at his request. GPS receiver collects the latitude and longitude points of vehicles current location. Android phone receives these location points via GSM modem and traces the vehicles path on google map automatically with out the need of manually entering. Keywords- GPS, GSM,GPRS, Android, Microcontroller, system module in vehicle section.
market today. We have seen a steady increase in the use of the INTERPOL Stolen Motor Vehicle (SMV) database by member countries, both in terms of the number of records contributed and the number of searches carried out. In 2012, more than 92,000 motor vehicles worldwide were identified as stolen, thanks to the SMV database. By the end of the year, the number of database records had risen to more than
7.2 million [1].
I.
Introduction
Vehicle theft is an unfortunate fact of life, and motor vehicle theft is still the most expensive property crime. The National Insurance Crime Bureau (NICB) in US reported the top five hot spots showed an increase in thefts over the previous year. Vehicle crime is an organized criminal activity affecting all regions of the whole world. Vehicles are not only stolen for their own sake, but are also trafficked to finance other crimes. They can also be used as bomb carriers or in the perpetration of other crimes. Many car thieves are smart enough and capable of disarming or bypassing almost all variations of car alarm devices on the
Fig.1.1. number of smv
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives a brief working principle. Section 3 describes the system module in the vehicle section. Section 4 describes the role of android smart phone in the users side. Section 5 gives the simulation results, section 6 presents the conclusion of our paper and section 7 focuses on the future enhancements.
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013
II.Working principle
When the driver inserts the key, the circuit is closed and a message is sent to the owners android smart phone. But the vehicle does not start. When the SMS is received by the smart phone an audio file saved in the mobile is played by the media player, which gives the voice intimation as an alarm, and this would repeat until the owner responds to the alarm. The user can allow or inhibit the vehicle from starting by selecting yes or no. The user is asked to enter the gesture password. If the password is right the wish of the owner is carried out, if wrong the vehicle doesnt start. In order to find out whether the ignition unit is shorted and the vehicle is hijacked, the owner selects LOCATION on android phone. In response to this, the module present in the vehicle section determines the latitude and longitude and is sent to the owners cell through SMS. In case the car is not in the vicinity, the owner tracks the path taken by the vehicle by selecting TRACK. Every 30 seconds the information of latitude and longitude is sent to the owners smart phone, using Google map the route is plotted.
[6]. Pin P3.1 is connected to transmitter and P3.0 is connected to receiver of the MUX. The MUX select lines are connected to P1.2 and P1.3. If the MUX select lines are 00 then GSM is selected and if it is 01 GPS is selected. Port 2 is connected to data/command pins of ALCD.P1.0 and P1.1 is connected to the driver circuit [2,7].
III. System module in vehicle section

The micro-controller forms the brain of the system module. It controls, co-ordinates, monitors and commands the actions of the devices in the transmitter module. The P89V51RD2 which is an 80C51 microcontroller with 64 kB Flash and 1024 bytes of data RAM is used. The basic 8051 chip includes a number of peripheral I/O devices including two Timer/Counters, 8-bit I/O ports, and a UART. It has Harvard architecture [2]. The microcontroller is connected to the GPS receiver and GSM modem using multiplexer [3]. A GSM modem is a specialized type of modem which accepts a SIM card, and operates over a subscription to a mobile operator, just like a mobile phone. When a GSM modem is connected to a microcontroller, this allows the microcontroller to use the GSM modem to communicate over the mobile network via messages [4, 5]. The Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver is actually a constellation of 27 Earthorbiting satellites (24 in operation and three extras in case one fails). The orbits are arranged so that at anytime, anywhere on Earth, there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky. A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a simple mathematical principle called trilateration
Fig.3.1. Block diagram of system module in vehicle section.
Whenever key is inserted the microcontroller gets interrupted, it services the interrupt by selecting GSM and the GSM is made to send the SMS to the owners phone seeking permission. If the owner selects YES, a message is sent to the GSM in vehicle section so that the microcontroller allows the vehicle to be started. If the owner selects NO, a message is sent to the GSM in vehicle section so that the microcontroller does not allow the vehicle to start and a message is sent to the police station whose number is already stored. When the owner selects LOCATION message the microcontroller selects GPS receiver, the GPS collects the latitude and longitude point which is sent to the android phone via GSM. This assists the owner whether the vehicle is in the vicinity. When the owner selects the TRACE, the GPS collects the latitude and longitude points once in 30 seconds and is sent to the android cell by the GSM in the vehicle section. The microcontroller also controls the ALCD and DC motor. ALCD is used for the display purposes so that the demonstration is in an interpretable manner. DC motor is used for demonstration and acts as a substitute for the ignition unit. The microcontroller controls the DC motor via driver circuit. The working model is shown in fig 3.2.
C. Role of android
Upon the key insertion the system module in vehicle section sends an alert message to owners android cell. The android is programmed such that it plays an audio file using media player repeatedly in order to draw the attention of the owner and simultaneously seeks the permission of the owner. The media player is stopped when the user responds. If the owner selects yes and enters the correct gesture password the vehicle is started. If the owner selects no and enters the correct gesture password the vehicle is inhibited from starting. When the owner intends to know the current location of the vehicle he selects the LOCATION button, the security module in the vehicle section returns the latitude and longitude, the android gets automatically plots it on the Google earth or some other mapping software using GPRS. In order to track the path of the vehicle the user selects TRACK, the system module in response sends the latitude and longitude values once in every 30 seconds. The android cell traces the path using Google map without the requirement of manually entering the values each and every time.
Fig.3.2.The working model of system module in the vehicle section
IV.Android smart phone at user side A.What is Android?

Android is an open source software stack that includes the operating system, middleware, and key applications along with a set of API libraries for developing and writing mobile applications. Android was built from the ground-up to enable developers to create compelling mobile applications that take full advantage of all a handset has to offer. Android is built on the open Linux Kernel. Furthermore, it utilizes a custom virtual machine that has been designed to optimize memory and hardware resources in a mobile environment. It can be liberally extended to incorporate new cutting edge technologies as they emerge [8].
V.Simulation results
B.Why android?
Performance stability and security is better than other mobiles OS as it is based on Linux Kernel. Android OS is very smooth and easy to operate and less chances of crashing down. Android apps are very useful and easy to use and also it is open source which makes it developer friendly and increase the chances of development of more useful apps. It provides Great social networking integration, integrated applications and features. It has Optimized memory and process Management as it ensures application responsiveness by stopping and killing processes as necessary to free resources for higher-priority applications [8].
Fig.5.1 Front end layout of android application
Fig.5.3. Map view showing path traced by the vehicle.
VI. Conclusion
The proposed model of implementing the vehicle security using android phone ensures the safety with higher accuracy. The owner is alerted as soon as the intruder inserts the key which serves our main motto that prevention is better than cure. It ensures several layers of security and is cost effective. The implementation and testing results were good, the process of sending and receiving SMS messages through GSM was successful. The GPS helps in locating the vehicle and tracing its path at a higher pace which increases the certainty of the vehicles current position. This is very helpful for the security and police to take actions and increases the possibility to find the stolen cars.
VII.Future enhancements
Further enhancements can be made in order to increase the accuracy of the security. In the areas where there is no network coverage instead of switching off the application, we can carry out the same procedure using Bluetooth which acts as a counterpart of GSM. When the vehicle is not in the vicinity and a SMS is sent to track the path of the vehicle as previously mentioned, an alarm can also be implemented in
Fig.5.2. Map view showing the location of the vehicle.
the vehicle which makes the public around aware of the vehicle being theft.
References
[1] http://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Vehicle-crime/Database-statistics. [2] The 8051 Microcontroller by Kenneth Ayala. [3] B.G.Nagaraja, Ravi Rayappa, M.Mahesh, Chandrasekhar M Patil, Dr.T.C.Manjunath: Design and Development of GSM based vehicle theft control system. [4] http://www.nowsms.com/faq/what-is-a-gsm-modem [5] Introduction to Wireless Telecommunications Systems and Networks by Gary.J.Mullet. [6]http://www.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/travel/gps.htm
[7] The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded System by Muhammed Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispe Mazidi and Rolin.D.Mckinlay. [8] Professional Android Application Development by Reto Meier. [9] Software/hardware co-design of a vehicle trajectory monitoring system by chia-hung lien, po-tsun chen, and ying-wen bai. [10] New Automobile Monitoring and Tracking Model by Shihab A. Hameed, Shaima Abdulla Mohd Ershad, Fauzan Zahudi, Aisha Hassan.
Design of Digital Down Converter for LTE-RRH

Farooq Ulla Khan#1, Shobha C R#2, Prof. Chandrasekhar K#3, Naresh Kumar.T*4
Jain University, Bangalore farooq87khn@gmail.com 2 shob.shobha@gmail.com 3 KC.Sekhar@jainuniversity.ac.in * Centre for Development of Telematics, Bangalore 4 naresht@cdot..in
1
Abstract This paper presents the most fundamental blocks of digital down converter for Long Term Evolution-Remote Radio Head. In Communication system DDC is a key component it make possible to extract information of interest by decimate to a lower sampling rate which is coming from ADC with high sampling rate. Current and future generation networks have increasingly adopted Remote Radio Head (RRH) technology to provide flexible and efficient network architecture. Matlab tool is used for interfacing each blocks of DDC. DDC is designed for LTE signals with a decimation factor of 20, with sampling frequency of 614.4 MSPS. High sampling rates are required when the channel bandwidth is 20MHz. The key component of DDC blocks contain a cascaded integrator-comb decimator filter (CIC), CIC compensator, a FIR decimator filter, a mixer and Numerical control oscillator (NCO) for a channel placement in the composite stream. Keywords LTE, Remote Radio Head, key component of DDC, Matlab tool and Simulation Results.
Figure1: Macro to Distributed BTS architecture
I.hINTRODUCTION In the present scenario Digital communication is widely explore in the field of wireless communication and cellular networks have evolved from macro to distributed base transceiver system architecture. This is as shown in figure1
The Present and future advance technology of wireless cellular systems feature mainly use of Remote Radio Heads (RRHs) in the base stations. Instead of hosting a bulky base station controller close to the top of antenna towers, new wireless networks connect the base station controller and remote radio heads through lossless optical fibers. The interface protocol that enables such a distributed architecture is called Common Publish Radio Interface (CPRI). Typically, a base station connects to a RRH via optical cables. On the downlink direction, base band data is transported to the RRH via CPRI links. The data is then up-
converted to IF sample rates, preprocessed by CFR or DPD to mitigate non-linear effects of broadband power amplifiers, and eventually sent for radio transmission. The core component of the new technology is RRH as shown below figure2
The decimated signal, with a lower data rate is easier to process on a low speed DSP processor. DDC functional Block diagram is shown
Figure3: Digital down Converter Block Diagram
A DDC consists of the important blocks

Figure2: Block diagram of a typical RRH System
It is highly desirable to support multiple radio channel bandwidths per channel, example WiMAX 5, 7, 8.75, 10, and 20 MHz in one radio platform, using only pure software reconfiguration. Moreover, it is highly desirable to support multiple channels concurrently in a multicarrier system fashion. To achieve this, the designer must choose between using a different clock domain for each rate and using one single-clock domain with software flexibility. The singleclock domain technique is more elegant and takes advantage of advanced digital signal processing (DSP) techniques for converting each rate into a common system rate. Together these techniques are called sample rate conversion (SRC), and when combined with multi-channel digital up conversion (DUC) and digital down conversion (DDC), they enable multiple sample rates to be processed concurrently in the same application and in the same clock domain of the digitalto-analog converter (DAC) or analog-to-digital converter (ADC). This method enables flexibility by supporting both single-clock and multiple-clock techniques simultaneously. II. DIGITAL DOWN CONVERTER Digital down Converter is a fundamental component of Digital radio receivers. The Digital radio receivers often have fast ADC converts to digitize the band limited RF or IF signal generating high data rates; but in many cases the signal of interest represents a small proportion of that bandwidth. The DDC typically converts a digitized real signal centered at an IF to a base banded complex signal centered at zero frequency by using a mixer. This is done by using digital techniques to perform the rate reduction. The sample rate can be reduced through the frequency band of interest to be moved down the spectrum DDC allows this functionality.
Numerically Controlled Oscillator (NCO) The Mixer Cascaded Integrated Comb Decimator(CIC) Compensator CIC Finite Impulse Response Decimator(FIR) A. NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR (NCO) A numerically controlled oscillator is also called the Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS). NCO is a digital signal generator creating a synchronous (i.e. clocked) discrete time, discrete valued representation of the sinusoidal waveform. It is an established method of generated periodic sinusoid signals whenever high frequency resolution, fast changes in frequency and phase and high spectrum density of the output signal is required. The major advantage of NCO is extremely fast hopping speed in frequency or phase tuning and easy programmability. The Direct digital synthesizer operates by storing the waveform point which is in digital format and later it recalls to generate the waveform. The rate at which the synthesizer completes one waveform then determines the frequency.
Figure4: Components of Numerically Controlled Oscillator
The implementation of NCO includes the following important blocks. Phase accumulator Phase to amplitude converter and DAC
A DDS produces a sine wave at a given frequency. The frequency depends on two variables, the reference-clock frequency and the binary number programmed into the frequency register (tuning word).
Figure5: Mixer
The binary number in the frequency register provides the main input to the phase accumulator. If a sine look-up table is used, the phase accumulator computes a phase (angle) address for the look-up table, which outputs the digital value of amplitude-corresponding to the sine of that phase angle-to the DAC. The DAC, in turn, converts that number to a corresponding value of analog voltage or current. To generate a fixed-frequency sine wave, a constant value (the phase increment-which is determined by the binary number) is added to the phase accumulator with each clock cycle. If the phase increment is large, the phase accumulator will step quickly through the sine look-up table and thus generate a high frequency sine wave. If the phase increment is small, the phase accumulator will take many more steps, accordingly generating a slower waveform. A phase -to - amplitude lookup table is used to convert the phase-accumulators instantaneous output value with unneeded less-significant bits eliminated by truncation into the sine-wave amplitude information that is presented to the D/A converter. The DDS architecture exploits the symmetrical nature of a sine wave and utilizes mapping logic to synthesize a complete sine wave from one-quarter-cycle of data from the phase accumulator. The phase-to- amplitude lookup table generates the remaining data by reading forward then back through the lookup table. B. THE MIXER A mixer is used to convert the IF signal to baseband signal by multiplying the input signal with complex sinusoidal signal which is generated by NCO thus giving two signals as output i.e.; In-Phase signal Quadrature-Phase signal The two signals are 90 degrees out of phase with each other.
This works on the (simplified) mathematical principle: Frequency(A)*Frequency(B)=Frequency(A-B)+ Frequency(A+B). The further stage is to remove unwanted components. C. CASCADED INTEGRATOR COMB FILTER (CIC) Cascaded Integrator Comb filter plays a vital role to many high volume wireless communication tasks and components with CIC greatly achieve reliability, performance and reduce cost. CIC are multirate filters also called Hogenaur which is used to access high sample rate because of its ability to achieve high decimation factor. CIC digital filter are computationally efficient implementation of the narrow band low pass filter and well-suited for anti-aliasing filtering prior to decimation. And major advantage of CIC is the arithmetic computation use adders and subtractors and register they dont require multiplication. However some drawback of CIC filters like passband droop in this filter but they are eliminated using compensation techniques. The CIC filters operates blocks used in decimator as follows
Figure6: Cascaded Integrator Comb for Decimator
1) INTEGRATOR The feedback section in the above figure is typically called an integrator. The integrator is called an accumulator. An integrator is simply a single-pole IIR filter with a unity feedback co-efficient.
The transfer function for an integrator on the z-plane is
2) COMB The feed forward portion of the CIC filter is called the comb, whose differential delay is D. The comb stage subtracts delayed input sample from the current input sample. A comb filter at the slow sampling rate fs/R is describe by
field of communication. In this Matlab tool is used to interface the DDC. The 16-bit QAM is used to generate the OFDM signal and initialize the parameters which includes frequency sampling Fs is 30.72Mhz and sampling rate is Fs*20, bandwidth of 20Mhz with center frequency of 153.6Mhz for oscillator. And then down samples the signal by factor 20 to bring the input sample rate of 616.4 MSPS to 30.72 MSPS which include three decimating filters. The first filter is cascaded integrator comb decimator which is decimated by 5 the sampling frequency is reduce to 122.88 MSPS and second filter is compensator cascaded integrator comb which is decimated by 2 the sampling frequency is 61.44 MSPS and finally the FIR decimator which is decimated by 2 the sampling frequency now represents 30.72 MSPS. Finally visualize the result at each stage and LTE signal has been down converted. IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
Spectrum of baseband signal x -30
A comb filter is a differential with a transfer function.

-35
Power/frequency (dB/Hz)
In the equation M is the differential delay, and is usually limited to 1 or 2. D. COMPENSATION FILTER The compensation filter is a class of FIR filter. The output of the CIC filter has a sinc shape, Compensation filter is used to compensate the losses in CIC filter. In the typical decimation/interpolation filtering applications a reasonably flat pass band and narrow transition region filter performance is required. These desirable properties are not provided by the CIC filters alone, with their drooping pass band gains. This filter typically decimates by a factor of 2 or 4 to minimize the output sample. This filter will operate at low frequency (fS/R) to achieve a more efficient hardware solution. Its magnitude response is an inverse of CIC filter. The frequency response can be represented as
-40
-45
-50
-55 -15
-10
-5
0 Frequency (MHz)
10
15
Figure7: OFDM signal
Where M is the differential delay of CIC filter, N is the Stage of the filter. III. IMPLEMENTATION USING MATLAB The DDC is one of the most fundamental part of communication and has been implemented for LTE-RRH which is current and future technology development in the
Numerical control oscillator-output 0 -10 -20 -30

Power/frequency (dB/Hz)
Spectrum of down converted signal xDown -28 -30 -32 -34 -36 -38 -40 -42 -44
-40
Power (dB)
-50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100 -110 153.57 153.58 153.59 153.6 153.61 Frequency (MHz) 153.62 153.63
-46 -48 -15
Figure8: NCO output

Magnitude Response (dB) 0 -20 -40
Magnitude (dB)
-10
-5
0 Frequency (MHz)
10
15
Figure10: Digital down Converted signal
-60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -180 0 CIC decimator, Decimation factor = 5 CIC compensator, Decimation factor = 2 Halfband decimator, Decimation factor = 2 Cascade response 50 100 150 Frequency (MHz) 200
Figure9: Magnitude Response of CIC, Compensator CIC, Half band decimator.
V. CONCLUSION This paper describes distributed base station with RRH technology and the progressive development of a Digital down Converter for long term evolution signal in Communication system equipment. Multi-mode radios are Capable of operating according to GSM, HSPA, LTE, and WiMAX standards and advanced software configurability are key features in the deployment of more flexible and energyefficient radio networks. The DDC shifts the frequency band of interest down the spectrum to reduce the sampling rate. CIC filter and compensator CIC often includes the resamplers that decimates the signal and minimize aliasing to achieve desired sample rate. Simulation is carried out at each stage of the filter and results are verified using Matlab tool. Advanced RRH internal architectures with DSP techniques can also be implemented to enhance the flexibility of RRH and provide the best solutions and applications, thereby emerging the advance technology and performance to deliver efficient service. VI. REFERENCES
[1] P. P. Vaidyanathan, Multirate Digital Filters, Filter Banks, Polyphase Networks, and Applications: A Tutorial, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 78, pp. 56 93, (1990). [2] http://www.eetindia.co.in/STATIC/PDF/200504/EEIOL_2005APR01_ EMS_RFD_SIG_TA.pdf [3] http://www.hunteng.co.uk/support/ddctheory.htm [4] rfdesign.com/com/mag/605RFDF3.pdf [5] www.eetindia.co.in/STATIC/PDF/200504/EEIOL_2005APRO1_EMS_
RFD_SIG_TA.pdf [6] www.altera.com [7] www.mathworks.in/help/dsp/ref/dsp. digitaldownconverterclass.html [8] http://e2e.ti.com/cfs-file.ashx/_key/telligent-evolution-componentsAttachments/00-220-01-00-00-09-58-63/DDCDUCFundamentals_5F00_030205.zip [9] E. B. Hogenauer, An economical class of digital filters for Decimation and interpolation IEEE Trans. On Acoustics, Speech. And Signal Processing, Vol. 29, pp. 155-162, April [10] Jovanovic-Dolecek, G.; Mitral, S.K.; INAOE, Puebla, Mexico, Efficient sharpening of CIC decimation filter. Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 2003. Proceedings. (ICASSP '03). 2003 IEEE International Conference on Issue Date: 6-10 April 2003 On page(s): VI 385-8 vol.6
Circularly Polarized Microstrip Patch Antenna

M. V. Ramana Murthy, Anjali Aithal and Hansika P
TCE Department, BMS Instiiute of Technology, Bangalore-64, India
[bmsit.hodtce@gmail.com]
Abstract- This paper describes the details of design, development, simulation, fabrication and testing of a circularly polarized X band microstrip patch antenna. The parameters have been optimized using Simulation software IE3D. The X band microstrip antenna was designed, developed, fabricated and tested. Expected results have been achieved Key words- Microstrip antenna, dielectric, patch mode, mono polar, circular polarization
dielectric substrate which has a ground plane on other side. II. MICROSTRIP ANTENNA Microstrip patch antennas can be excited in the normal patch mode for boresight radiation and monopolar mode for conical radiation. The monopolar mode can be excited by two shorting posts located to the left and right of the feeding point. However, the resonant frequency of the monopolar mode will be roughly a factor of 2.5 below the fundamental normal patch mode[1].In order to simplify the analysis and performance prediction, the patch is generally square. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the patch is usually 0.3333 o<L < 0.5 o, where o is the free-space wavelength. The patch is selected to be very thin such that t << o (where t is the patch thickness). The height h of the dielectric substrate is usually 0.003 oh0.05 o. The dielectric constant of the substrate ( r) is typically in the range 2.2 r 12. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is desirable since this
I.
INTRODUCTION
A major contributing factor for recent advances of microstrip antennas is the current revolution in electronic circuit miniaturization brought about by developments in large scale integration. As conventional antennas are often bulky and costly part of an electronic system, micro strip antennas based on photolithographic technology are seen as an engineering breakthrough. These antennas can be integrated easily with printed strip-line feed networks and active devices. Rectangular and circular micro strip resonant patches have been used extensively in a variety of array configurations. In its most fundamental form, a microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side and a Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane.
provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth and better radiation. In order to design a compact microstrip patch antenna, substrates with higher dielectric constants must be used which are less efficient and result in narrower bandwidth. Hence a trade-off must be realized between the antenna dimensions and antenna power. III. DESIGN The patch antenna is designed for a given dielectric and centre frequency. A MATLAB code is developed to obtain the dimensions and the theoretical results of various antenna parameters. Two antennas were designed with center frequencies 8.125 and 8.3GHZ. The design parameters computed are Substrate thickness h=1.6mm Dielectric constant r=2.55 Centre frequency f0=8.125G Hz Theoretical length L=10.477 mm Theoretical width W=13.857 mm
Polarisation
Frequency GHZ
Designed (in mm) L= 10.6477 W= 13.857
Optimised (In mm) L=18.94 W=10.95 L=10.96 W=9.8 L=10.96 W=9.8
Feed Point (x,y) (0,-2.81)
Linear Circular
8.125 8.3
.(1.525, 1.675) (1.45, 1.36)
V. FABRICATION The fabrication process includes two parts; first is conversion of the Gerber file into the thin film and then the second is conversion of thin film into the antenna. Design was done in AUTO CAD. Photo platter is used to coat a plastic fim with silver halide and the hin film is obtained. The antenna is then placed on a ground plane which is made up of Aluminium. RT Duroid is the substrate chosen ( r=2.55). Dry film lamination, developing, pickling , plating and etching are the steps are the steps in conversion of thin film into antenna. VI TESTING
IV. SIMULATION
A. Return loss measurement
The design parameters are mentioned in the table shown below. The IE3D simulation software was used for simulation and optimization. The software facilitates modeling the structures with finite ground planes and differential feed structures. 3D and 2D display of current distribution, radiation patterns could be simulated in the software. The optimised values are indicated in TABLE I. The simulation indicated good return loss.
The return loss of the fabricated antenna was measured using a network analyser. The VNA is calibrated first by attaching the calibration device with the help of coaxial cable and ecalibration is done. In the VNA the results and the return loss in the specified frequencies are observed.
B.Testing in Anechoic chamber
TABLE I
OPTIMISED PARAMETRS
The testing is performed in a chamber having walls covered with RF absorbers. The rectangular chamber is usually designed to simulate free-space conditions and maximise the volume of quiet zone.. Reflected energy is minimised by the use of high-quality RF absorbers. The results of anechoic chamber include radiation pattern, cross polarization and axial ratio.
Fig. 6 Cross polarisation measurement by selecting the best curves Fig. 4 Measured radiation pattern when the input frequency is 8.3 GHz
The tested results were found to be short of designed results. Simulation results were checked in different simulation soft ware Ensemble. Keeping the dimensions constant, the feed-point were modified as shown in TABLE II to give the required parameters to obtain circular polarization.
TABLE II: PARAMTERS FOR CIRCULAR POLARIZATION Frequency 8.125 GHZ 8.3GHZ Length (mm) 10.96 10.64 Width (mm) 9.8 9.7 Feed Point(x,y) (2.445, -1.875) (1.95, -1.46)
The results obtained are placed in TABLE III. TABLE III:RESULTS

Fig. 5 Measured radiation pattern when the input frequency is 8.125 GHz Polarisation of Antenna Circularly Polarised Circularly polarised Return Loss (dB) -1.5 -15.5 Cross Polarization (dB) -16 -15.4 Axial Ratio 1.86 1.9 Center Frequency(GHZ) 8.125 8.3
VII. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES A microstrip patch antenna has designed for satellite applications check out applications. MAT LAB code was used for computation of antenna parameters. AUTO CAD was used for developing physical configuration. I3ED simulation software was used for optimizing antenna parameters. Antenna is tested with Network analyser and in Anechoic chamber. The return loss and radiation pattern measured are found to be as expected. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work is carried out with the excellent support from Shaji V Sebastian and Viswanadha Srivani , the experts from a PSU .
[1] John. D. Kraus,Ronald J Marhefka, Ahmed S Kahn Antenna and wave propagation Edition 4, Tata Mc Graw Hill 2006, pp100 -200. [2] Kai Fong Lee and Kwai Man Luk, Microstrip Patch antenna, Imperial College Press, pp300-420. [3] Yi Huang and Kevin Boyle, Antennas from theory to practice , WILEY,pp184-190. [4] Garg Ramesh, Microstrip Antenna design HandbookArtech House 2001, pp400-600. [5]JR James and Peter S Hall Handbook of Microstrip antennas, Vol 1, pp800-924. [6] Keyoor Gosalia and Gianlucca Lazzi, Reduced Size, Dual -Polarized Microstrip Patch Antenna for wireless Communications, IEEE Transactions on antennas & propagation, Vol 51, No 9, sep 2003, pp2182-87.
GPS- GSM BASED INTER-CITY BUSES DISTANCE PREDICTOR and DISPLAY SYSTEM
Asmita A1, Kiran A R2, G R Udupi3
Department of Electronics and Communication, VTU University Vishwanathrao Deshpande Rural Institute of Technology, Haliyal(U.K), India 3 Department of Electronics and Communication, VTU University Vishwanathrao Deshpande Rural Institute of Technology, Haliyal(U.K), India
vsasmita@gmail.com 1 grudupi@yahoo.com 3
1
iTriangle infotech pvt ltd Vijayanagar Bangalore, India

kiran@itriangle.in2 Abstract This proposed work is an attempt to design a tracking unit that uses the global positioning system to determine the precise location of a vehicle to which it is attached and using GSM modem this information can be transmitted to remote user. It provides tele-monitoring system for inter-cities transportation buses. This system contains embedded system, GPS and GSM modems along with ARM processor that is installed in the bus stops. During bus motion, its location can be reported by SMS message. The SMS so generated is displayed in the bus stops (as well as in the bus if required) for the commuters information about the arrival of which bus and from what distance. A software package is developed to read, process, analyze and store the incoming SMS messages. Keywords Embedded ARM, GPS, GSM, and NMEA Protocol.
I INTRODUCTION Proposed system is designed for the commuter travelling by inter-city buses waiting for their bus to arrive at the bus stop. In big hi-tech cities people travelling from one place to another, though within the city they waste their lot of time waiting for their bus at the bus stops. In such case the commuters start waiting at the bus stop without knowing where actually the bus is? It would be of help if there was a system which would give the information about the bus arrival time or the distance of the bus from the bus stop. So that the commuter would know the exact location of the bus, accordingly estimate the time of arrival of bus at the bus stop and try to be present at the bus stop in time. Also in hi tech cities many other linguistic people travel by the inter-city bus
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013 in such case the displays at the bus stops help them to get the bus information on their own as the displays are in English language. Hence this proposed system is so designed to get the real time information of the buses, calculate the distance of bus from the stops and display it on the displays placed at the bus stops or even have the facility to get the message on their own hand held mobile sets. GSM and GPS based tracking system will provide effective, real time vehicle location, and reporting. A GPS- GSM based tracking system will inform where the vehicle is and, is at what distance. The system uses geographic position and time information from the Global Positioning Satellites. The system has one On- Board GPS Module" which resides in the vehicle to be tracked. The other On-Board module consists of a GSM modem and ARM processor interfaced with the LCD display unit at the bus stop (as well as in the bus if required). It can provide tele-monitoring and management system for intercities transportation vehicles such as buses [1]. During vehicle motion, its real-time parameters such as location and the calculated distance are reported by SMS message. The system takes advantage of wireless technology in providing powerful management transportation engine. The use of GSM and GPS technologies allows the system to track vehicle and provides the most up-to-date information. This system finds its application in real time traffic surveillance. It could be used as a valuable tool for real time traveller information, congestion monitoring, and system evaluation [4]. An intelligent, automated vehicle tracking system can resolve following problems such as, late arrivals of buses, waste of time and resources, unsafe driving habits, assigned routes, inefficient dispatching, and passengers dissatisfaction. This can lead to better traffic flow modelling. This project includes various features like ingenuity, simplicity of design and easy implementation. II PROPOSED SYSTEM The proposed system is as shown in figure [1].
Fig. 1 Proposed system
GPS satellite sends GPS data to the server. The device at other end contains a SIM card which is used to communicate with the local GSM network thus the device uses GPS as well as GSM network. The data on the device is send to the tracking server through the local network. On the tracking server there is a software component to get the data from the device. Geo fence is created on the Google maps provided so whenever the device enters the geo fence the server software component collects the longitude and latitude points and calculates the distance from the bus stop, an alert will be sent to the displays at the bus stops and to registered mobile number. [3] III HARDWARE DESIGN Hardware framework for tracking system is shown in Fig 2. System contains two main parts one, high Performance ARM controller with interfaced display unit, and GSM modem with appropriate power supply to each unit placed at the bus stop figure 2. And a GPS module is placed in the vehicle.
GSM MODULE
ARM PROCESSO R BATTERY MANAGEMENT
LCD DISPLAY UNIT
Fig. 2 Block diagram of system at the bus stop
IV CALCULATION OF DISTANCE
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013 The project is designed to calculate the distance of the moving bus from the bus stop according to the Geo-Fence and the same calculated distance is displayed on displays at the bus stops and even to the cell phone of registered subscribers. The calculation are done on the basis of a spherical earth (ignoring ellipsoidal effects) which is accurate enough for most calculations purpose. [In fact, the earth is very slightly ellipsoidal; using a spherical model gives errors typically up to 0.3%]. The formulae used are called Haversine formula. The Haversine formula shown below calculates the great circle distance between two points that is the shortest distance over the Earths surface. dlon=lon2 lon1 dlat= lat2 lat1 a = (sin(dlat/2))^2 + cos(lat1) * cos(lat2) * (sin(dlon/2))^2 c = 2* atan2(sqrt(a), sqrt(1-a)) d=R*c Where R is the radius of the Earth [mean radius R= 6371km] dlon is the difference of two longitudinal values dlat is the difference of two latitudinal values Angles are in radians. A common NMEA Sentence used for location is: $GPRMC,161229.487,A,3723.2475,N,12158.3416,W,0.13,3 0 9.62,120598, ,*10 V WORKING PRINCIPLE Initially the bus starts from its home place. The vehicle is attached with the GPS module and hence the system continuously gives the latitude and longitude points along with many other parameters in the form of data packets using NMEA protocol. The GPS data is sent to the server by the GPS satellite. The server then runs software that takes longitude and latitude values and with the code to calculate the distance, calculates the distance based on the Geo-Fence between the two points over Earth surface. The calculated distance along with the details of the bus like the bus number and any other details like the route of the bus type of message is prepared and is shot to the GSM antenna. On the other hand the module at the bus stop with the GSM module and with the registered SIM in it receives the data from the server in the form of SMS. The system here continuously polls for the new messages for the display to keep the updated distance of the moving bus approaching the bus stop. The SMS so received by the GSM is communicated to the processor by UART; the processor then displays the same received SMS on the large LCD displays placed in the bus stops. A. Flowchart The flowchart for system function of the embedded system at the bus stop is as shown in figure [3]. VI RESULT The result that is, expected bus and its distance is as shown in figure [4a]. The LCD display displays the bus number and the distance from the bus stop of the bus that is arriving at the stop. This SMS is also got by the registered subscriber. The SMS is shot by the server. The new SMS is shot for every fixed slot of time. VII CONCLUSION The system has real-time capability, emerges in order to strengthen the relations among commuter in cities and the inter city buses and road by putting modern information technologies together and able to forms a real time accurate, effective comprehensive transportation system. This system has many advantages such as large capability, wide areas range, low operation costs, effective, Strong expandability and Easy to use in vehicle traffic administration. Upgrading this setup is very easy which makes it open to future requirement which also makes it more efficient. The system can also be used to get many other information useful for the proper management of transportation are: Driver wise improper stopping Details of Missed trips Jurisdiction wise Scheduled trips for the day Speed violation Reports by Area name (Trip history in area names) Area traveled by a vehicle on any selected date and time, sector wise Reports by Location (Trip history in Map Location) - Selected date and time. This gives status of motion, location at that instance and speed of the vehicle. Vehicle Travelled Path Report Stoppage violation reports
START
POWER ON
INITIALIASATION OF THE SYSTEM.REGISTRATION OF SIM,UART INITIALIASATION.
POLLING FOR NEW SMS FROM SERVER OF DETAILS OF BUS
IS SMS RECEVIED ?
Y
PROCESSOR PROCESSES THE SMS FOR DISPLAYING AT THE BUS STOP
Fig. 4a Displays of details of bus on LCD and mobile set
.
LCD DISPLAY DISPLAYS THE SMS PLACED AT BUS STOP SMS ALSO SHOT TO OTHER REGISTERED SUBSCRIBERS
REFERENCES
[12] M. AL-Rousan, A. R. AI-Ali and K. Darwish GSM-Based Mobile Tele-Monitoring and Management System for Inter-Cities Public Transportations,International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), ComputerEngineering Dept., American University of Sharjah, UAE in 2004, pages859-862. T.Shyam Ramanat h, A.Sudharsan, U.Pelix Udhayaraj, Drunken Driving and Rash Driving Prevention System, International Conference on Mechanical and Electrical Technology (ICMET 2010), Sri Sai Ram Engineering College, Chennai, India in 2010, page 603. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 3, Issue 5, May-2012 1 ISSN 2229-5518 IJSER 2012 http://www .ijser.org Tracking System Using Gps And Gsm: Practical Approach Sameer Darekar, Atul Chikane, Rutujit Diwate, Amol Deshmukh, Prof. Archana Shinde For information regarding Automotive Navigation System http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_navigation_system. International Journal of Engineering Trends and TechnologyVolume3Issue22012 ISSN: 2231-5381 http://www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 161GPS GSM Based Tracking System Abid khan, Ravi Mishra Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Department SSCET, CSVTU, Bhilai, India Sr. Assistant Professor Electronics and Electrical Engineering Department SSCET, CSVTU, Bhilai, India
[13] PROCESS CONTINUES FOR THE NEXT NEW SMS TO BE DISPLAYED
[14]
Fig. 3 Flowchart of processes carried out by system
.Missed Pickup point/bus stand Detail Report
[15] [16]
ACKNOWLEDGMENT I owe a debt of gratitude to our guide Dr G R Udupi Principal VDRIT and iTriangle infotech pvt ltd Mr Katti, Mr Kiran and Mr Vigneesh who stood as assets in completion of this project. I thank for their valuable time and resources.
IMPLEMENTATION AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WI-MAX NETWORKS

T. karthikeya sharma1, A.G Ananth2, R Bhagya3
1
T.KarthikeyaSsharma - Department of Telecommunication RV College of Engineering, Bangalore 560 001, India
Dr. A.G Ananth Professor Department of Telecommunication RV College of Engineering, Bangalore 560 001, India
3
R Bhagya asst professor Department of Telecommunication RV College of Engineering, Bangalore 560 001, India
1
<t.karthiksharma@gmail.com>,
<ananthag@rvce.edu.in>
<bhagyar@rvce.edu.in>
Abstract IEEE 802.16e WIMAX (Worldwide interoperable Microwave Access) is the upcoming wireless system which can offer high speed voice, video and data service up to the customer end. It offers both LOS&N-LOS wireless communication. By using WIMAX Technology we can overcome the limitation of short coverage area, lack of security and low data rate. The aim of this paper is the performance evaluation of a WIMAX system under different combinations of digital modulation and different communication channels AWGN and fading channels. And the WIMAX system incorporates Reed-Solomon (RS) encoder with Convolutional encoder with and 23 rated codes in FEC channel coding. Orthogonal frequency division multiple accesses use adaptive modulation technique such as(BPSK,QPSK,16-QAM,64QAM) on the physical layer of WIMAX and it uses the concept of
cyclic prefix that adds additional bits at the transmitter end. The signal is transmitted through the channel and it is received at the receiver end. Then the receiver removes these additional bits in order to minimize the inter symbol interference, to improve the bit error rate and to reduce the power spectrum. The simulation results of estimated Bit Error Rate (BER) displays that the implementation of interleaved RS code (255, 239, 8) with 2/3 rated Convolutional code under BPSK modulation technique is highly effective to combat in the WIMAX communication system.
Keywords OFDM, Block Coding, Convolution coding, Additive White Gaussian Noise, Fading Channel, orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM); Line-of-Sight (LoS); Physical (PHY) layer.
INTRODUCTION
Conventional high-speed broadband solutions are based on wired-access technologies such as digital subscriber line (dsl). This type of solution is difficult to deploy in remote rural areas, and furthermore it lacks support for terminal mobility. Mobile broadband wireless access (bwa) offers a flexible and cost-effective solution to these problems. The IEEE wimax/802.16 is a promising technology for broadband wireless metropolitan area networks (wmans) as it can provide high data rates (up to 100 mbps), extended coverage (up to 50 km) for fixed and mobile users (5-15 km), network scalability, security& support of quality of services. It provides a wireless backhaul network that enables high speed internet access to residential, small and medium business customers, as well as internet access for Wi-Fi hot spots and cellular base stations. It supports both point to multipoint (p2mp) and multipoint-to multipoint (mesh) modes. In this way, wimax will connect rural areas in developing countries as well as underserved metropolitan areas. Mobile wimax supports full mobility, nomadic and fixed systems. in this paper, we focused on wimax and physical layer simulation. Initially, we analysed the basic concept of wimax including its standards and relationship with other technologies. then, it presents a model for simulating wimax physical layer using simulink in mat lab. Finally, performance of the system implementation with different snr is tested and ber versus snr curves are presented. Wimax has its two closest competitors, Wi-Fi and universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS).
I. IEEE 802.16 WIMAX STANDARDS
approved on December 2001 and it has gone through many amendments to accommodate new features and functionalities. The current version of the standard IEEE 802.16, approved on September 2004.In the IEEE 802.16e-2005, this layer has been modified to scalable OFDMA, where FFT size is variable and can take any one of the value: 128,512,10,24& 2,048. The variable FFT size allow for optimum operation of the system over a wide range of channel bandwidths and radio conditions; this PHY layer has been accepted by WIMAX for mobile and portable operations and is also referred to as mobile WiMAX. Major shortcomings of WiMAX: There are several major shortcomings of WiMAX which are still a headache to the engineers. Those are as follows: Data Rates: Mobile WiMAX uses Customer Premises to fixed WiMAX Equipment (CPE) which is attached to computers (either desktop or laptop or PDA) and a lower gain Omni-directional antenna is installed which is difficult to use compared Bit Error Rate: General concept of WiMAX is that, it provides high speed data rate within its maximum range (30 miles). If WiMAX operates the radio signals to its maximum range then the Bit Error Rate (BER) increases. So, it is better to use lower bit rates within short range to get higher data rates.
Standard, which is also called Wireless MAN. The IEEE802.16 group was formed in 1998 to develop an air interface standard for wireless broadband. The groups initial focus was the development of a LoSbased point-to multipoint wireless broadband system for operation in the 1066GHz millimetre wave band. The first version of the standard IEEE802.16 was
II.
F EATURE OF WIMAX:
1. 2. 3. 4.
Ofdm based physical layer High data rate Wimax mac layer is responsible for QOS. wimax mac layer support real time, nonreal time and best effort data traffic and its
high data rate, sub channelization, and flexible scheduling improve the QOS; 5. Flexible architecture: wimax architecture is very flexible. It can support point to point and point to multipoint connection also support IP based architecture. 6. Mobility support: wimax offer optimized handover which support full mobility application such as voice over internet protocol (VOIP). it has also the power saving mechanism which increases the battery life of handheld devices; 7. Scalability: wimax offer scalable network architecture that support user roaming indifferent networks. it also enhances the broadband access capability, and
It even can maintain very fast data rate in a non-line of sight condition and multipath environment.
A. Randomizer
The Randomizer performs randomization of input data on each burst on each allocation to avoid long sequence of continuous ones and zeros. This is implemented with a Pseudo Random Binary Sequence (PRBS) generator which uses a 15stage shift register with a generator polynomial of with XOR gates in feedback configuration as shown in Fig.
Fig.2 Randomizer
FIG.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WI -MAX NETWORKS
III.
WIMAX PHYSICAL LAYER
b.
Reed-Solomon encoder
Physical layer set up the connection between the communicating devices and is responsible for transmitting the bit sequence. It also defines the type of modulation and demodulation as well as transmission power. WIMAX 802.16 PHY-layer considers two types of transmission techniques OFDM and OFDMA. Both of these techniques have frequency band below 11 GHz and use TDD and FDD as its duplexing technology. WIMAX physical layer is based on the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). OFDM is a good choice of high speed data transmission, multimedia communication and digital video services.
The encoding process for RS encoder is based on Galois Field Computations to do the calculations of the redundant bits. Galois Field is widely used to represent data in error control coding and is denoted by GF .WIMAX uses a fixed RS Encoding technique based on GF(28) which is denoted as RS(N = 255, K = 239, T = 8) Where: N = Number of Byte T = Number of bytes corrected
Eight tail bits are added to the data just before it is presented to the Reed Solomon Encoder stage. This stage requires two polynomials for its operation called code generator polynomial g(x) and field generator polynomial p(x). The code generator polynomial is used for generating the Galois Field Array whereas the field generator polynomial is used to calculate the redundant information bits which are appended at the start of the output data. These polynomials are defined by the standard as below: Code Generator Polynomial: p(x)=x8+x4+x3+x2+1
information symbol to be encoded is transformed into an n-bit symbol, where m/n is the code rate (n m) and the transformation is a function of the last k information symbols, where k is the constraint length of the code .
d.
Puncturing process
Puncturing is the process of systematically deleting bits from the output stream of a low-rate encoder in order to reduce the amount of data to be transmitted, thus forming a high-rate code. The process of puncturing is used to create the variable coding rates needed to provide various error protection levels to the users of the system. The different rates that can be used are rate 1/2, rate 2/3, rate 3/4, and rate 5/6.
Field Generator Polynomial: g(x) = (x +.0) (x +.1 ) (x + 2 ) (x +3)
The properties of Reed-Solomon codes make them suitable to applications where errors occur in bursts. Reed-Solomon error correction is a coding scheme which works by first constructing a polynomial from the data symbols to be transmitted, and then sending an oversampled version of the polynomial instead of the original symbols themselves. A Reed-Solomon code is specified as RS (n, k,t) with l-bit symbols. This means that the encoder takes k data symbols of l bits each and adds 2t parity symbols to construct an n- symbol code word. Thus, n, k and t can be defined as: n: number of bytes after encoding; k: number of data bytes before encoding, and t: number of data bytes that can be corrected. The error correction ability of any RS code is determined by (n k), the measure of redundancy in the block.
c.
Fig.3 Puncture bits
RSCC encoded data are interleaved by a block interleave. The size of the block is depended on the numbers of bit encoded per sub channel in one OFDM symbol, Ncbps. In IEEE 802.16, the interleaver is defined by two step permutation. The first ensures that adjacent coded bits are mapped onto nonadjacent subcarriers.
e.
Modulation
Convolutional Encoder
The outer RS encoded block is fed to inner binary Convolutional encoder. Convolutional codes are used to correct the random errors in the data transmission. A convolution code is a type of FEC code that is specified by CC(m, n, k), in which each m-bit
Modulation depending their size and on the basis of different modulation schemes like BPSK, grey mapped QPSK The modulation has done on the basis of incoming bits by dividing among the groups of i. That is why there are 2i points. The total number of bits represented according to constellation mapped of different modulation techniques. The size for BPSK, QPSK, and 16 QAM is 1, 2, 4 and 16 respectively.
Guard band, pilot carriers and DC carrier are inserted in the structure b e f o r e using the IFFT to convert the frequency domain signals into time domain.
Fig.5 Block diagram of IFFT
The receiver blocks are basically the inverse of the transmitter blocks. When communicating over a wireless radio channel the received signal cannot be simply modelled as a copy of the transmitted signal corrupted by noise. At the receiving side, a reverse process (including de-interleaving and decoding) is executed to obtain the original data bits. IV. Experimental Results
1. Simulation Parameters In our MATLAB implementation of the physical layer, there are some parameters in which specified as OFDM prams and some are specified as IEEE802.16 prams which can be accessed globally. OFDM Symbol Parameter: There are two types of OFDM parameters (primitive and derived) that characterize OFDM symbol completely. The later one can be derived from the former one because of fixed relation between them. IEEE802.16-e OFDM physical layer parameters: The system supports four modulation schemes and two channel models, namely (AWGN) and Rayleigh. Simulation Results During this simulation process cyclic prefix was used to minimize the Inter symbol Interference (ISI) on the basis of following adaptive modulation techniques. This simulation was performed using MATLAB2009a on an Intel Core2Duo 2.93 GHz/2MB Cache processor using Windows-XP service package-2 operating system The performance of the simulated WiMAX network based on IEEE-802.16e was shown in the set of figures. V. Conclusion
Fig.4 Constellation Diagram
f.
Inverse FFT
The OFDM symbol threats the source symbols to perform frequency-domain into time domain. If we chose the N number of subcarriers for the system to evaluate the performance of WIMAX the basic function of IFFT receives the N number of sinusoidal and N symbols at a time.
g.
Cyclic Prefix Insertion
To maintain the frequency orthogonally and reduce the delay due to multipath propagation, cyclic prefix is added in OFDM signals. To do so, before transmitting the signal, it is added at the beginning of the signal. The ISI is totally eliminated by the design when the CP length L is greater than multipath delay.
This paper described current trends in WiMAX systems for achieving high speed mobile wireless access services and outlined the technologies supporting these systems. The performance of the WiMAX-PHY layer based on the IEEE 802.16e standard was evaluated and rates; (iii) FEC coding schemes, and (IV) noise levels. As a result of the
comparative study, it was found that: when channel conditions are poor, energy efficient schemes such as BPSK or QPSK were used and as the channel quality improves, 16-QAM or 64-QAM was used. It adjusts the modulation method almost instantaneously for optimum data transfer, thus making a most efficient use of the bandwidth and increasing the overall system capacity.
Mandatory channel coding per modulation
Fig.8. Channel Spectrum at 10db and 30db
Fig.6 Simulated Coding, Modulation Schemes and noisy channel.
Fig.9. Scatter plots for 16-QAM at S/N=10dB and 30dB
Fig.7.Transmitted signal
Fig.10. SNR Vs BER performance analysis in Wi-Max networks for BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64 QAM modulation
Fig.11. Performance at different modulation schemes for 1/2&3/4code rates in AWGN channel
Reference
[1] Mai Tran, George Zaggoulos, Andrew Nix and Angela Doufexi, Mobile WiMAX: performance Analysis and Comparison with Experimental Results Intel White Paper, Wi-Fi and WiMAX Solutions: Understanding Wi-Fi and WiMAX as Metro-Access Solutions, Intel Corporation, 2004. A. Yarali, B. Mbula, A. Tumula, WiMAX: A Key to Bridging the Digital Divide, IEEE Volume, 2007, pp.159 164. WiMAX Forum, Fixed, Nomadic, Portable and Mobile Applications for 802.16-2004 and 802.16e WiMAX Networks, November, 2005. T. TAN BENNY BING,"The World Wide Wi- Fi:Technological Trendsand Business Strategies", JOHN WILEY & SONS,INC.,2003 M. Nadeem Khan, S. Ghauri, The WiMAX 802.16e Physical Layer Model, IET International Conference on Volume, 2008, pp.117 120. Kaveh Pahlavan and Prashant Krishnamurthy, Principles of Wireless Networks, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2006. B. Chaitanya, T.S. Prasad, K. Sruthi, T. Tejaswi,Adaptive Modulation Techniques for WIMAX," (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, Vol. 2, No. 5, May 2010
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[7] [8]
Master Control of a 3 Phase Generator (Alternator) Through LIN Protocol

Kavitha S[1], Sushanth J Hande[2], Srivatsa G[3],S Santhosh Kumar[4]
[1]
Senior Lecturer, Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Atria IT, Bangalore- 24 [2],[3],[4] Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Atria IT, Bangalore- 24 ramp time, load response cut off speed and Excitation (current) limitation can be set as per requirements, manually or can be set automatically (software) depending on the load or battery condition. Master features are: Full control of alternator Manual and automatic control Support for multiple slaves II. LITERATURE SURVEY
Abstract-This paper deals with control of an alternator through LIN protocol. It is designed mainly to increase the efficiency of the alternator thus increasing the overall fuel efficiency. This model also helps for easy testing and commissioning of the alternator. It is also aimed at reducing the load on the ECU so that it could concentrate more on the safety critical operations like the ABS, air bags, etc. There are four major parameters in controlling an alternator, they are the voltage set value, load response ramp time, load response cut-off speed and the excitation limitation. These parameters are sent accordingly to the alternator i.e. the slave by the master as per the requirements through LIN protocol. The master here transmits the parameters as per the LIN protocol onto the LIN bus which is read by the slave i.e. the alternator and outputs accordingly. Key words: LIN, alternator, LIN bus, fuel efficiency, 3 phase generator
I.
INTRODUCTION
The "Master control of a 3 Phase generator through LIN protocol" consists of a 3 phase generator with an inbuilt LIN Regulator, a master comprising of a microcontroller with a LIN transceiver, a manual or software control unit and a display unit. The microcontrollerused here is PIC18F4520 by Microchip and LIN transceiver TPIC1021A-Q1 which is by Texas Instruments. MPLAB IDE v8.33 is used as compiler and also as burning software. The focus is mainly on the master device (Actuator Control Unit- A C U) which is the PIC18F4520 microcontroller with the LIN transceiver. This master takes the input from the manual or software control block, converts the data suitable for transmission over the LIN Bus to the LIN regulator of the 3 Phase generator (Alternator). The regulator is capable of communicating only through LIN protocol. Here the regulator is the slave and the microcontroller with the LIN transceiver is the master. The control parameters such as voltage control, timing control etc. are sent to the regulator by the master (i.e.) through the LIN bus. The master has to send these updates and should communicate with the user to take appropriate actions. The LIN protocol supports a Baud rate of 9600 or 19200 bits per second. The baud rate used here is 9600 bits per second. Here the master controls every aspect or parameter of the alternator. In the absence of the master, a typical regulator regulates the output voltage to a fixed voltage. This limits the generator operation and hence its full potential cannot be utilized. In order to overcome this limitation the master is designed in such a way that the voltage set value, load response
Evaluation of an automotive alternator as a power generation element for its use on an alternative energy system [1] characterized by an automotive alternator for its use in electric generation related with alternative energies systems which is possible to obtain output power well beyond the machine nominal rating, making it a useful alternative for power generation systems. Additional electronics results in a need for more electrical energy in automobiles and other vehicles. Because of this increase in electrical load, higher power demands are being placed on automotive alternator systems [2]. High-reactance alternators with diode rectifiers and field control are widely used in the automotive industry. Evolution of local interconnect network (LIN) [3] takes the benefits of networking into even the simplest sensors and actuators of the vehicle. This has been economically unsound due to product volumes being spread out to support many proprietary protocols. The LIN specification could allow to gains momentum as a global standard for networked sensor and actuator systems for the automotive industry. Many mechanical parts of automobiles are being replaced with microcontrollers. And these microcontrollers are controlling various parts of the automobile, so communications between microcontrollers must be reliable. For automotive communication several protocols have been introduced, and LIN, CAN, and Flex-Ray are the most widely known protocols [4]. In real-time systems such as automotive, a distribution system is used to increase the reliability of the system. As the demand and complexity of the distribution system have increased, several automotive communication protocols have been introduced such as LIN, CAN, and Flex-Ray [5] gateway system was introduced and has become one of the most important components. The gateway makes possible node-to-node communicate over different communication protocols. Automobiles have made significant progress in increased safety and comfort, higher fuel efficiency, less pollution, easier handling, etc. by using communication
protocols [6]. All this is due to the tremendous evolution in electronics, which offer higher performance at lower cost at a very rapid pace. A comparison of fieldbus protocols: protocols LIN 1.3, LIN 2.07 and TTP/A to the requirements of low-cost body electronic networks in the automotive domain. The examined protocols all aim at distributed smart sensor/actuator networks and provide support for low-cost implementation on standard microcontroller nodes of different vendors. The LIN specification such as LIN 1.3, LIN 2.0 [7] defines also a complete application framework supporting developing and configuring LIN networks. To obtain asymmetrical output voltage can be obtained from the automobile alternator windings using Three-Phase Power Factor Correction Circuit [8] . Also it is presented a detailed analysis of the proposed topology, input current ripple, design of the line inductors and duty cycles. III. LIN PROTOCOL
Node Concept: The workflow described above generates the complete LIN cluster interaction module and the developer only has to supply the application performing the logic function of a node. Although much of the LIN specifications assumes a software implementation of most functions, alternative realizations are promoted. In the latter case, the LIN documentation structure shall be seen as a description model only: A node in a LIN cluster interfaces to the physical bus wire using a frame transceiver. The frames are not accessed directly by the application; a signal based interaction layer is added in between. Concept of Operation: A LIN cluster consists of one master task and several slave tasks. A master node contains the master task as well as a slave task. All other nodes contain a slave task only. A sample LIN cluster with one master node and two slave nodes is depicted in Fig 1.The master task decides when and which frame shall be transferred on the bus. The slave tasks provide the data transported by each frame. Both the master task and the slave task are parts of the Frame handler.
LIN (Local Interconnect Network) is a serial network protocol used for communication between components in vehicles like power windows, cruise control, vipers, etc. The need for a cheap serial network arose as the technologies and the facilities implemented in the car grew, while the CAN bus was too expensive to implement for every component in the car. European car manufacturers started using different serial communication topologies, which led to compatibility problems. A. Background In the late 1990s, the LIN Consortium was founded by five automakers (BMW, Volkswagen Audi Group, Volvo Cars, DaimlerChrysler), with the technologies supplied (networking and hardware expertise) from Volcano Automotive Group and Motorola. The first fully implemented version of the new LIN specification (LIN version 1.3) was published in November 2002. In September 2003, version 2.0 was introduced to expand capabilities and make provisions for additional diagnostics features. LIN may be used also over the vehicle's battery power-line with a special DC-LIN transceiver. B. Basic concepts LIN protocol has the following properties: single-master, multiple-slave organization (i.e. no bus arbitration) guarantee of latency times for signal transmission selectable length of MESSAGE FRAME: 0 to 8 bytes configuration flexibility multi-cast reception with time synchronization, without quartz or ceramics resonator in slave nodes data-checksum security, and error detection detection of defect nodes in the network minimum cost for semiconductor components (small diesize, single-chip systems)
Fig.1: LIN cluster with one master node and two slave nodes Frame Structure: The structure of a frame is constructed of a break followed by four to eleven byte fields, labeled is as shown in Fig 2.Each byte field 2 is transmitted as a serial byte. The LSB of the data is sent first and the MSB last. The start bit is encoded as a bit with value zero (dominant) and the stop bit is encoded as a bit with value one (recessive).
Fig.2: The structure of a LIN frame Break: The break symbol is used to signal the beginning of a new frame. A break is always generated by the master task (in the master node) and it shall be at least 13 bits of dominant value, including the start bit, followed by a break delimiter. The break delimiter shall be at least one nominal bit time long. A slave node shall use a break detection threshold of 11 nominal bit times. Synch Byte:Synch is a byte field with the data value 0x55.A slave task shall always be able to detect the break/synch symbol sequence, even if it expects a byte field (assuming the
byte fields are separated from each other). If this happens, detection of the break/synch sequence shall abort the transfer in progress and processing of the new frame shall commence. Protected Identifier: A protected identifier consists of two subfields; the identifier and the identifier parity. Bit 0 to 5 is the identifier and bit 6 and 7 is the parity. Identifier: Six bits are reserved for the identifier (ID), values in the range 0 to 63 can be used. The identifiers are split in four categories: Values 0 to 59 (0x3b) are used for signal-carrying frames, 60 (0x3c) and 61 (0x3d) are used to carry diagnostic data, 62 (0x3e) is reserved for user-defined extensions, 63 (0x3f) is reserved for future protocol enhancements. Parity: The parity is calculated on the identifier bits as shown in equations (1) and (2) P0 = ID0 ID1 ID2 ID4 P1 = ~ (ID1 ID3 ID4 ID5) (1) (2)
Where TBit is the nominal time required to transmit a bit, as defined in LIN Physical Layer. The maximum space between the bytes is an additional 40% duration compared to the nominal transmission time. The additional duration is split between the frame header (the master task) and the frame response (a slave task). This yields: THeader_Maximum = 1.4 * THeader_Nominal TResponse_Maximum = 1.4 * TResponse_Nominal TFrame_Maximum=THeader_Maximum+ Response_Maximum Each frame slot shall be longer than or equal TFrame_Maximum for the frame specified. IV. ALTERNATOR CONTROL UNIT to
Mapping:The mapping of the bits (ID0 to ID5 and P0 and P1) is shown in Fig 3.
The goal of this paper is to increase the efficiency of the alternator thereby increasing the overall fuel efficiency. Here we have designed a master i.e. an Alternator Control Unit (A.C.U) to control the alternator. The control is by varying the alternator parameters. The ACU consists of the following parts A. PIC18F4520 MICROCONTROLLER Microcontroller is the main processing unit and also can be called as the heart of the A C U. The microcontroller receives the inputs from the user or from a pc, processes the inputs and encodes the data so that it can be understood by the alternator. The PIC18F4520 microcontroller is from the PIC18 family of microcontrollers by microchip. It is an 8-bit microcontroller with 32K Bytes of flash memory. B. LIN TRANSCEIVER The TPIC1021A is the Local Interconnect Network (LIN) physical interface, which integrates the serial transceiver with wake-up and protection features. The LIN bus is a single-wire bidirectional bus typically used for low-speed in-vehicle networks using data rates between 2.4 kbps and 20 kbps. The LIN protocol output data stream on TXD is converted by the TPIC1021A into the LIN bus signal through a current-limited wave-shaping driver as outlined by the LIN Physical Layer Specification Revision 2.0. The receiver converts the data stream from the LIN bus and outputs the data stream via RXD. The LIN bus has two states: dominant state (voltage near ground) and the recessive state (voltage near battery). In the recessive state, the LIN bus is pulled high bythe TPIC1021As internal pull-up resistor (30 kW) and series diode, so no external pull-up components arerequired for slave applications. Master applications require an external pull-up resistor (1 kW) plus a series diode per the LIN specification. C. MAX 232 SERIAL INTERFACE The MAX232 is an integrated circuit, first created by Maxim Integrated Products, that converts signals from an RS232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals. This is
Fig.3: Structure of Protected Identifier
Data: A frame carries between one and eight bytes of data.

The number of bytes contained in a frame with a specific identifier shall be agreed by the publisher and all subscribers. A data byte is transmitted in a byte field.For data entities longer than one byte, the entity LSB is contained in the byte sent first and the entity MSB in the byte sent last (little-endian). The data fields are labeled data 1, data 2 up to maximum data 8. Checksum:The last field of a frame is the checksum. The checksum contains the inverted eight bit sum with carry over all data bytes or all data bytes and the protected identifier. Checksum calculation over the data bytes only is called classic checksum and it is used for communication with LIN 1.3 slaves. Checksum calculation over the data bytes and the protected identifier byte is called enhanced checksum and it is used for communication with LIN 2.0 slaves. Use of classic or enhanced checksum is managed by the master node and it is determined per frame identifier; classic in communication with LIN 1.3 slave nodes and enhanced in communication with LIN 2.0 slave nodes. Frame slots: Each scheduled frame allocates a slot on the bus. The duration of a slot must be long enough to carry the frame even in the worst case. The nominal value for transmission of a frame exactly matches the number of bits sent, i.e. no response space, no byte spaces and no inter-frame space. Therefore: THeader_Nominal = 34 * TBit TResponse_Nominal = 10 * (NData + 1) * TBit TFrame_Nominal=THeader_Nominal+TResponse_No minal
mainly used to communicate with the serial port of the computer. The data is transferred at a baud rate of 9600 bits per second. The software in the computer communicates with the master (A C U). V. LIN REGULATOR
VI.
LIN REGULATORCONTROL
The LIN regulatoris a device which has control over the functionality of the alternator. The parameters it controls are voltage set value, load response ramp time, load response cut off speed and Excitation (current) limitation. A typical regulator regulates the output voltage of an alternator to a fixed value. This limits the generator operation and hence its full potential cannot be utilized. In order to overcome this limitation the master is designed in such a way that the voltage set value, load response ramp time, load response cut off speed and Excitation (current) limitation can be set as per requirements, manually or can be set automatically (software) depending on the load or battery condition.
Functional blocks of Lin regulator control setup is as shown in the Fig 5. Input parameters for the regulating action is taken from the manual or software unit. Received parameters are then processed by the A C U to command the regulator to generate the specified power. Processed outputs are given to the LIN transceiver which transmits those signals onto the LIN bus which is read by the regulator of alternator. Lin transceiver connects the microcontroller to the LIN bus which manages the direction of the data transfer. It takes the responsibility of converting the serial data of 5V to the battery voltage (approximately 12V).Converted signals are transmitted onto the LIN bus which is the only the communication link between the A C U and the regulator of an alternator. The parameters required for controlling action of regulator can be given manually or by software. Manual control is achieved by a keypad and a rotating knob. The software part of the control is established through the serial port of a computer. VII. RESULTS
Fig 4: LIN regulator fields Where, A= Voltage set value. (6 bits) B= Load response ramp time. (4 bits) C= Load response cut-off speed. (4 bits) D= Excitation Limitation. (5 bits) X= Unused.
A. Voltage set value: There is a provision to set various

values starting from 10.6 to 16V with a resolution of 0.1V. When there is no master (A C U) the voltage set value will be a default value which is greater than the battery voltage. B. Load response ramp time: Load response ramp time is a time required by the output current of the alternator to reach its maximum value from initial value. This helps to avoid the damage caused by the sudden burst of current in short interval at low rpms.After the engine starts the alternator, Load response ramp is controlled via Master. The alternator shall start to generate power according to LoadResponseRamp signal from the Master. It has 16 value ranging from 0 to 12 seconds. C. Load response cut-off speed: Load response cut-off speed is the speed above which LRRT will not be applicable. This is provided with 15 preset values ranging between 2400rpm to 9000rpm. It also can be deactivated as per user requirement. D. Excitation Limitation: Excitation limitation refers to the excitation current given to the rotor to excite the alternator to produce the output power. The value of excitation current proportionally increases the output power of an alternator. The range of excitation limitation is between 2A and 7.75A with the resolution of 0.25A.
The fig. 6 illustrates the working setup. The test bench is a platform to test and analyze the performance of the alternator. Then is the virtual load, which is used to add load to the alternator under test, the load value and the current generated both are displayed which can be used to rate the performance of the alternator. The (Digital Storage Oscilloscope) DSO displays the frame that is transmitted to the LIN regulator via the LIN bus from the master. The master is the one which controls the actions of the alternator by varying the control parameters as per the requirements. The programming of the master requires the need of a pc, hence there is a one as shown in the above snapshot. The programming is done through ICD3, which is a burner and as well as a debugger. As debugger it is used to debug the code line by line. The debugger is one of the way to trace out the error in the logic. The test was successful and various parameters were changed and the corresponding output was observed on the test bench.
in the automobiles sector. By doing so the overall life of the battery increases because the power is supplied when needed. The future scope for this is that the A.C.U can be made automatic so that it can decide on the value of each of the parameters. The A.C.U may be upgraded to support other LIN devices(slaves) so that the load on the ECU is decreased. REFERENCES [1] "Evaluation of an automotive alternator as a power generation element for its use on an alternative energysystem "http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j sp?tp=&arnumber=4581195&isnumber=4581062. "Simulation of automotive alternator - solution for increasing electrical power" http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnum ber=5355345&isnumber=5354996. "Evolution of local interconnect network (LIN) solutions" http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnum ber=1286317&isnumber=28572. "A gateway system for an automotive system: LIN, CAN, and FlexRay"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&a rnumber=4618242&isnumber=4618046. "Gateway system with diagnostic function for LIN, CAN and FlexRay"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&a rnumber=4406854&isnumber=4406493. "Communication Protocol Conformance Testing Example LIN" http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnum ber=4234010&isnumber=4233978. "A comparison of fieldbus protocols: LIN 1.3, LIN 2.0,andTTP/A"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j sp?tp=&arnumber=1612600&isnumber=33857. "Three-Phase Power Factor Correction Circuit with Asymmetrical Output for Automobile Applications"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.js p?tp=&arnumber=4470529&isnumber=447. LIN Specification Package Revision 2.0, LIN Consortium, http://www.lin-subbus.org. BOSCH Starter motors and Alternators, BOSCH Ltd. PIC18F4520 Datasheet, (DS51288) Microchip Technology, Inc.
[2]
[3] Fig 5: LIN regulator control block diagram [4]
[5]
[6] Fig. 6: Setup and testing environment VIII. ADVANTAGES [8] [7]
Some of the advantages of implementing the master control are listed below Increase in the efficiency of the generator. Parallel operation between the load and the battery. Testing becomes relatively easy and economical. Can be extensively used in automobiles to increase the fuel efficiency. Reduces the load on the ECU (Engine/Electronic Control Unit) so that it can focus more on the Safety Critical Applications such as the ABS (Anti-Lock Breaking System) etc. IX. CONCLUSION By implementing the A.C.U the efficiency of the alternator increases considerably i.e. a 12% increase in its efficiency i.e. from 60% to 72%. This plays an important role
[9] [10] [11]
Development of Network Management System

Bhavana.V
Digital Communication and Networking, Visvesvaraya Technological University "Jnana Sangama" Machhe Belgaum- 590 018 Karnataka, India
bpal.mj13@gmail.com Abstract A Network Management System has almost become a necessity as Communication network technologies have been evolving extensively in the late decades. The innovation brought in the domain increase the network capabilities. Sometimes Customer may have to face network inconsistencies. Many a times, to fix these issues a skilled employee has to walk into customers premises or reach the network element and fix the problem personally which is time consuming, expensive and tedious. Hence, a Network Management system is designed using Java on the lines of TR069 protocol which auto-configures the system / network where in most of the issues can be fixed (sometimes even before its starts) by constant monitoring of the system by the Auto-Configuration Server. The Open System Interconnection (OSI) network management defines five conceptual areas for managing networks: Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, and Security (FCAPS). An NMS is designed employing TR-069 protocol, such that it has an auto-configuration system which focuses mainly on configuration of the system and also on other aspects of device management as well. Key words: NMS, ACS, TR069, FCAPS, Configuration of the system
Automating the network could mean less number of skilled employee required, easy maintenance of large networks, less expensive, less time consuming and most importantly Customer Satisfaction. Designing a Network Management Systems (NMS) plays a crucial role in commissioning, optimizing, healing and maintaining the telecommunication networks for increasing the operational efficiency.
I. INTRODUCTION A Network Management System (NMS) is a combination of hardware and software used to monitor and administer a computer network or networks. An NMS manages the network elements, also called managed devices. Device management includes faults, configuration, accounting, performance, and security (FCAPS) management. Management tasks include discovering network inventory, monitoring device health and status, providing alerts to conditions that impact system performance, and identification of problems, their source and possible solutions. The comprehensive management of an organization's information technology (IT) infrastructure is a fundamental requirement. Employees and customers rely on IT services where availability and performance mandated, and problems can be quickly identified and resolved. Mean time to repair must be as short as possible to avoid system downtimes where a loss of revenue is possible. There has been a substantial growth in the commercial availability of network management systems and applications for today's enterprise environment. Till date, most of the service providers struggle to keep the customer happy over a longer period of time. The problem is even more when it comes to networking where there will be frequent down times of Internet for Customer. Automating the network to make sure it can detect the bugs at the earliest and possible fix them and continuously monitoring these devices can help in solving most of the problems.
Figure1: End to End Architecture of a Network Management System
A. OSI Network Management Model The Open Systems Interconnection Network Management Framework is a reference Model created to provide a common basis for the Coordinated development of management standards. We employ this frame work to develop a Network Management System using Java which focuses mainly on configuration of the network elements. Basically Network Management framework consists of five conceptual areas that (1) define terminology, (2) create structure, and (3) describe activities for the management of netcentric systems. Listed below are the five areas with their definitions and some examples of the functionality encapsulated within each. 1) Fault Management (FM)
Encompasses fault detection, isolation and the correction of abnormal operation of the Open Systems Interconnection Environment (OSIE). Functionality of FM includes: i. Maintain and examine error logs; ii. Accept and act upon error detection notifications; iii. Trace and identify faults; iv. Carry out sequences of diagnostic tests; and v. Correct faults. This is maintained at minimal in our NMS. 2) Configuration Management (CM) Our system Mainly focuses on this aspect of Network management where in; It Identifies, exercises control over, collects data from, and provides data to open systems for the purpose of preparing for, initializing, starting, providing for the continuous operation of, and terminating interconnection services. Functionality of CM includes:
Enables the behaviour of resources and the effectiveness of communication activities to be evaluated. Functionality of PM includes: i. Gathering statistical data; ii. Maintaining and examining logs of system state histories; iii. Determining system performance under natural and artificial conditions.
5) Security Management (SM)
Security Management forms the most complex part of designing a NMS hence most of the times a third party security systems are employed which support the application of security policies. Functionality of SM includes: i. The creation, deletion, and control of security services and mechanisms; ii. The distribution of security relevant information; and iii. The reporting of security relevant events.
i. Setting the parameters that control the routine operation of the open
system; ii. Associating names with managed objects and sets of managed objects; iii. Initializing and closing down managed objects, iv. Collecting information on demand about the current condition of the open system; v. Obtaining announcements of significant changes in the condition of the open system; and vi. Changing the configuration of the open system. This makes the work of administrator easier as there is need for any skilled employee to go down to each Network Element. 3) Accounting Management (AM)
Together Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance and Security (FCAPS) provide a complete management model for Information Technology (IT) network systems.
II. RELATED WORK
Device self-management and self-configuration, in particular,

has been the focus of research for both academia and industry that are working hand in hand towards achieving fully autonomous systems. Various management protocols have been developed in the community to achieve this purpose. By proposing the use of self-configuration Framework [1], devices are added without rebooting
Enables charges to be established for the use of resources in the OSIE, and for costs to be identified for the use of those resources. Functionality of AM includes: i. Informing users of resources consumed; ii. Enabling accounting limits to be set and tariff schedules to be associated with the use of resources. As we focus mainly on configuration of the Network Element we ignore accounting of the resources consumed.
4) Performance Management (PM)
the system, using the IBM MAPE-K control loop for the selfconfiguration of devices. By this there is no need to stop our services for adding any new device. which makes the operation easier and faster. Houda Rachidi [2] et al proposed a device self-configuration framework that makes use of the IBM MAPE-K control loop and has shown how this loop can be realized through the use of the Broadband Forum CPE WAN Management protocol as a communication protocol between the management entity and the home device.
Nikolaidis et al. [3] investigate the capabilities of CWMP Protocol and propose a CWMP-based methodologies and suite tools that make use of the advantages of the standard XML representation to create and manage diverse device Management Information Base (MIB) objects, by distinct parties collaborating in remote configuration, management, life-cycle support and testing of home devices. Authors [8] introduce the CWMP in detail and describe the design and realization of a distributed network management system based on it, which provides network managers with a centralized remote management platform to manage CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) in a simple and friendly way. III. Implementation The CPE WAN Management Protocol intended for communication between a CPE and Auto-Configuration Server (ACS). The CPE WAN Management Protocol defines a mechanism that encompasses secure auto-configuration of a CPE, and also incorporates other CPE management functions into a common framework. The TR-069 agent is implemented that should be a network element; it plays the role of the CWMP client that communicates with the ACS from one part, and with the user device application from another part. The ACS is a server that resides in the network and manages devices in or at the subscriber premises. The CPE WAN Management Protocol may be used to manage different types of CPE, including stand-alone routers and LANside client devices. It is agnostic to the specific access medium utilized by the service provider, although it does depend on IPlayer connectivity having been established by the device.
The CPE WAN Management Protocol comprises several components that are unique to this protocol, and makes use of several standard protocols. The protocol stack defined by the CPE WAN Management Protocol is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Protocol Stack
A brief description of each layer is as given below CPE/ACS: Application The application uses the CPE WAN Management Protocol on the CPE and ACS, respectively. The application is locally defined and not specified as part of the CPE WAN Management Protocol. RPC Methods: The specific RPC methods that are defined by the CPE WAN Management Protocol. SOAP: A standard XML-based syntax used here to encode remote procedure calls. HTTP: HTTP protocol.
OSS/BSS Managed LAN device Policy AutoConfiguration Server Managed internet gateway device
SSL/TLS: The standard Internet transport layer security protocols. Specifically, either SSL 3.0 (Secure Socket Layer), or TLS 1.0 (Transport Layer Security) TCP/IP: Standard TCP/IP.
Call Center
Managed LAN device
At the CPE end first TR069 is enabled and then directed to our ACS server.
Figure 2: Basic Block Diagram
Figure 4: flow chart at cpe
But before that we start our server, and open our NMS login page and enter main page by giving user name and password. In the main page devices option is selected and checked if any device is detected by the server; if detected required configuration is done by the administrator else already set configuration is applied to the detected device.
Figure 6: Transaction session example
CPE always initiates connection by sending Inform message,if not the server requests the CPE to send an inform message. Connection is initiated first time it connects to access network, on power-up or reset, every PeriodicInformInterval, on connection request, when Active Notification parameters are changed by an external cause.
Inform message is consistsed of arguments:

DeviceId: list of parameters that uniquely define CPE. Parameters are Manufacturer, ProductClass, OUI and SerialNumber. Manufacturer is self-explanatory parameter. OUI are 6 digits of MAC address OUI. SerialNumber is parameter that uniquely defines CPE, no devices with the same serial number may exist. For ProductClass many vendors put generic values like CPE or IAD. Event: structure indicating what event caused transaction session to be established. Here device sent EventCode '0 BOOTSTRAP' code which means that device is contacting ACS for the first time. Also device sent additional EventCodes: '1 BOOT' because device was booting after factory reset, 2 PERIODIC which is sent whenever PeriodicInforInterval expires and '4 VALUE CHANGE' because value ManagementServer. MaxEnvelopes:As per standard this value must be '1'.
Figure 5: Flow chart at the ACS
A. Transaction Example In the example shown in Figure 4, the ACS first reads a set of parameter values, and based on the result, sets some parameter values.
ParameterList: standard specifies list of parameters which MUST be included in every Inform message. Parameters that are required on every Inform. There are many parameters: Parameters VendorConfig File.1.Name, VendorConfigFile.1.Version, VendorConfigFile.1.Date and VendorConfigFile.1.Desription etc.
[6] Sanneck, H.; Schmelz, C.; Baumgarth, T.; Keutner, K.; "Network Element Auto-configuration in a Managed Network," Integrated Network Management, 2007. IM '07. 10th IFIP/IEEE International Symposium on , vol., no., pp.497515, May 21 2007 [7] Lianxing Jia; Wei Zhu; Chenggong Zhai; Yi Du;, "Research on an Integrated Network Management System," Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence, Networking, and Parallel/Distributed Computing, 2007. SNPD 2007. Eighth ACIS International Conference on, vol.2, no., pp.311-316, July 30 2007-Aug. 1 2007. [8] Ling Zheng; Yanxiang Hu; Shuangbao Chen, "Research and Application of CWMP in Distributed Network Management System," Computer Science & Service System (CSSS), 2012 International Conference on , vol., no., pp.647, 650, 11-13 Aug. 2012
Every time it receives valid Inform message, server sends Inform response. A CPE MUST retry a failed session after waiting for an interval of time(from 5-10s to 2650-5120s) or when a new event occurs, whichever comes first. Inform and Inform Response messages initiate a transaction process through which the CPE interacts with the ACS.ACS then configures the CPE accordingly.
IV. Conclusion A Network Management System is developed on the lines of CPE WAN management protocol TR-069 , where in an AutoConfiguration System is developed for configuring and monitoring of Network Elements in a Network. The Network Elements are defined by the user and basic initial configurations are also set. The development is done using Java and MySql is used to maintain databases. In future research, several perspectives can be taken into consideration for efficient NMS which can be optimal on all its device management functional areas [FCAPS]. REFERENCES
[1] 1J. ALEX MICHAEL RAJ, 2K. JOHN SINGH: Enhancement of CPE WM protocol using TR-069. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology 30th June 2012 [2] Houda Rachidi, Ahmed Karmouch A Framework for Self-configuring Devices Using TR-069. IEEE, 2005. [3] Nikolaidis, A.E.; Papastefanos, S.; Doumenis, G.A.; Stassinopoulos, G.I.; Drakos, M.P.K.; Local and remote management integration for flexible service provisioning to the home, Communications Magazi ne, IEEE, vol.45, no.10, pp.130-138, October 2007 [4] KN Premnath, Srinivasan Rajavelu.: Challenges in Self Organizing Networks for Wireless Telecommunications. IEEE-International Conference on Recent Trends in Information Technology, ICRTIT 2011 978-1-4577-05908/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE MIT, Anna University, Chennai. June 3-5, 2011 [5] TR-069 CPE WAN Management Protocol v1.1, Broadband Forum, Version: Issue 1 Amendment 2 Version Date: December 2007
Packets Performance in Sockets

Hamsa K1, Jayasimha SR2
1 Dept of MCA 2Dept of MCA
,VTU,AcIT,Bangalore ,VTU,SaIT,Bangalore hamsa@acharya.ac.in jayasimha.sr@gmail.com minimum either the volume of data has to be decreased or increased of the throughput (Prathap et al; 2005). Transport Control Protocol (TCP) is a reliable, end-to-end, transport, protocol that is widely used to support applications like telnet, ftp, and http (Stevens W. R, 1994). Though TCP/IP had gained much importance, the standard TCP does not perform well in high bandwidth delay environments (Kelly T, 2003). Kellys Scalable TCP on real networks with a set of systematic tests using different network were already tested (Li Yee-Ting et al; 2004). This paper analyzes the bandwidth distribution with respect to http and file transfer by defining and studying the delay and throughput. The relationship between these two performance related factors is given by V=T x D Where V - Volume of data, T- Throughput and D Delay. II. DELAY Delay is the time taken for a bit to travel from one end to another which could be measured in seconds or fraction of seconds. Delay may differ slightly depending on the specific pair of computers. The first important property of networks that can be measured quantitatively is delay. Propagation delay is defined as the amount of time it takes for a certain number of bytes to be transferred over a medium.
Abstract Real-time packet capture and analysis has become a challenging problem, since it plays a vital role not only in identifying the problem causing entity but also to manage the network efficiently. The administrator has to know the network bandwidth and other resources that are used for accounting and auditing. This creates an emphasis to monitor network traffic and conduct analysis to ensure smooth operations performed routinely. Time is an important factor, which contributes to the variations of packet flow. In this paper, the readings of the realtime packet flow with respect to sent and received data by varying the time, applications and the type of requests are noted and analyzed. The delay and throughput were measured, studied and calculated. Initially, the packet movement in the network was monitored with only hypertext transfers using HTTP. The same movement was analyzed with respect to other file transfer applications. The number of file downloads between the HTTP server and clients are also varied to follow the behavior of data. Multithreaded socket applications were designed and developed using java which was again monitored and analyzed using the above methodology. The readings were compared and the experimental results show that the developed application outperforms, in terms of packet acceleration, the previous ones. Keywords Packet, Bandwidth, Delay, Throughput, Hypertext, HTTP, Server, Client, Multithread and Socket.
I. INTRODUCTION Flow of packets plays an important role in the network sending and receiving process. The more the packets received the better for the network users, as the speed would be more leading to user satisfaction. A network can be tracked based on the packet flow throughout the network. The available and achievable throughput differs due to various performances related issues. The network performance characteristics like delay and throughput were measured and studied. The Local Area Network in the networking lab of Our University was chosen for this case study and data readings were noted at the server by varying the time. The delay D of a network is
III. THROUGHPUT The second fundamental property of networks that can be measured quantitatively is throughput. Throughput is a measure of the rate at which data can be sent though the Network, and is usually specified in bits per second (bps) or measure of the network capacity which is dependent on the speed with which a computer processes data.
IV. P ACKET ANALYSIS Packet analysis can be done by capturing and analyzing traffic passing by the machine where the tool is installed with
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013 231
results displayed. It also decodes all major and frequently used protocols including TCP/IP, UDP, HTTP, etc. It comprises user friendly interfaces to display technical information. It is possible to filter the network traffic to focus on the specified needed information. It is flexible and allows powerful filters during or after capture to isolate traffic by specific node, protocol, and packet content. Network performance and security prevent network problems, conduct effective troubleshooting and take actions quickly to solve possible problems. The network bandwidth and other resources are used for accounting, auditing or for network planning purposes and analysis of the packets passing through the network. Network Packet Analyzer CAPSA is an advanced network traffic monitoring, analysis and reporting tool, based on Windows operating systems. It captures and analyzes all traffic transport over both Ethernet and WLAN networks and decodes all major TCP/IP and application protocols. Its advanced application analysis modules allow to view and log key communication applications such as emails, http traffic, instant messages and DNS queries. The comprehensive reports and graphic views enable to understand network performance and bandwidth usage quickly, to check network health (Colasoft capsa, 2012). Initial HTTP readings were noted by varying the requests as shown in fig 3. Hypertext transfer protocol was designed to be quick, simple, and non instructive. The connection between a server and a client program is temporary and must be reestablished for every data transfer. A URL is always a single, unbroken line of text with no spaces. Web browser generally displays the URL of the Web page currently being viewed near the top of the windows.
Fig 1. Initial analysis of HTTP at the start
The packets used were noted and the eadings for corresponding protocols are shown in fig 1 and the initial HTTP requests were shown in fig 2.
Fig 2. Buffer usage after the HTTP requests made without download
The two sites of the same URL were requested and the same file of the same size was downloaded. Now in order to invoke, the downloads of the same size file, single HTTP were noted and two HTTP requests were done for the same URL. The readings were noted for the same file of same size but as different requests as shown in fig 3. From the figure we can view that the buffer usage is almost nearing its capacity indicated in red. This is due to the fact that when more hypertext transfers are made the allocated buffer usage increases
in the network with a socket associated with that same port can communicate with the server program. Typical system configuration places the server on one machine, with the clients on other machines. The clients connect to the server, exchange information, and then disconnect. Moreover, the processes that use a socket can reside on the same system or on different systems on different networks. Initially, client and server create sockets. The server binds to an address and port and it is automatically done in Java. The client knows servers address and port whereas the server listens on that port. The client connects to the address and port server accepts the connection. Hence the client and server read from and write to their sockets. VI. THE APPLICATION OF THE CLIENT SIDE
AND SERVER SIDE EXECUTION
Fig 4. Interaction of server and client programs Fig 3. Buffer usage of HTTP with two downloads
V. RESULTS OF SOCKET APPLICATION P ERFORMANCE
A socket is a software endpoint that establishes bidirectional communication between a server program and one or more client programs. The socket associates the server program with a specific hardware port on the machine where it runs so any client program anywhere
application sent and received bytes increase compared to the previous throughput.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Abbas El Gamal, James Mammen, Balaji Prabhakar, Devavrat

Shah Throughput-Delay Trade-off in Wireless Networks IEEE INFOCOM, 2004. M. Grossglauser and D. Tse, Mobility Increases the Capacity of Ad- hoc Wireless Networks, IEEE INFOCOM, Anchorage, Alaska, pp.1360-1369, 2001. Network packet analyzer: professional network analyzer colasoft capsa (version 6.9); http://www.colasoft.com/download/ Kelly T. (2009). Scalable TCP: Improving Performance in High Speed Wide Area Networks. First International Workshop on Protocols for Fast Long-Distance Networks Geneva, Switzerland. Stevens W. R. (1994). TCP/IP Illustrated Volume 1, Addison Wesley. Li Yee-Ting, Stephen Dallison, Richard Hughes-Jones, Peter Clarke (2004) A Systematic Analysis of High Throughput TCP in Real Network Environments. Second International Workshop on Protocols for Fast Long-Distance Networks, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois USA. M. Prathap Sri.V. Chakravarthi and Aemro Bizuneh (2012) Performance Analysis of Throughput at BDU LAN at ICECE 2010, Ethiopia. P. Gupta and P. R. Kumar, The Capacity of Wireless Networks, IEEE Trans. On Information Theory, 46(2), pp. 388-404, March 2010.
[3]
[4] Table 1. Performance measurement of socket application
VII. CONCLUSION
The network performance factors, delay and throughput were discussed and measured. Real-time packet capture and analysis had been done using packet analysis technique. Also the network comprises Netest which helps in monitoring the bad performing hardware and provides a way for better performance. The observation includes the load of a large user population among whom multiple servers were not spread. It is better to reduce network usage and improve server performance when there is a significant user population in distributed locations. Though there were five servers functioning, the configurations are inefficient. The better solution could be the application of same time server which the network lacks currently. The tool had been tested under various HTTP requests and the increased requests are shown. Moreover, the analysis was done with variable number of downloads. The socket application was designed and implemented. The server side and client side communicated effectively and the measurements as well as the performance of this application was also measured repeatedly and shown in table 8. From the above table 8 the average of sent and received calculated are 2.34 packets per second for receiving and average of sent 2.38 packets per second. Finally, the behavior of the system was compared against the previous reports. The average of received is 2.34 packets per second and the average of sent is 2.38 packets per second compared to 2.19 and 2.20 respectively. The results obtained show that the
[5] [6]
[7]
[8]
V BLAST FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Sufia Banu, sufia_jb@yahoo.co.in, H.K.B.K. College of Engineering, Bangalore, India Fauzan, fauzanjiteker@gmail.com , H.K.B.K. College of Engineering, , Bangalore, India Arshiya Shariff N, arshiya.life@gmail.com, H.K.B.K. College of Engineering, Bangalore, India
Abstract In wireless systems, radio waves do not

propagate simply from transmit antenna to receive antenna, but bounce and scatter randomly off objects in environment. This scattering is known as multipath as it result in multiple copies of the transmitted signals arriving at the receiver via different scattered paths. Multipath has always been regarded as impairment, because the images arrive at the receiver at slightly different times and thus can interfere destructively, canceling each other out. However recent advances in information theory have shown that, with simulations use of antenna arrays at both base station and terminal, multipath interference can be not only mitigated, but actually exploited to establish multiple parallel channels that operate simultaneously and in the same frequency band. Based on this fundamental idea, a class of layered space-time architecture was proposed and labeled BLAST. Using BLAST the scattering characteristics of the propagation environment is used to enhance the transmission accuracy by treating the multiplicity of the propagation environment is used to enhance the transmission accuracy by treating the multiplicity of scattering paths as separate parallel sub channels.
more complex as compared to the VBLAST, which, despite its simplicity, achieves a significant portion of the full MIMO capacity.
II
SPACE-TIME CODING FOR MIMO
CHANNELS
Space-time block codes address the issue of high complexity decoding solutions for MIMO wireless channels. The Alamouti code was the first space-time block code to provide full transmit diversity. Alamouti Scheme The Alamouti scheme is historically the first spacetime block code to provide full transmit diversity for systems with two transmit antennas. It is worthwhile to mention that delay diversity schemes can also achieve full diversity, but they introduce interference between symbols and complex detectors are required at the receiver. Encoding of Alamouti Space-Time Codes
1.
I INTRODUCTION
This paper reviews the well-known vertical Bell Laboratories layered spacetime (V-BLAST) MIMO processing for wireless networks. Multi-antenna (MIMO) systems attract significant attention during the last few years due to an extraordinary high spectral efficiency they promise. A key part of the system is the receiver (Rx) signal processing algorithm. The first proposed algorithms were the Diagonal Bell laboratories layered space-time (D-BLAST) and VBLAST. While the D-BLAST achieves the full MIMO capacity, it is
A block diagram of the encoder for two transmit antennas is shown in figure 4.1. We assume that M-ary modulation scheme is used. In the Alamouti space-time encoder, each group of m information bits is first modulated, where m = log2M. Then, the encoder takes a block of two modulated symbols x1and x2in each encoding operation and maps them to the transmit antennas according the code matrix given by
The outputs from the encoder are transmitted over two consecutive symbol periods from the two transmit antennas. In the first symbol period, signals x1and x2are transmitted from antenna one and antenna two, respectively. In the second symbol period, signal -x*2is transmitted from transmit antenna one and signal x*1 from transmit antenna two, where x*1 is the complex conjugate of x1. From here it can be seen that encoding is done in both the time and the space domains. The transmit sequences from antennas one and two by x1 and x2 are denoted as
(5)
Where I2 is a 2x2 Identity matrix. Let us assume that one receive antenna is used at the receiver. The block diagram of the receiver for the Alamouti scheme is shown in figure 2. The fading channel coefficients from the first and second transmit antennas to the receive antenna at time t are denoted by h1(t) and h2(t), respectively. Assuming that the fading coefficients are constant across two consecutive symbol transmission periods, they can be expressed as follows where and , i = 0, 1, are the amplitude gain and phase shift for the path from transmit antenna I to the receive antenna, and T is the symbol duration. At the receive antenna, the received signals over two consecutive symbol periods, denoted by and for time t and t+T, respectively, can be expressed as over all possible values of . Substituting Equations 8 into 8, the maximum likelihood decoding can be represented as
x1 x1- x*2] (1) x2 x2.x*1] (2)
(10) Figure 1. Alamouti Space-Time Encoder

where C is the set of all possible modulated symbol are two decision statistics constructed by combining the received signals with channel state information (CSI). The decision The key feature of the Alamouti scheme is that the transmit sequences from the two transmit antennas are orthogonal over a frame interval, since the inner product of the sequences x1 and x2 is zero, i.e.
statistics are given by
The code matrix has the following property
(11) (4)
Substituting
and
from equations 8 into 11, the decision
statistics can be written as,
Where and are independent complex variables with zero mean and power spectral density No/2 per dimension, representing additive white Gaussian noise samples at time t and t+T, respectively
decoding rule (Eq 10) can be separated into two independent decoding rules for 1 x and 2 x , given by
(13)
For M-PSK signal constellations,
are constant for all signal points, given the channel fading coefficients. Therefore, the decision rules in Eq 13 can be further simplified to
Figure 2. Alamouti Receiver

Decoding of Alamouti Space-Time Codes
( (14)
The channel coefficients and are as summed to be perfectly estimated at the receiver. It is also assumed that all the signals in the modulation constellation are equiprobable and a maximum likelihood decoder (MLD) is employed at the receiver. The MLD chooses a pair of signals from the signal modulation constellation to minimize the distance metric
III
BLAST Architectures
The most expensive (computationally) member of the family is D-BLAST. After it, but probably depending on the choice of decoders, comes Turbo-BLAST and finally the simplest is V-BLAST.
D-BLAST
For a given channel realization and , the decision statistics is only a function of .Thus, the maximum likelihood
Originally proposed by Foschini in 1996, this architecture is now considered the reference in performance for MIMO systems, since it can reach capacities near the Shannon limit. 1) Encoder: The encoder uses a space time arrangement that corresponds to a diagonal layering. The
information bit stream coming from the source is demultiplexed into several substreams (serial to parallel), and each substream is coded separately and mapped to complex symbols. Then the symbols of each substream are dispersed diagonally across antennas and time. Note that the layer might have more symbols than the number of transmit antennas, and the frame can be very long. Unfortunately, given the structure of the decoder, the space time wastage is necessary. This ultimately makes D-BLAST unable to reach the capacity limit, since the wastage is repeated every time a new set of layers are to be transmitted. Note that since the symbols are spread across antennas, this scheme captures transmit diversity. 2) Decoder: The decoder proceeds to decode one layer after another. They first symbol of the layer is guaranteed to be detected without errors, since it is transmitted alone (but the system pays the space-time wastage). After that, the next symbol on the layer is demodulated and detected, facing one interferer. The next will face two interferers, and so on. Once all the symbols of the first layer are demodulated, the substream associated to the layer can be decoded.
This decoding should be error free, otherwise the whole process would suffer from error propagation. In order to ensure the absence of errors, the channel code associated to the stream must be powerful and the stream must be long. Once the layer is decoded, it can be subtracted, thus peeling it and exposing the next one, for which the aforementioned process is repeated. This process is illustrated on figure 3, where the layer consists of only three symbols. B V-BLAST
The Vertical BLAST or V-BLAST architecture is a simplified version of D BLAST, which tries to reduce its computational complexity. But in doing so, the transmit diversity is lost (Figure 4).
1)
Encoder: As in D-BLAST, the information bit stream is separated in sub streams, and each can undergo its own channel coder. However, the layering is horizontal, meaning that all the symbols of a certain stream are transmitted through the same antenna (one stream per antenna).This eliminates the space time wastage, but loses the transmit diversity, since each stream is tied to its antenna.
Figure 3.
D-BLAST decoder Figure 4. VBLAST Architecture 2) Decoder: The decoder needs to demodulate the symbols on the received vector. If channel coding is used, then the demodulated symbols need to be buffered until the whole block can be decoded. Otherwise, the demodulation can be done immediately. Several decoders are possible for this architecture.
encoder is shown in figure 6. The inter-stream bit interleaver is similar to the diagonal scheme in D-BLAST, but it has no space time wastage, as shown in figure 7.
Figure 5. Decoding Procedure difference between V-BLAST and D-BLAST
Turbo-BLAST
Sellathurai and Haykin proposed TurboBLAST architecture, based on the Turbo principle, which was afterwards generalized by the Threaded Space-Time Architecture (TST) by ElGamal and Hammons.
1) Encoder: A Random Layered Space-Time (RLST) coding scheme is employed before transmission. The information bit stream is also demultiplexed and substreams obtained thus are independently encoded with the same block FEC, as in D-BLAST. Then the substreams are bit interleaved in space using a diagonal interleaver (random space time interleaver). Finally, the mixed streams are mapped to symbols and transmitted. Each symbol can have bits coming from more than one stream, and therefore a symbol errorspreads the bit errors across streams, thus making the error correction easier for the block decoders. The
2) Decoder: Unfortunately, decoding the interleaved streams is very expensive computationally, being exponential in the number of substreams (i.e. the number of Txantennas), constellation and block sizes. An iterative suboptimal algorithm, based on decoding of serially concatenated turbo codes. The idea is based on the interpretation of the TurboBLAST encoder as a group of block codes (outer coder) connected with an inner coder through parallel interleavers. Thus, the inner decoder is meant to cope with Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) coming from multipath fading in the channel, and the outer decoder aims to correct symbol errors occurred during the transmission over the first channel path. Both decoders output soft decisions, which are ultimately sent to hard limiters after the required iterations. A blockdiagram scheme is shown in figure 8 for a system with 4 receives antennas.
1V
Performance of LST Architectures
The simulation results highlight key properties of LST coding which can in some cases be viewed as limitations. In the simulations, a total transmit block length of 100 symbols is used. In Figure 10, the performance of an uncoded = 4, = 4 MIMO system using the V-BLAST architecture in Figure 8 is presented, employing QPSK modulation on each layer. The results shown are for both the ZF and MMSE receiver approaches.
Figure 10 LST performance with increasing and (MMSE Receiver)
improvement in performance, as the number of interferers at the receiver increases proportionately. From Figure 10, it can be observed that the MMSE receiver provides a slight enhancement to the SER performance as the number of transmit and receive antennas increase proportionately. This is owed mainly to the fact that MMSE does not enhance the noise at the receiver compared to ZF.
Figure 8
Comparison of LST ZF and MMSE receivers = 4, =4
V
As shown in Figure 10, both schemes achieve the same diversity order which is represented by a similar gradient for both symbol error rate (SER) curves with increasing SNR. However, at a SER of 1 , the MMSE scheme provides a 2dB improvement in performance over the ZF scheme. This improvement is due to the fact that in addition to nulling out the interferers, the MMSE scheme takes into consideration the noise on the channel represented by the term in Eq 6.5.
KNOWN INTERFERENCE LAYER BLAST (KIL-BLAST)
Conventional V-BLAST architectures have to be limited to achieve an overall diversity order of + 1. The same level of diversity order is achieved by each individual layer. Hence for a square MIMO configuration with , the maximum diversity order is 1. For LST, the receiver processes the signals using successive interference cancellation, in which past decisions on decoded layers are used to cancel interference caused on the remaining layers. In addition, imperfect CSI is modeled and performance degradation caused by it is demonstrated. A novel approach is presented which assumes that the signal
Finally the performance of both the ZF and MMSE schemes is evaluated with an increasing number of transmit and receive antennas. Figure 9 shows the performance of the ZF scheme with = = 4, 5 and 6 with QPSK modulation applied to each layer. Itcan be observed that increasing the number of transmit and receive antennas does not lead to an
on the first decoded layer is known at the receiver is presented. This scheme is called Known Interference Layer BLAST (or KIL-BLAST).
Figure 9 LST performance with increasing and (ZF Receiver)
VI
CONCLUSION
Figure 11
Comparison of V-BLAST versus KILerror
A brief overview of the main characteristics of three BLAST architectures has been presented: DBLAST, V-BLAST and Turbo-BLAST. The architectures encoding and decoding strategies are described, and considerations about performance are given. Some results are presented as to illustrate particular details and to compare the performance between architectures. VII FUTURE SCOPE
BLAST under assumption of low channel estimation Development of a KIL-BLAST receiver architecture which can reduces the constraint on the number of receive antennas from to .Development of LSTBC receiver architecture which can reduce the constraint on the number of receive antennas from to .Improvement of diversity order for LSTBC using rate space-time block codes developed for three and four transmit antennas. This would require a slight increase in complexity at the receiver as decoding would have to be done over a longer number of symbol intervals. VIII REFERENCES
Rate Diversity Trade-offs offered by KIL-BLAST KIL-BLAST has its own major drawback which is that there is a significant loss in the throughput of the system. This problem is easily resolved with the use of higher modulation levels on each of the other layers. Table 8.1 below shows a comparison of the throughput of different schemes with different modulation levels. Table 1 : Comparison of V-BLAST vs. KILBLAST , System with 100 symbol period frame length using = = 4 configuration
[1] V-BLAST architecture from Bell Labs, wikipedia. [2] P. W. Wolniansky, G. J. Foschini, G. D. Golden, R. A. Valenzuela. VBLAST: An architecture for realizing very high data rates over the rich scattering. Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Holmdel, NJ 07733. [3] G.J. Foschini et al, Analysis and Performance of Some Basic SpaceTime Architectures, IEEE Journal Selected Areas Comm. 21, N. 3, pp. 281320, April 2003.
ENHANCED PROFILE ACTIVATION ALGORITHM FOR SMART PHONES

M.Veeramanikandan
PG Student Dept of Information Technology Regional Office Anna University Chennai, Coimbatore
Dr. P. Marikannu
Asso.Professor & Head, Dept of Information Technology Regional Office Anna University Chennai, Coimbatore
Abstract- In recent days, the mobile networks have a great development. Usually the user profile can be set using time management by the user manually. But it won't be applicable for all situations. Thus we develop an automatic profile changer which changes its profile automatically according to the environment. The environment mainly based on three factors namely, Geolocation, Nearby Devices and Noise present in the environment. Geolocation refers to the location provided by GPS which locates the place where the user is situated. Nearby Devices refers to the profile set by the nearby mobile devices. Noise refers to the sound created outside the user's environment. Based on these three factors the proposed automatic profiling system can be developed. Keywords: Location based services, Geo location, GPS, Nearby devices, Noise effects, Mobile profile
should be set to general, and after the time has passed it should shift to outdoor. Even though profile managers exist in the mobile phones, the user doesn't get reminded to change the mobile profile from one thing to other. The manual switching of profile of one thing to other is not used frequently. When the profile is configured manually, the problem arises whenever the user forgets to change back the profile from the general to outdoor. As a result a large number of incoming phone calls will be unanswered. B. Automatic Profile Changing Automatic Profile changing concept is being adapted so that the profile changes automatically when the location is detected, in order to change the user profile settings. The Automated profile changing is very helpful in the places where the user forgets to change the profile setting on some important occasions such as meeting, driving, etc. Although such programs go a long way to solving the manual profile setting problem, they rely on a simple model that matches time to profiles and cannot deal with special cases or learn from continued use by the user. We identify three methods to develop such systems: GSM geolocation, Nearby devices and Noise effects. The application reported here uses a rule based system, whereas a future version we are working on will include a machine learning module.
I. INTRODUCTION A. Profile Management on mobile phones One important system that has been formed over the year is phone profile manager. This enables the user to set the profile manually by setting the time constraints. The general profiles include general, outdoor, meeting and user can also be able to define their own profile. For each and every profile setting, the user will be able to control of how loud the phone will ring from no sound to maximum sound. It can also be customized by defining the number of times it should ring. For example, if a person works in a office with working time 9.30 to 5.30.The profile time
II. OVERVIEW OF THE CURRENT TRENDS The existing method specifies the profile only based on the user settings. The user settings can be modified only by using the time settings. It can also be modified by using tower based information. In order to avoid the information that are making a confusion among two things, the user will be helpful if the profile changer is being automated. In tower based information, the signal may be unavailable at some situations when the person is in a interior part of the house. Another main point in this format is that for example the in college the playground and the seminar hall we will get the same tower information so we have to overcome this problem. III. CURRENT SYSTEM MODELS
The current system depends on two concepts such as, tower and time based management. a. Time based Management: The time can be set and managed with the help of user manual settings. b.Tower based Management: The tower information may not be so accurate, as in some inner areas the tower maybe lost. Tower information refers to the area location given by the satellite. Time Information is the one based on the time fixed by the user. It may have many disadvantages.
Location
User Patterns
Connecting the user location with the active profile Learning special and exceptional usage patterns
Switching to a certain profile when the user is in a certain vicinity, either GPS or cell based Allowing ringer to bypass silent mode for a specific set of contacts
A. The software contains three main modules:

a) Profile Data Collector: This module checks the active phone profile and documents changes to a profile data file. b) Calendar Tracker: This module checks what updates were applied to the calendar and documents them to calendar tracker data file. c) Profile Advisor: This module contains the rule based system. Using the data acquired by the other modules and the set of predefined rules, it changes the active phone profile. In initial stages, where the user is prompted to approve profile changes, this module documents the user responses to a log file.
B.
a)
Profile Change Rules General Rules
IV. PROFILE CHANGER EXPERMENTAL SETUP

TABLE I Various Factors considered in the enhanced profile activation algorithm with use case examples
Context Description Use Case
The framework switches to meeting profile whenever an errand happens, unless the appointment holds an expression fitting in with a pre-outlined gathering of extraordinary case statements (for example "address", "class", "lesson", "enlightening" and so forth) in which case the framework switches to silent profile. Provided that the appointment holds an expression fitting in with the special case expressions accumulation (for example "day to relax and be pampered", "wedding", "gathering", and so forth) the framework overlooks it. b) Usage History Tracking The framework keeps track of the user's day-to-day life. On top of the calendar database, it screens the profile determination plans of the user and predicts future profile updates dependent upon past conduct: a user who always enacted the "noiseless" profile at 7pm on several back to back Wednesdays, for instance, should be prescribed to enact it again on the accompanying Wednesday. A user who chose the "meeting" profile at 10am at the same time as the vast majority of the weekdays, will be exhorted to do enact it again the following day. An additional important rule will discharge the telephone from a "silent" profile which has been animated for above and beyond a certain number of hours, given that no
Time of the day
Changes related to the time of the day
Phone's Database
Events appearing in the phones calendar, such as appointments Following user behavioral patterns
Usage History
Reverting from Silent to General mode if the user appears to have forgotten switching back after N hours Switching to Meeting when a meeting starts, and back to the previously active profile when it ends Switching to a certain profile which the user constantly selected over a period of time (e.g. Outdoor every Monday at 10:00AM, and Pager everyday between 4:00PM and 4:30 PM)
meeting exists in the calendar at that instant, and that the time is not amidst 8pm and 8am. Note that the parameters for the decision algorithm are configurable for all conditional rules. c) User Interface
LATI , LNG
(3)
if (2),(3) matches turn on the Wi-Fi and get the Wi-Fi Access Point( WFAPR) WFAPR (4) Equation (2),(3) and (4) DBuser PRFoffice = ACTIVE if equation (5) is true means Equation(3) DBuser(CDT1,..... CDTn) if (5) and (6) and true PRFmeet = ACTIVE f(TWRn)= TWR(X)+ CLKR if(3),(8) DBuser PRFdrive = ACTIVE if (2) DBuser(CDT1,.. CDTn,) then SUDR < 1 (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (5)
When switching profiles the provision inquires to do so. User reception or dismissal is safeguarded to a log document for later discussion. An additional dialog empowers the user to discharge the framework from making a request for approbation in the future(see figure 1) and subsequently not upset the user facilitate. d) Data Acquisition: As mentioned above, the program keeps track of the user's behavior via the file system. Besides the files which monitor the changes in active profile along time and the updates applied to the calendar, a log file tracks the user's responses to the profile change suggestions. This log contains the suggestion timestamp, suggested profile, suggestion context and user's reaction. This data allows us to analyze the various rules and how they relate to the actual user experience. e) Information Obtaining:
if (2),(3),(10) DBuser(CDT1,.. CDTn, CLKR) PRFnight = ACTIVE (11) a) GeoLocation-GPS
As said above, the project stays informed concerning the user's conduct through the index framework. Also the indexes which screen the updates in dynamic profile in time and the overhauls had an association with the logbook, a log record tracks the user's reactions to the profile update inferences. This log holds the inference timestamp, inferred profile, inference connection and user's response. This information permits us to investigate the different controls and how they identify with the true user encounter. V. ENHANCED PROFILE ACTIVATION ALGORITHM Get the user's current tower information (TWRn) and if its equal to the Base Tower Information (BTWRn) means TWRn TWRn BTWRn (1) (2)
A number of different sources are used to attempt to obtain the users location, and each has their own varying degree of accuracy. A desktop browser is likely to use Wi-Fi (accurate to 20m) or IP Geolocation which is only accurate to the city level and can provide false positives. Mobile devices tend to use triangulation techniques such as GPS (accurate to 10m and only works outside), Wi-Fi and GSM/CDMA cell IDs (accurate to 1000m). b) Nearby Devices-neighbor device settings
Based on the devices nearby running the same application will have some regular kind of single and current profile information transferring will help the proposed system to change the profile properly. c) Noise Effects-sound configuration
It also edits the option for other things such as nearby devices-signals.
if (2) is true means Select the current Latitude & Longitude
While designing the machine learning based application, we will be working on minor releases, which will have the following V. IMPROVEMENTS FOR AUTOMATIC PROFILE SYSTEM: a. Enhancing the training process: a more sophisticated weight-based system will prompt the user to confirm profile changes until a certain confidence threshold is reached. From that point on, the profile changes will occur automatically. Fine tuning the system rules: testing the software with additional users will enable us to refine the existing rules. This will allow us, for example, to distinguish between a casual meeting and an appointment with the doctor.
Count Count
Fig 1.6.a.Number of times the profile changed
10 8 6 4 2 0
ENHANCED PROFILE ACTIVATIO N ALGORITH M Time based Algorithm
Date/Time
Tower Based
b.
Fig 1.6.b.Errors in the profile changes 25 20 ENHANCED PROFILE ACTIVATIO N ALGORITH M Time based Algorithm
c.
Dealing with special cases: the system will learn to handle exceptional scenarios, such as bypassing silent mode when a certain contact calls. Location based Profiles: The system will be able to make profile changes relative to a user's physical location.
15 10 5
d.
Tower Based
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Location based Profiles system has been used by the 5 persons and they monitored for the a days. from these the following graphs are generated.
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Date/Time
Fig 1.6.c. User monitoring for the profile changes
VII.CONCLUSION
ENHANCED PROFILE ACTIVATIO N ALGORITH M Time based Algorithm
The proposed algorithm is very useful in profiling and thereby it reduces the defects present in the profile changing system based on the time set by the user management. Therefore the smart profiling system is great advantage to the mobile users.
Count
(1)
Date/Time
REFERENCES
[1]. Daily Mood Assessment based on Mobile Phone Sensing, 2012 Ninth International Conference on Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks, Yuanchao Ma Bin Xu Yin Bai Guodong Sun, Run Zhu. [2]. Amnon Dekel, Dan Nacht," Minimizing Mobile Phone Disruption via Smart Profile Management", Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services, Article No. 43,2009. [3]. Marco Anisetti, Claudio A. Ardagna, Valerio Bellandi "Map-Based Location and Tracking in Multipath Outdoor Mobile Networks" IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 10, NO. 3, MARCH 2011 [4]. M. Anisetti, C. Ardagna, V. Bellandi, E. Damiani, and S. Reale, Advanced localization of mobile terminal in cellular network, Intl J. Commun., Network and Syst. Sci., vol. 1, pp. 95103, Feb. 2008. [5]. M. Anisetti, C. Ardagna, V. Bellandi, E. Damiani, and S. Reale, Method, system, network and computer program product for positioning in a mobile communications network, in European patent EP1765031, published 21 Mar. 2007. [6]. H. Lin, R. Juang, and D. Lin, Validation of an improved location based handover algorithm using GSM measurement data, IEEE Trans. Mobile Comput., vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 530536, Sep.-Oct. 2005. [7]. H. Buddendick, G. Wolfle, S. Burger, and P. Wertz, Simulator for performance analysis in UMTS FDD networks with HSDPA, in Proc. 15th IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Barcelona, Spain, Sep. 2004. [8]. US FCC Enhanced 911 Fac Sheet, Jan. 2008,http://www.fcc.gov/911/enhanced/release/factsheet requirements012001.pdf. [9]. F. Gustafsson and F. Gunnarsson, Mobile positioning using wireless networks: possibilities and fundamental limitations based on available wireless network measurements, IEEE Signal Process. Mag., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 4153, July 2005. [10]. D. Munoz, F. Lara, C. Vargas, and R. Enriquez-Caldera, "Position Location Techniques and Applications". Academic Press, 2009. [11]. E. Kaplan and C. Hegarty, "Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications,"2nd edition. Artech House, 2006. [12]. G. Djuknic and R. Richton, Geolocation and assisted GPS, IEEE Computer, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 123125, Feb. 2001. [13]. R. Langley, RTK GPS, innovation, GPS World, pp. 7076, Sep. 1998. [14]. P. Bahl and V. N. Padmanabhan, Radar: an in-building RF-based user location and tracking system, in Proc. 19th Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies (INFOCOM 2000), Tel-Aviv, Israel, Mar. 2000. [15]. N. Tippenhauer, K. Rasmussen, C. Popper, and S. Capkun, Attacks on public WLAN-based positioning, in Proc. ACM/Usenix International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications and Services, Krakow, Poland, June 2009. [16]. F. Lo Piccolo, A new cooperative localization method for UMTS cellular networks, in Proc. IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM 2008), New Orleans, LA, USA, Nov.-Dec. 2008.
RIDAW: Reliable Routing scheme for In-network Data Aggregation in Wireless Sensor networks.
Ashwini B.H
IV Sem M Tech, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Rajiv Gandhi institute of technology, VTU, Bangalore 560 032, Karnataka, India.
Email id:ashwini.bh@gmail.com Abstract: Applications for wireless sensor networks are increasingly being used in people's daily life. The development of solutions based on wireless sensor networks is restricted mainly by limited energy resources of the sensor nodes. The designing scheme for data aggregation must include two things; data reliability and energy efficiency. A good data aggregation protocol is one that achieves high data reliability using the least amount of overhead as possible. In this paper, a novel Data Routing for In-Network Data Aggregation called RIDAW has been proposed which has some key aspects such as a reduced number of messages for setting up a routing tree, maximized number of overlapping routes, high aggregation rate, and reliable data aggregation and transmission. Keywords Routing Protocol, In-Network Aggregation, Wireless Sensor Networks.
A possible strategy to optimize the routing task is to use the available processing capacity provided by the intermediate sensor nodes along the routing paths. This is known as InNetwork Data Aggregation.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 Effect of data aggregation which provides energy efficiency.
A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) comprises a large number of sensor nodes that work cooperatively to monitor a region of interest and obtain real-time information about the environment [1]. The sensors are densely deployed in the scenario where the physical phenomenon is being monitored, to enable a reliable and efficient observation of its characteristics [2]. The sensor nodes are small devices containing a variable number of sensors, as well as limited processing and limited energy capacity. A major issue in the development of WSN solutions is to save energy and to use the nodes in a uniform way so that network longevity is prolonged. In order to monitor a region of interest with large dimensions, a high density of nodes is required. In some cases, the density may be around 20 nodes per square meter [3]. This indicates a high probability of capturing redundant, analogous or similar information. This redundant information collection can occur in a same spatial domain, i.e., some collected data are spatially related. The degree of correlation increases as the distance among the sensor nodes decrease [5].
In the context of WSN, data aggregation aware routing protocols should present some desirable characteristics such as: a reduced number of messages for setting up a routing tree, maximized number of overlapping routes, high aggregation rate, and also a reliable data transmission. This paper is organized as follows. Section II, describes the Existing system, Section III describes the proposed RIDAW algorithm, Section IV presents conclusions and Section V presents Future work. II. EXISTING SYSTEM
One of the main challenges in routing algorithms for WSNs is how to guarantee the delivery of the sensed data even in the presence of nodes failures and interruptions in communications. These failures become even more critical when data aggregation is performed along the routing paths since packets with aggregated data contain information from
various sources and, whenever one of these packets is lost a considerable amount of information will also be lost. The existing system is of two algorithms, they are SPT a tree based approach and In-FRA algorithm a cluster based approach. The Shortest Path Tree (SPT) algorithm uses a very simple strategy to build a routing tree in a distributed fashion. In this approach, every node that detects an event reports its collected information by using a shortest path to the sink node. Information fusion occurs whenever paths overlap (opportunistic information fusion). The Information Fusion-based Role Assignment (InFRA) algorithm builds a cluster for each event including only those nodes that were able to detect it. Then, cluster-heads merge the data within the cluster and send the result toward the sink node. The InFRA algorithm aims at building the shortest path tree that maximizes information fusion. Thus, once clusters are formed, cluster-heads choose the shortest path to the sink energy constrained WSNs since data correlation is exploited and aggregation is performed at intermediate nodes reducing size and the number of messages exchanged node that also maximizes information fusion by using the aggregated coordinators- distance. A disadvantage of the InFRA algorithm is that for each new event that arises in the network, the information about the event must be flooded throughout the network to inform other nodes about its occurrence and to update the aggregated coordinators distance. This procedure increases the communication cost of the algorithm and, thus, limits its scalability. III. PROPOSED RIDAW ALGORITHM
Figure 2 System model
The proposed algorithm considers the following roles in the routing infrastructure creation: Collaborator: a node that detects an event and reports the gathered data to a coordinator node; Coordinator: a node that also detects an event and is responsible for gathering all the gathered data sent by collaborator nodes, aggregating them and sending the result towards the sink node; Sink: a node interested in receiving data from a set of coordinator and collaborator node; Relay: a node that forwards data toward the sink. The RIDAW algorithm can be divided into three phases.
A. Phase1: Building the Hop Tree
The main goal of the proposed RIDAW algorithm is to build a routing tree with the shortest paths that connect all source nodes to the sink while maximizing data aggregation.
All nodes that are capable of sending a message directly to the sink, without the need of re-route by other nodes is considered to be a hop away from the sink, i.e., all the nodes that are within the range of their communication, are a Hop away from the sink. In order to build the Hop Tree, the process is started by sending a configuration message (MsgConf) from sink to its neighbouring nodes. The MsgConf contains two data: ID and HOP. The value of HOP starts with 1 and contains the Hop number related to the sink and the ID value the identification of each node. After receiving messages, each sensor node will perform the algorithm1
Algorithm1
B. Cluster formation and Leader Election
At the end of the election algorithm only one node in the group will be declared as the leader (Coordinator). The remaining nodes that detected the same event will be the Collaborators. The Coordinator gathers the information collected by the Collaborators and sends them to the sink. A key advantage of this algorithm is that all of the information gathered by the nodes sensing the same event will be aggregated at a single node (the Coordinator), which is more efficient than other aggregation mechanisms (e.g., opportunistic aggregation). C. Route Establishment and Hop Tree Updates
After detecting the last hop, the phase is started by sending a message containing: [ID, HOP, Num]. The ID is the identification of the node; HOP is the range where the communication happens, so that nodes of the other Hop dont respond to these messages. Num equals 1 when the message is created in its source node. The next step is to store the messages received from neighbouring nodes and compare incoming messages with the stored ones, according to the logic presented in algorithm2.
The elected group leader, as described in Algorithm 2, starts establishing the new route for the event dissemination. This process is described in Algorithm 3, (Lines 2 to 10).For that, the Coordinator sends a route establishment message to its NextHop node. When the NextHop node receives a route establishment message, it re-transmits the message to its NextHop and starts the hoptree updating process.
If the message has the same ID node, it is ignored. This process is repeated until some nodes send the message and dont receive response. From this one, those nodes who dont receive a response send a message to the sink saying they are "border nodes". When all the messages arrive at the sink, it will choose the two nodes which will be elected, because there can be multiple edge nodes depending on the density and the network topology. Geographic information would assist this decision, however, is not required for this solution, because the elected nodes responsible for dividing the network into cells dont necessarily need to be located in the extreme corner of the net, and the same result can be obtained.
In case the list of border nodes located in the sink has more than two nodes, the following criteria are used to elect them: the smallest ID node is named A and the biggest ID is the node named B.
Algorithm3.
These steps are repeated until either the sink is reached or a node that is part of an already established route is found. The
Algoritm2.
routes are created by choosing the best neighbour at each hop. Algorithm 2 The choices for the best neighbour are twofold: (i) when the first event occurs, the node that leads to the shortest path to the sink is chosen (Figure 3(a)); and (ii) after the occurrence
of subsequent events, the best neighbour is the one that leads to the closest node that is already part of an established route (Figure3(c)). This process tends to increase the aggregation points, ensuring that they occur as close as possible
Figure. 3. Example of establishing new routes and updating the hop tree to the events. The resulting route is a tree that connects the Coordinator nodes to the sink. When the route is established, the hop tree updating phase is started. The main goal of this phase is to update the HopToTree value of all nodes so they can take into consideration the newly established route. This is done by the new relay nodes that are part of an established route. These nodes send an HCM message (by means of a controlled flooding) for the hop updating (Figure 3(b)). The process of data transmission is described in Algorithm 3 (Lines 11 to 24). While the node has data to transmit, it verifies whether it has more than one descendant that relays its data (Line 12 of Algorithm 3). If it is the case, it waits for a period of time and aggregates all data received and sends the aggregated data to its NextHop (Line 13 of Algorithm 3). Otherwise, it forwards the data to its NextHop. For every packet transmission with aggregated data, the Route Repair Mechanism is executed as shown in Line 15 of Algorithm 3. D. Route Repair Mechanism The RIDAW algorithm offers a piggybacked, ACK-based, route repair mechanism, which consists of two parts: failure detection at the Next Hop node, and selection of a new Next Hop. When a relay node needs to forward data to its Next Hop node, it simply sends the data packet, sets a timeout, and waits for the re-transmission of the data packet by its Next Hop. This re-transmission is also considered an ACK message. If the sender receives its ACK from the NextHop node, it can infer that the NextHop node is alive and, for now, everything is ok. However, if the sender node does not receive the ACK from the Next Hop node within the pre-determined time out, it considers this node as offline and another one should be selected as the new Next Hop node. For this, the sender chooses the neighbour with the lowest hop-to-tree level to be its new Next Hop; in case of a tie, it chooses the neighbour with the highest energy level. After that, the sender updates its routing table to facilitate the forwarding of subsequent packets. As an example, a disrupted route is shown in Figure 4(a).After the repairing mechanism is applied, a newly partial reconstructed path is created as depicted in Figure 4(b).
international conference on Mobile computing and networking. Rome, Italy: ACM, 2001. p. 272-287. [4] Yoon, S. and Shahabi, C. Exploiting spatial correlation towards an energy efficient clustered aggregation technique (cag) [wireless sensor network applications]. In Communications, 2005. ICC 2005. 2005 IEEE International Conference on, volume 5, pages 3307 3313 Vol. 5. [5] AKYILDIZ, I. et al. On exploiting spatial and temporal correlation in wireless sensor networks. In: In Proceedings of WiOpt 2004: Modeling and Optimization in Mobile, Ad Hoc and Wireless Networks. 2004. p.71-80. [6] J N.Al-Karaki, A E.Kamal: Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey,in the proceeding of in IEEE Wireless Communications( Dec. 2004) Figure. 4. Example of Path repair [7] W. Heinzelman, A. Chandrakasan, and H. Balakrishnan, Energy-efficient communication protocols for wireless sensor networks. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS), 30053014, Big Island, Hawaii, USA, January 2000 [8] Rajashree. V. Biradar and V.C. Patil and Dr. S.R. Sawant and Dr. R.R. Mudholkar, CLASSIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS [9] Min, J.-K. & Chung, C.-W. EDGES: Efficient data gathering in sensor networks using temporal and spatial correlations Journal of Systems and Software, 2010, 83, 271 282 [10] MANJESHWAR, A. AND AGRAWAL, D. P. 2001. TEEN: A Routing protocol for enhanced efficiency in wireless sensor networks. In International Workshop on Parallel and Distributed Computing, Issues in Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing (IPDPS). [11] I .F .Akyildiz, W.Su, Y . Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cyirci, Wireless sensor networks: A survey, Computer Networks , vol. 38,no.4,pp.393 422,March2002. [12] K. Romer and F. Mattern, The design space of wireless sensor networks, IEEE Wireless Communications , vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 5461, December 2004. [13] G. Anastasi, M. Conti, M. Francesco, and A. Passarella, Energy conservation in wireless sensor networks: A survey, Ad Hoc Networks, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 537568, May 2009. [Online]. Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2008.06.003 [14] A. Boukerche, R. B. Araujo, and L. Villas, Optimal route selection for highly dynamic wireless sensor and actor networks environment, in MSWiM 07: Proceedings of the 10th ACM Symposium on Modeling, analysis, and simulation of wireless and mobile systems . NewYork, NY, USA: ACM, 2007, pp. 2127. [15] O. Younis, M. Krunz, and S. Ramasubramanina, Node clustering in wireless sensor networks: Recent developments and deployment challenges, IEEE Network, vol.20, no.3, pp.20 25, December 2006.
IV.
CONCLUSION
Maximizing the aggregation points and offering a fault tolerant mechanism will improve delivery rate. Also, the proposed algorithm has some key aspects required by WSNs aggregation aware routing algorithms such as a reduced number of messages for setting up a routing tree, maximized number of overlapping routes, high aggregation rate, and reliable data aggregation and transmission. V. FUTURE WORK
The progress of the scheme as future work, spatial and temporal correlation of the aggregated data will also be taken into consideration as well as the construction of a routing tree that meets application needs and also plan to modify RIDAW algorithm to stochastically select nodes that will be part of the communication structure. REFERENCES
[1] YICK, J. et al. Wireless sensor network survey. Computer Networks [S.I.], v. 52, n. 12, p. 2292-2330, 2008. [2] AKYILDIZ, I. F.; VURAN, M. C. Wireless sensor networks. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K.; Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010. [3] SHIH, E. et al. Physical layer driven protocol and algorithm design for energy-efficient wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 7th annual
Reactive Approach based Guarded Vigilance System for Wireless Sensor Networks on Attack Behavior
Roshan Zameer Ahmed1, Anusha Anigol2, R. C. Biradar3
1,2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, India 3 Department of Information Science and Engineering, India Reva Institute of Technology and Management, Bangalore, India 1 roshanahmed31@gmail.com 2 anu.anigol@gmail.com 3 raj.biradar@revainstitution.org WSNs are vulnerable to several types of attacks. Attacks can be performed in a variety of ways which includes traffic analysis, privacy violation, physical attacks, and so on. Threats, vulnerabilities and attacks are three crossly related entities that usually caused havoc to the security of the information owned by others. Threat is basically an ability or intention of any agent to adversely affect the operation, system or facility offered by that network and can be categorized as amateur, professional and well-funded adversary. Amateur types of attacks include denial-ofservices or eavesdropping through wireless sniffing. A professional type of adversary on the other hand, usually launches more sophisticated attacks such as hijacking, manin-the middle attack or Sybil attack. Finally, a well-funded adversary with highly sophisticated tools will launch attacks such as node capture, wormhole or rushing attacks [2]. Due to the potential asymmetry in power and computational constraints, guarding against a well orchestrated attack on a WSN can be nearly impossible. The needy requirements of a WSN as encompassing both the typical network requirements and the unique security requirements suited solely to wireless sensor networks are as appended such as Data Confidentiality, Data Integrity, Data Freshness (4) Availability (5) Self organization (6) Time Synchronization (7) Secure Localization (8) Authentication[3][4][5]. B. Intrusion Detection System (IDS) A wireless sensor network uses cryptography to secure itself against unauthorized external nodes gaining entry into the network. But cryptography can only protect the network against the external nodes and does little to thwart malicious nodes that already possess one or more keys. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) is classified into two categories: host-based and network-based. IDS are further classified as
Abstract - Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are vulnerable to many types of hackers who might get into the network with the intent of fetching its significant data and destroying the network. The sink node in WSN that maintains the database of entire network is also prone to security violations and there is no such security mechanisms are devised for communicating the data to other nodes. Hence there is a need to design security scheme with the capabilities to protect the network and the sink node on the occurrence of attack. In this paper, we aim to provide security with a reactive security scheme that includes studying the behavioral aspect of attacks and congregating the security demands. This scheme successively conglomerates the security and the network rescue mechanism free from attacks and their impacts on the network.
I.
INTRODUCTION
A Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) is a collection of densely deployed autonomous devices, called sensor nodes that gather environmental data with the help of sensors. The sensor nodes use radio communication to transmit sensor measurements to a terminal node, called the sink node. The sink node is the access point of the observer who is able to process the distributed measurements and obtain useful information about the monitored environment. Sensor nodes communicate over a wireless medium by using a multi-hop communication protocol that allows data packets to be forwarded by neighboring nodes to the sink [1]. Sensor nodes are susceptible to various types of attacks. These attacks aim at one or more of the following security violations. (1) Disturb the network service. (2) Create and feed bad data or prevent the movement of actual data that leads to bad decision or computation. (3) Gain access to forbidden information and/or restricted services by unauthorized entity. A. Security Review in WSN
signature based, anomaly based and specification based. A host based IDS system operates on operating systems audit trails, system call audit trails, logs, and so on. A network based IDS, on the other hand, operates entirely on packets that have been captured from the network. A signature based IDS simply monitor the network for specific pre-determined signatures that are indicative of an intrusion. In an anomaly based scheme, a standard behavior is defined and any deviation from that behavior triggers the intrusion detection system [6][7].Functional IDS have to fulfill the multiple objectives related to accurate intrusion detection using various ingredients like: (1) Intrusion checkpoints represent the observable states of the IDS and analyze the sensor activity that predicts the transition from normal to intrusion state. (2) Creation of an activity profile that identifies abnormal activity of the observable states by measuring the sensor deviation from normal behavior. (3) Concept drift that measures the change in user behavior over a period of time. (4) Control loop which adopts the trigger based on the weighted sum of proportional, average, and derivative sensor measurements over derivative and integral time window. C. Related Works
to protect all sensor nodes. It would select cluster heads (CHs) for protection, according to their maximum reward value. The authors in[13] proposed IHIDS in this research it not only efficiently detects attack but also avoids the waste of resources. A large number of packet records are filtered by using the anomaly detection module, and then the misuse detection module is used to complete the whole detection. The anomaly detection module detects the normalcy of current behavior. The misuse detection module determines whether the current behavior is an attack, and the Back Propagation Network (BPN) is used to classify the attacks.
Our Contributions
Our contributions in this work are as follows. 1) To design an efficient reactive security scheme which sporadically monitors the network from any sort of security attacks. In this scheme, we use guard nodes deployed around the sink node of WSN system. 2) Guard nodes identify an intruder for the following attacks: (a) hello flood, (b) worm hole, (c) Sybil and (d) node replication. Attack prediction algorithm efficiently predicts the attack based on the attack behavior probable on the network or the sink. 3)Guard nodes use data rescue mechanisms to protect the network once it confirms the predicted attack. D. Proposed Work We used guard nodes to identify security attacks in WSN. Guard nodes in WSN terminology is considered as a threat to the attacker(adversary), wherein an network manager places these node in a very close proximity to the sink as shown in (Fig. 1). These nodes are nevertheless different from other sensor nodes but, they are equipped with a special capability of protecting the sink node during an attack. This gives strength for the sink node and as well as the network to be ensured that although affected by an attack these nodes gives an effective rescue system and any time during an attack these nodes act as a Protection shield to safeguard the network and the data.
Most of the work is motivated to protect the integrity and confidentiality of transmission data by using encryption and authentication mechanisms. Different from this work, the other works are focused on protecting sensor nodes against attacks initiated to break or alter sensors normal functionalities[8][9]. Some of the related works are as follows. The intrusion detection scheme based on traffic prediction is proposed in [10] where in the design of WSN traffic prediction model using Markov which makes lower computational complexity and improves the forecast accuracy. A threshold value is set beyond judgment algorithm based on prediction to detect anomaly. If anomalies are caused by the attack, it will send the alarming message to the source node or sink node. The authors in [11] applied game theory to IDS. The intrusion detection game has two players: the service provider, striving for the greatest reward on the network; and the intruder, trying to minimize the profit of the service provider. The intruder would invade the network from a particular point on the path between the source and destination nodes, sending malicious packets to the target. If a packet arrived at the destination node, the attack would be regarded as successful. The authors in [12] improved the learning ability of the IDS through the application of a Markov chain and Qlearning algorithm. In their scheme, the IDS would be unable
Fig. 1. Guard nodes deployed near the Sink node in a WSN grid
An IDS is a device or software application that monitors network or system activities for malicious activities or policy violations and produces reports to a Management Station. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems(IDPS) are primarily focused on identifying possible incidents, logging information about them, and reporting attempts. An IDPS implemented here is the Guard nodes mechanism in WSN. The intruder can attack from any direction and at any point from outside the network to capture the sensed data from sink node. Hence, in order to protect the sink node we deploy some of the guard nodes around it. These nodes will act as defense mechanism to the sink node to protect from any sort of intruders attack. These nodes along with the sink node are equipped with the probable attack behaviors on the network. We shall deal in detail about the intrusion detection scheme employed by guard nodes as discussed in section 2. II. IDENTIFICATION OF ATTACK BEHAVIOR USING REACTIVE APPROACH
The Intrusion detection mechanism by reactive security monitoring against the attacks involving the guard nodes would be clearly explained with the help of a flowchart as shown in (Fig. 2). The reactive security scheme involves the
coordination's of Algorithms such as Attack Prediction, Actual Attack Identification and Attack Rescue Mechanism whose descriptions are mentioned below. Abbreviations used in this flowchart are as follows. GND - Guard nodes deactivated, CINO - Change in network operation, AGN - Activate guard nodes, ALGORITHM1 Attack prediction, ALGORITHM2 - Actual Attack Identification, ALGORITHM3 - Attack Rescue Mechanism, DRM - Data Rescue Mechanism. Firstly, the guard nodes that are deployed around the sink node are initially at the deactivated state. On the reception of the signal from the sink node, the guard nodes get activated only on the corroboration of the source and also by checksum verification. The corroboration method involves attack prediction and packet format verification. If the guard nodes encounter any sort discrepancy of the packet format received, straight away the guard nodes discard the packet and continue in their initial state. Based on the predicted attack sent by the sink, it is certified to these guard nodes by Network Monitoring Mechanism. If the predicted is proved to be matching to the actual attack then, the Attack_ Rescue () system is activated for the P_ Attack() else, the network is monitored for the A_ Attack(), therefore the Attack_ Rescue () system is activated for the A_ Attack(). Thus, the Attack_Rescue() system acts as a protective shield for the sink and the network during an attack. Send_Rescue_Event(SA) is sent by the sink to the network, for the purpose of acknowledgement reception for the effective employment of attack rescue scheme. Once the attack is rescued entirely from the network we check for the incurred data loss either at the network or at the sink, by sending the Send_NTWMonitoring_Event(SM). This signal monitors the entire network and checks for the data loss or the probable effects on the network due to the attack. This signal returns the current status of the network. We compare the current status of the network with the previous normal operation status and acknowledge the guard nodes, if found without any change in its operation. If there is a minuet data loss or normal operational variations then this Send_NTWMonitoring_Event(SM) sends a data rescue system Send_DataRescue_Event(SM). If status change which is not detected Send_NTWMonitoring_Event(SM) event then we return back to attack prediction stage. When the sink node is ensured there is no effect off attack on the network, the sink nodes signal the guard node along with the acknowledgement of network safe mode operation and return back to their initial state.
III.
SIMULATION RESULTS
Fig. 2. Reactive security mechanism flowchart representation.
Reactive approach based guarded vigilance system is simulated on QualNet 5.2 Network Simulator to assess the performance and effectiveness of the approach. Event driven simulation is used in which the execution of various functions takes place at discrete events in a chronological sequence. Simulation environment for the proposed work consists of three models:(1) Network model, (2) Propagation model and (3) Traffic model. The models are discussed below.
Network model: A sensor network is placed in an area of l b square meters. It consists of N number of nodes that are assumed to be connected to a base station at the boundary of a network. Propagation model: Free space propagation model is used with propagation constant . Transmission range of a node is r for a one-hop distance. Traffic model: Constant bit rate model is used to transmit fixed size packets, Trpkts. Coverage area around each node has a bandwidth, BWsinglehop, which includes the noise factor, channel frequency along shared among its neighbors. A. Simulation procedure The proposed scheme is simulated using the following simulation inputs. l = 100 mtrs., b = 100 mtrs., N =[5 to 25]., r = 50 mtrs., Trpkts = multiples of (50,100)., Channel frequency = 2.4GHz, Noise factor = 10. Simulation procedure involves following steps. 1. Generate sensor network environment. The nodes are randomly deployed in a fixed area and the topology changes for every instant defined by simulation inputs. Within certain intervals, the performance evaluation is carried out. 2. Guard nodes ensure trustworthiness of channel and node using MAC model. 3. Compute performance parameters of the system: Performance parameters are assessed and plotted with different variables. The results thus obtained with proposed reactive security monitoring scheme include, four categories of results that are analyzed: (1) PDR - It is defined as the number of packets received at destinations to the number of packets sent from a source (2) Malicious nodes - Deployed in a hostile environment, they try compromising the other nodes by attack influential strategy, (3) Variations in Transmission power - On establishment of the attack by the adversary there is variations observed in the transmission power of each node at different instance, (4) Packet delay - It is the variation in time taken for a packet to be transmitted across a network from source to destination. B. Analysis of PDR PDR is plotted in (Figures 3 and 4) with varying number of nodes for different number of packets transmitted for
cluster1 and cluster2 respectively. In these results we observe that PDR decreases with increase in number of nodes. This is because as the number of nodes in network increases, due to bandwidth limitation some of the packets may be lost. We also observe that the PDR for 100 packets transmission is better than 50 packets transmission. (Fig. 5) shows Average PDR plotted with number of clusters for 50 and 100 packets transmission. We observe that average PDR decreases with increase in number of clusters. This is due to increased packets create bandwidth bottleneck.
Fig. 5. Average PDR v/s Clusters.
C. Analysis of Malicious node Malicious node is classified as the attacker node through which the intruder attacks the system. (Fig. 6) shows the malicious node activity in the communicating network. We observe that the attacker nodes try to implicate the network as the simulation time increases. The results give a clear picture of increase in the attacker nodes over the network communication time. The simulation time is considered is in multiples of 20 seconds the malicious nodes are multiplying to increase the effect of network attack and completely annex the network.
Fig. 3. PDR v/s Cluster1.
Fig. 6. Malicious node v/s Time.
D. Analysis of Variations in Transmission power The transmission power is the security factor considered here as integrity feature. The results show the variation observed in the transmission power before the attack, during the attack and after the attack is rescued from the network by the reactive approach. The results show the comparison of transmission power with the number of nodes in each cluster. As we can see in the (Fig. 7) the transmission power is extremely low during an attack compared to the normal network status, once the network is successfully rescued from the system the transmission power ploddingly approaches the normal network transmission power.
Fig. 4. PDR v/s Cluster-2.
also this scheme gives an extra edge to the WSN security by comparing the network status during an attack and after the attack. This method also enables a data rescue system in case of an impact of an attack. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to thank Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), Karnataka, INDIA, for funding the part of the project under VTU Research Scheme (Grant No.VTU/Aca./2011-12/A-9/753, Dated: 5 May 2012. REFERENCES
Fig. 7. Variation in transmission power v/s number of nodes. [1] Mihail Mihaylov, Karl Tuyls and Ann Now, "Decentralized Learning in Wireless Sensor Networks", Proc. of the Adaptive and Learning Agents Workshop (ALA 2009), Taylor and Tuyls (eds.), May, 12, 2009, Budapest, Hungary. [2] Yusnani Mohd Yussoff, Habibah Hashim, Roszainiza Rosli, Mohd Dani Baba," A Review of Physical Attacks and Trusted Platforms in Wireless Sensor Networks", International Symposium on Robotics and Intelligent Sensors 2012 (IRIS 2012), Proceedings Engineering 41(2012 )pp: 580 587. [3] Lopez J, Roman R, Alcaraz C.," Analysis of security threats, requirements, technologies and standards in wireless sensor networks". On Foundations of Security Analysis and Design ,LNCS 5705,Springer.. August 2009.pp:289338. [4] Rajeshwar Singh, Singh D.K. and Lalan Kumar," A review on security issues in wireless sensor network", Journal of Information Systems and Communication, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2010, pp:01-07 [5] Chen X, Makki K, Yen K, Pissinou N.," Sensor network security: a survey," IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials 2009b;11(2)pp:52 73. [6] Law YW, Havinga PJ., "How to secure a wireless sensor network", Proceeding of the 2005 international conference on intelligent sensors, sensor networks and information processing conference ; 2005. pp: 8995. [7] Kyriazanos DM, Prasad NR, Patrikakis CZ.,"A security, privacy and trust architecture for wireless sensor networks"50th International symposium ELMAR-2008 , Zadar, Croatia, 2008. pp:523529. [8] I. Akylidiz, W. Su, Sankarasubramaniam, and E.Cayrici, A survey on sensor networks, IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol.40, Issue: 8,August 2002, pp:102-114. [9] K. Akkaya and M. Younis, A survey of Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks, Elsevier Ad Hoc Network Journal, 2005, pp:325-349 [10] Han Zhijie, Wang Ruchuang," Intrusion Detection for Wireless Sensor Network Based on Traffic Prediction Model", International Conference on Solid State Devices and Materials Science, Physics Proceedings 25 ( 2012 )pp: 2071- 2079. [11] M. Kodialam, T.V. Lakshman," Detecting network intrusions via sampling: a game theoretic approach", IEEE INFOCOM 2003, Vol. 3, pp: 18801889. [12] A. Agah, S.K. Das, K. Basu, "Intrusion detection in sensor networks: a non-cooperative game approach", 3rd IEEE International Symposium on Network Computing and Applications (IEEE NCA04), Cambridge, MA, 2004, pp:14. [13] Shun-Sheng Wang, Kuo-Qin Yan , Shu-Ching Wang , Chia-Wei Liu, "An Integrated Intrusion Detection System for Cluster-based Wireless Sensor Networks", Expert Systems with Applications 38 (2011) pp:15234 15243
It is observed that once the network is re-established after the attack occurrence the transmission power of each individual node tries to remain in the same level as it was before the attack. E. Analysis of Packet delay
End to End delay versus number of nodes is shown in (Fig. 8) we see that the delay increases when the nodes from multiple clusters are sending the data to the sink. Hence the delay for only single cluster (cluster1) is restricted to within 20 seconds. Where as it is shooted up to 45 seconds when cluster1 and cluster2 nodes are transmitting the packets simultaneously. Obviously, the delay is increasing with increase in number of nodes.
Fig. 8. Packet delay v/s Number of nodes.
IV.
CONCLUSION
This scheme employs an effective reactive attack handling mechanism scheme based on the prediction of the attack on the sink or the network by the behavioral approach. The network is sporadically monitored to save the energy and
Comparison of AODV and DSR Routing Protocols by evaluating the Performance Metrics with varying Mobility
Soumyalatha1, Manjunath R Kounte2
Dept. of E & C Engineering, REVA ITM, Bangalore, India
soumyanaveen.u@gmail.com manjunath.kounte@gmail.com
Abstract - In Mobile ad hoc network (MANET), routing protocol has to meet the challenges of the dynamically changing topology and establish a correct and an efficient communication path between source and destination, with minimum routing overhead and bandwidth consumption. The performance of Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) routing protocols have been evaluated by analyzing the affects of changing network parameters such as, number of sources, pause time on three performance metrics viz., packet delivery fraction, average endto-end-delay and normalized routing load. All the simulation work has been conducted in NS2. Based on study, it is observed that AODV is better than DSR for Packet Delivery Fraction (PDF) and average end-to-end-delay. However DSR is better than AODV, in Normalized routing load. Keywords - MANET, AODV, DSR, QoS
B. Infrastructure-less In infrastructure-less approach, the mobile wireless network is commonly known as a MANET. A MANET is a collection of wireless nodes that can dynamically form a network to exchange information without using any preexisting fixed network infrastructure. MANET find vide applications such as interactive lecturing [6], Military battlefield, in Rescue/Emergency operations, and temporary multimedia network using notebook computers to spread and share information among participants. In real-time applications, such as audio, video, and real-time data, the mobile ad hoc networks need for Quality of Service (QoS) in terms of delay, bandwidth, and packet loss is important. Providing QoS in mobile ad-hoc networks is a challenging task because of dynamic nature of network topology and imprecise state information. Hence it is important to have a dynamic routing protocol with fast rerouting capability, which also provides stable route during the life-time of the flows. Some of the mobile ad hoc routing protocols are discussed below. II.
I. INTRODUCTION Wireless networking is an emerging technology that allows users to access information and services electronically, regardless of their geographic positions. Generally there are two distinct approaches for enabling wireless mobile units to communicate with each other A. Infrastructure-based Wireless mobile networks have traditionally been based on the cellular concept [2] and relied on good infrastructure support. Here mobile devices communicate with access points like base stations connected to the fixed network infrastructure.
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Routing protocols for Mobile ad hoc networks can be broadly classified into two main categories:
A.
Table Driven Routing Proto cols (Proactive)
In proactive or table -driven routing protocols, each node continuously maintains up-to-date routes to every other node in the network. Routing information is periodically transmitted throughout the network in order to maintain routing table consistency.
independent hop-by-hop routing decisions made by each node. The packet in source routing which is going to be routed through the network carries the complete ordered list of nodes in its header through which the packet will pass. Fresh routing information is not needed to be maintained in intermediate nodes in design of source routing, since all the routing decisions are contained in the packet by themselves. III. PERFORMANCE METRICS OF
MANET
B.
On-Demand Routing Protocols (Reactive)
The following metrics are considered for simulating and analyzing the performance of routing protocols. A. Packet Delivery fraction (PDF) PDR is the ratio of the number of packets successfully received by all destinations to the total number of packets injected into the network by all sources B. End-to-End Delay The average time interval between the generation of a packet in a source node and the successfully delivery of the packet at the destination node. C. Normalized routing load [4] The number of routing packets transmitted per data packet delivered at the destination. IV. SIMULATION ENVIROMENT Simulation experiments are carried out using network simulator NS-2 ver.2.33 running on UBUNTU 11.10. NS-2 is an open source discrete event simulation tool [1], which simulates events such as sending, receiving, forwarding and dropping the packets. Simulation model used in this project is briefly explained below. A. Traffic Model Constant bit rate (CBR) traffic sources are used. 512-byte data packets are used. The numbers of source-destination pairs are varied to change the network load. B. Mobility Model The mobility model uses the random waypoint model in a rectangular field. The field configurations is 500 m x 500 m
In reactive or on demand protocols, a node initiates a route discovery throughout the network, only when it wants to send packets to its destination. For this purpose, a node initiates a route discovery process through the network. Some reactive protocols are AODV, DSR, Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA). Overview of AODV and DSR routing protocol is explained below. 1) Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) is a classical distance vector routing algorithm, initiates a route discovery[3][5] process only when it has data packets to send and it does not know any route to the destination node, that is, route discovery in AODV is On-demand. AODV uses sequence numbers maintained at each destination to determine freshness of routing information and to prevent routing loops. All routing packets carry these sequence numbers. 2) Dynamic Source Routing DSR is an best example of an on-demand routing protocol that is based on the concept of source routing [9]. It is designed especially for use in multihop ad hoc networks [8] of mobile nodes. It allows the network to be completely self organizing and self-configuring and does not need any existing network infrastructure or administration. DSR uses source routing supplied by packets originator to determine packets path through the network instead of
field and 2200m x 600m for 50 nodes and 100 nodes respectively for different number of sources with different pause times as indicated in the below Table I. The sourcedestination pairs are spread randomly over the network. During the simulation, each node starts its journey from a random location to a random destination with a randomly chosen speed (uniformly distributed 0-20 m/s). Once a destination is reached, another random destination is targeted after a pause time. The pause time, which affects the relative speeds of the mobiles, is varied. This process repeats throughout the simulation, causing continuous changes in the topology of the underlying network.
TABLE I PARAMETER VALUES FOR SIMULATION PARAMETERS Simulator Simulation Area Mobile Nodes Pause Time (s) SCENARIO-A NS 2.33 500 m x500 m 50 0,10,20,30,40,50 ,60,70,80, 90,100 10,20,40 8,25,40 2200 m x 600 m 100 0,50,100,150,200 250,300,350,400, 450, 500 40 30 SCENARIO-B
Simulations are carried for different number of sources and pause time considering Scenario A & Scenario B as detailed above Table I. V. SIMULATION
RESULTS
AND
ANALYSIS
A set of simulation are carried in order to evaluate the performance of AODV and DSR, routing protocols. The simulation results bring out some important characteristics differences between the routing protocols. The presence of high mobility implies frequently link failures and each routing protocols reacts differently during the link failure. The different basic working mechanism of these protocols leads to the differences in the performance. Performance metrics namely PDF, Average end to end delay and Normalized routing load are tested for dynamically changing and varying factor of pause time and number sources. These simulations are studied by increasing pause time for the performance of two routing protocols. As pause time increases, mobility in terms of change in directions (movement) decreases. When a pause time occurs, node stops for a while and selects another direction to travel. If speed is defined as constant then for every occurrence of pause time, speed of node remains constant. In this simulation for scenario-A pause time changes from 0s to 100s while other parameters (nodes = 50, speed = 20 m/s, packet sending rate = 4 kbps) are constant. The simulation results are shown in the following section in the form of line graphs. Graphs show comparison between the two protocols by varying different numbers of sources on the basis of the above-mentioned metrics as a function of pause time.
Number of Sources Maximum connections Packet Size Maximum Speed Packet rate Routing protocols Traffic Sources Simulation Duration Transmission Range Mac Layer Protocol
512 bytes 20 m/s 4 packets /s AODV & DSR CBR (UDP 200 s 250 m IEEE 802.11
512 bytes 20 m/s 2 packets /s
900 s
Simulations are run for 200 simulated seconds and 900 simulated seconds for Scenario-A and Scenario-B respectively. Identical mobility and traffic scenarios are used for both AODV and DSR routing protocols to gather fair results.
A.
PACKET DELIVERY FRACTION
better than the DSR. The poor performance of DSR is mainly due to aggressive use of caching, and lack of mechanism to expire stale routes or determine the freshness of routes when choices are available. In a lower mobility sceanrio DSR performs better than the AODV because the chances of finding the route in one of cache is much higher. Packet delivery fraction of DSR and AODV delivers between 85% and 100% for the scenario-A in all the cases.
Fig. 1 PDF for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 10 sources
Fig. 2 PDF for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 30 Sources
From Fig. 4, it is noted that DSR cannot scale to network beyond a few hundreds of nodes. For network with more than hundreds of nodes, DSR delivers 50% of data packet. DSR does not scale well because it has higher packet header overhead. It can be generarlised that AODV is better choice of routing in terms better packet delivery fraction and performs well in this metrics. B.
AVERAGE END TO END DELAY
From Fig. 1 it is observed that DSR and AODV performance are very similar for 10 Sources. From Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, observed that in a higher mobility scenario, AODV performs
Fig. 5 Average End to End Delay for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 10 sources
Fig. 8 Average End to End Delay for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 50 sources Fig. 6 Average End to End Delay for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 30 sources
At low mobility (high pause time), the possibility of link failures is low. In this case, DSR has lower delay than AODV. Because DSR caches are nearly up to date in low mobility cases, thus giving higher performance. From Fig. 8, it is observed that delays for both the protocol increases with the 40 sources with the very low mobility. This is due a high level of network congestation. In general, DSR has much higher end to end delay than AODV in both Sceanarios In case of DSR time increases very sharply with the increasing number of nodes while AODV is consistent with the increasing number of node
Fig. 7 Average End to End Delay for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 40 sources
From Fig. 5, it is noted that, Average end to end delay for both AODV and DSR are very similar for 10 sources With 30 and 40 sources DSR has higher delay (From Fig. 6 and Fig. 7) than AODV for high mobilty(low pause time) because of the abundance of cached routes at each node. Thus, the route discovery is delayed in DSR until all cached routes fail and also the chance of the caches being stale is quite high [3].
Lower the end to end delay better is the performance of the protocol. Hence AODV performs better in this metrics.
C.
NORMALIZED ROUTING LOAD
Fig. 9 Normalized Routing Load for DSR and AODV Routing Protocols for 10 sources
From Fig. {9, 10, 11, 12}, DSR always has less Routing load than AODV because, DSR maintains mulitple routes per destination hence when link fails, finding a new routing information overhead is less. AODV, uses routing table one route per destination hence takes more time and hence over head is more DSR has lower routing load than AODV. This is because of caching stragety used of DSR .By virtue of aggressive caching DSR is more likely to find a route in the cache, and hence resorst to route discovery less frequently than AODV.
Route discover is delayed in DSR untill all cached routes fails. When a route discovery is intiated large number of the replies recived in response is associated with mac overload. Increae data traffic which degrades the performance of DSR in high mobilty scenarios. DSR has low normalized routing load than AODV in both Sceanarios.Lower the normalized routing load better is the performance of the protocol. Hence DSR performs better in this metrics. VI. CONCLUSION This paper compares the performance of two on-demand routing protocols for MANET, viz, DSR and AODV.
DSR has very low packet delivery rates in high node mobility. DSR is better than AODV in smaller number of nodes and low mobility. However AODV outperforms DSR with number nodes and mobility, In general, AODV have very good packet delivery fraction in comparison to DSR. AODV outperforms DSR in terms Average end to end delay.
DSR consistently generates less routing load than AODV. This is because; aggressive caching helps DSR at low loads and also keeps its routing load down. However AODV maintains only one route per destination. This is one of the major problems in AODV, since every time a route is broken; a route discovery has to be initiated and leads to more overhead.
(2)
[1] [2] [3] [4]
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[8]
High Performance Reconfigurable Routers for Power Optimization

JIMSY MATHEW, ANNAPURNA KY Student, Dept. of ECE, VTU, Belgaum PESIT, Bangalore, INDIA Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE PESIT,Bangalore,INDIA
jims.eliza@gmail.com,ky.annapurna@gmail.com Abstract In network on chip pattern the enhanced use
of computers with numerous processors and cores are increasing the demand for reconfigurable routers. Traditional practice of defining the parameters is the design time but at many times a design necessitates the parameters like the buffer size to be defined during the run time. Power dissipation and higher latency are the two negative aspects encountered when the buffer size is defined at the design time. To surmount the difficulties caused by the traditional architectures a reconfigurable router for Network on Chip is being proposed in which it is possible to reconfigure the depth of each FIFO of the channel inside the routers. Buffer depth is not maintained as homogeneous rather it is heterogeneous so that power consumption is less. The architecture of reconfigurable router is implemented using Verilog. It is synthesized and simulated using Xilinx10.1ISE.Time delay and area occupied is less when compared to the homogeneous routers. Keywords Buffer, Latency, Network on Chip, Power dissipation, Reconfigurable Router I. INTRODUCTION MPSoCs is an egressing technology that incorporates almost all the components to implement a design according to the growing design complexities. MPSoC processors can assure better performance and flexibility when several types of processor cores and data memory units are configured together. Traditional interconnection architectures of the chip multiprocessor such as on-chip bus, cross bar etc do not satisfy the requirements of reusability, flexibility and scalability .As the number of processors on a single chip and the computing complexity is increasing, the inter-connection and communication mechanism is proving inefficient for the better performance and reliability .This leads to a heterogeneous architecture which requires another model of interconnection. Reusability and Scalability are the two features provided by NoCs. NoC provide interconnection between the cores through a network of cores and communicate among them-selves through packet switched communication. The building block of No is its router because it is responsible to switch the channels which forward the messages exchanged by the cores attached to the NoC. The fundamental objective in the design of NoC is to minimize its area and power consumption while keeping the performance at the required rate. The trade-offs in the process depend upon latency, power dissipation and energy. In this paper, the motivation and need for a reconfigurable router is characterized. It is showed that how a reconfigurable router can be used with a NoC architecture to give better performance. [1] States the basic principle of reconfigurable router as each input channel can lend/borrow buffer units to/from neighbouring channels in order to obtain a determined bandwidth. When a channel does not need its entire available buffer it can lend buffer word slots to neighbouring channels.
This paper begins with briefly looking at the related work done in the field of NoC in section II, architecture of the reconfigurable router is explained in III, followed by the simulation results and conclusion is discussed in section IV. II. RELATED WORK In the last few years many NoC architectures have been proposed with different network parameters like topology, routing algorithm, switching scheme and packet size at the generation time. In the real world even though all IPs are not utilizing the entire available bandwidth, the parameters are defined keeping in mind the worst case communication of high data throughput between all connected IPs. This results in some of the allocated resources not getting used as expected causing wastage of resources. B. Ahmad [3] states that the proposed network utilizes the resources effectively by dynamically reconfiguring itself according to the communication demand. None of the previous work done in field of NoC has addressed the issue of dynamically reconfigurable NoC, where switching, routing and packet size can change dynamically with changing communication requirements.
are called local clusters. The NoC is used to connect all local clusters, all of them having the same capabilities. Bouhraoua and Elrabaa [6] showed a modified Fat Tree Noc based on the fact that bandwidth is not constant in an application. According to these authors, there is no reason to give more bandwidth than it will be used to meet the bandwidth requirements of other clients. The Fat Tree Topology (FT) is a class of NoC based on a sub-class of Multi-Stage Interconnections Network Topology (MIN). The routing in an FT is like a routing in binary trees. The modification in a FT is based on the analyses of the required bandwidth. All router ports have the same bandwidth, this being the minimum bandwidth required. If some core needs more bandwidth, then this core has more routers ports attached to it. III. ARCHITECTURE OF
RECONFIGURABLE ROUTERS
A) Normal FIFO
The router architecture is able to sustain performance due to the fact that not all buffers are used all the time. In this architecture it is possible to dynamically reconfigure different buffer depths for each channel. A channel can lend part or the whole of its buffer slots in accordance with the requirements of the neighbouring buffers. To reduce connection costs, each channel may only use the available buffer slots of its right and left neighbour channels. This way, each channel may have up to three times more buffer slots than its original buffer with the size defined at design time.
Fig 1 A normal router uses the wormhole switching approach and a deterministic source-based routing algorithm. The routing algorithm used is XY -routing, capable of supporting deadlock-free data transmission, and the flow control is based on the handshake protocol. The wormhole strategy breaks a packet into multiple flow control units called flits, and they are sized as an integral multiple of the channel width. The first flit is a header with destination
Ahonen and Nurmi [5] proposed a hierarchical NoC, able to cope with inefficiencies obtained with a regular NoC. They used two types of on-chip network: the Global Network (NoC) and the Local Network (bus-based). The Local Network is used to connect slaves to a master that together
address followed by a set of payload flits and a tail flit. There is a round-robin arbiter at each output channel. The buffering is present only at the input channel. Each flit is stored in a FIFO buffer unit. The input channel is instantiated to all channels of the NoC, and thus all channels have the same buffer depth defined at design time. [1] B) Proposed FIFO
exclude the specified path from their routing table, and keeps an account of the path established till it receives the end of transmission packet. The input controller runs five times the clock speed of the router and checks the arrived packets at each input port in a round robin pattern to establish the output path [3]
Input Port- This module decides the point of entry of the

incoming packet; it has a buffer to store one packet that is getting inspected for its header contents. Information extracted from an incoming packet includes, destination address and type of switching. Thus, if a packet comes with an instruction to change switching to circuit switching, the input controller gets this information from the packet and informs its neighboring routers of its change to circuit switching so that other input controllers excludes it from their routing tables. This passage of control signal to neighboring routers makes it possible to avoid the need of big buffers to store the packets as packets would be sent to alternative paths. [3]
Switching Logic This unit connects the input ports to the

Fig 2 In the proposed reconfigurable router design, each router is connected to four neighboring routers. One of the important design constraints on router is to keep its silicon cost low, which is possible by keeping the internal buffer of router to as small as possible. In order to prevent packets queuing up internally in buffer, control signals are used to update routing tables for adaptive routing. This reduces the need for big internal data buffers. The proposed router has three important components: output ports depending on the instructions from the Input Controller.
FLOW CHART
The Input Controller- This unit manages the routing tables

and determines the fate of arrived packets after its header inspection. The input controller of a router is connected to the input controller of its neighboring routers. This connection is to update routing tables. Thus when a router is instructed to change mode to circuit switching, it informs its neighbours to
Each channel can receive three data inputs the own input, the right neighbour and the left neighbour input.
PROPOSED ROUTER ARCHITECTURE
Fig 3 Flow Chart showing the steps involved in each channel Steps involved in the functioning of each channel in a Reconfigurable Router Fig 4
A reconfigurable router with a dynamic sharing mechanism of buffers at the input channels is proposed to reduce congestion in the network. In this state, a channel can lend or borrow some non-used buffer units to or from neighboring channels at execution time, in accordance to the connection rates. FIFO buffering is present only at the input channel, with each channel having the same buffer depth defined at design time. Each channel has a control logic and a register. In fig 3 the proposed FIFO structure is organized to constitute the reconfigurable router. Each channel can receive three data inputs. That is channel's own input and the two neighbouring channels inputs. For illustration purposes, a router with buffer depth equal to 4 is assumed and there is a
Initially the number of slots in each channel is validated. Here in this case it is taken as 4. Checks the status of FIFO to find out whether it is empty or full. A control block informs how many buffer words it uses of its own channel and of the neighbouring channels, and also how much the neighbour channels occupy of its own buffer set. Based on this information, each channel controls the storage of its flits. These flits can be stored on its buffer slots or in the neighbour channel buffer slots.
router that needs to be configured. as follows: West Channel with buffer depth equal to 8, East Channel with buffer depth equal to 2, North Channel with buffer depth equal to 1 and East Channel with buffer depth equal to 4. In such case, the West Channel needs to borrow buffer slots from its neighbours. As the East Channel occupies two of its four slots, this channel can lend two slots to its neighbour, but even then, the west Channel still needs more two buffer slots.
As the North Channel occupies only one slot, out of three missing slots, two slots can be lent to the west Channel. When the North Channel has a flit stored in the south Channel, and this flit must be sent to the output, it is passed from the south Channel to the west Channel and so the flit is directly sent to the output of the west Channel by a multiplexer. The west Channel has the following outputs: the own output (dout W) and two more outputs (d W N and d W S) to send the flits stored in its channel but belonging to neighbour channels. [1] III. SIMULATION RESULTS
Fig 5 RTL schematic of EAST channel showing the inputs and outputs defined during the coding of this channel.
Using VERILOG, coding for all the channels are done and it is synthesized and simulated using XILINX ISE 10.1. Similarly other channels are also synthesized. Each channel will have its own input and the neighboring left and right inputs. Here the average power consumption, area, and frequency are analysed.
capabilities or for safety critical systems where the timing constraints are tight. Using reconfiguration, one can dynamically change the buffer depth to each channel, in accordance to the necessity of the application, increasing the power efficiency of the system for the same performance level. To reach the same performance obtained with the reconfigurable router, the original architecture needs many more buffers. The new router while reaching the same performance than the original architecture obtains a reduction of approximately 25% of power consumption in the worst case, and of 52% for the best case analysed. Besides, when compared with the VI Char architecture, our proposal obtains 78% of power reduction for the same configuration. Moreover, the reconfigurable router obtains the same performance of the homogeneous router with a buffer depth 64% smaller. Moreover, with the new architecture it is possible to reconfigure the router in accordance with the application, obtaining similar performances even when the application radically changes.
Fig 6 Simulation results shows the outputs for the following channels- east channel has a buffer depth of 16, north channel has a buffer depth of 4 and south channel has a buffer depth of 5. With the proposed router it is possible to have one single NoC connecting different applications that might change their communicating patterns at run time. In the same way, this architecture allows application updates without compromising the performance of the system. Meanwhile, if a homogeneous router had been used in these situations, design modifications at design time would have had to be made to achieve the optimum case. In such case, one would need to redesign the homogeneous NoC to set buffer sizes and position of the cores in the network. The technique here proposed avoids costly redesigns and new manufacturing. [1]
REFERENCES
[1] Debora Matos Reconfigurable Routers for Low Power and High
PerformanceOn Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems, Vol. 19, No. 11, November 2011. [2] L. Manferdelli, N. K. Govindaraju, and C. Crall, Challenges and opportunities in many-core computing, Proc. IEEE, vol. 96, no. 5, pp. 808815, May 2008. [3] B. Ahmad, A. Ahmadinia, and T. Arslan, Dynamically reconfigurable NOC with bus based interface for ease of integration and reduced designed time, in Proc.NASA/ESA Conf. Adapt. Hardw. Syst. (AHS), 2008, pp. 309314.
I V.CONCLUSION
This paper describes the architecture of a new dynamically reconfigurable NoC with intelligent nodes that changes the communication parameters for high data throughput and less timing delays. Simulation results demonstrate the effective use of network resources, making it a suitable alternative to traditional NoC. The downside of this network in the form of complexity of its node is compensated by the increased data throughput and low silicon cost. This kind of NoC can be ideal for reconfigurable MPSoCs with multimedia
[4] S. E. Lee and N. Bagherzadeh, Increasing the throughput of an adaptive router in network-on-chip (NoC), in Proc. Int. Conf. Hardw./Softw. Codes. Syst. Synth., 2006, pp. 8287. [5] T. Ahonen and J. Nurmi, Hierarchically heterogeneous network-onchip, in Proc. Int. Conf. Comput. as a Tool (EUROCON), 2007, pp. 25802586.
Design of Keyed and Unkeyed UBI based Hash Function

NASEEMA1, KURAHATTI.N.G2, ASIT KUMAR DAS3 1 Dept of ECE, EPCET, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. 2 Professor, Dept of ECE, EPCET, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. 3 Project Manager, VED LABS, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. 1 nasseema.eng@gmail.com , 2ngkurahatti@yahoo.com.in , 3asit.das@vedlabs.com
(UBI) construction to build a hash function and can be used in many applications because of its attractive properties and higher security. The proposed work aims at designing an 8-unrolled architecture of UBI-skein (256 and 512 bits) for Keyed and Unkeyed function. Keyed Hash functions [2, 3] are those which not only depend on input message for hashing, but also on input key. They are called as Message Authentication Code (MAC). Un-Keyed hash functions are those functions that depend only on message input for hashing. Previous work of UBI-Skein implementation [4] were based on Iterative and 4-unrolled architecture of Tweakable block cipher. Iterative and 4-unrolled structure makes use of dynamic rotation. A design with dynamic rotations requires that there exist multiple paths for the data to exist thereby increasing the designs logic. By unrolling the design by eight rounds and having only static rotation values, there exists only one path for the data to travel which reduces the designs logic compared to Iterative and 4-unrolled approach. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II introduces the UBI based hash function. Section III describes the proposed UBI-Skein method. Section IV presents the results. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section V.
Abstract Cryptographic hash functions are the workhorses of modern cryptography providing efficient authentication and privacy. Cryptographic hashing involves the compression of an arbitrary block of data into a fixed-size string of bits known as hash/digest. The proposed work aims at designing a Keyed and Unkeyed UBI based Skein Hash algorithm for state space 256 and 512 bits using 8-unrolled architecture. It has an advantage of higher security resisting against traditional attacks. The design is unrolled by eight rounds and use static rotation values reducing the design complexity compared to previous approach such as Iterative and 4-unrolled. Index TermsHash, Keyed, Unkeyed, Skein, UBI.
I. Introduction
Over the past decades, the semiconductor industry has grown rapidly. As engineers and scientists were able to place more and more transistors on chip, computers have become more powerful and ubiquitous. As computers increasingly become a part of peoples lives, trustworthy security systems must be in place to protect sensitive information from being stolen. Cryptographic hash functions form an important building block for providing information authentication. An efficient way to protect the authenticity of a large quantity of information consists of protecting only the short hash code computed from that information. Hash functions are used in many information security applications such as message authentication codes (MACs), software integrity, password protection, digital signature, time-stamping, internet banking and so on. The proposed algorithm was submitted as a candidate for the SHA-3 competition of NIST [1]. It was selected as one of the five finalists. Though UBISkein was not selected as SHA-3, it is still considered as a secure hash algorithm which uses Unique Block Iteration
II. UBI based hash function

UBI based hash function is a family of hash functions based on the tweakable block cipher Threefish. The block and key size for Tweakable Cipher are equal and can be set to either 256, 512 bits (designated as Threefish-256, Threefish512 respectively). The Tweak input is always 128 bits for any variant of Skein/Tweakable Cipher. Each of the Skein state sizes support any output size. Naming convention for UBISkein is UBI-Skein-State space-Hash length. Tweakable Cipher is used in Matyas-Meyer-Oseas (MMO) [5] hash mode to construct the compression function. Together with
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013 the format specification of the tweak and a padding scheme, this defines the Unique Block Iteration (UBI) chaining mode [6]. UBI-Skein is a good performer in software across all platforms that implements 64-bit operations without requiring the use of test vector unit. Skein-256 is a low memory variant used for resource limited environments. Skein-512 can be used for all current hashing applications. UBI-Skein consists of two main components: Tweakable block cipher and Unique Block Iteration (UBI). Tweakable block cipher is the core of UBI based hash function. It is the compression function that determines the state space. UBI is used to map arbitrary input to fixed output. The data process flow of Keyed and Unkeyed UBI-Skein is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Keyed hash function is composed of four UBI modules and Unkeyed hash function consists of three UBI modules. Every UBI is composed of Tweakable block cipher Threefish (TF).
C. Message UBI
The message to be hashed is processed in message UBI. Tweakable cipher is iterated to process the entire message bytes as shown in Figure 3. If the plaintext input to Threefish is not an integral multiple of block size, it is padded. It accepts input up to (296 1) bytes. Value of T msg is 48.
Figure 3 . Message UBI
D. Output UBI
This is the final processing stage responsible for producing the hash output. The output of this UBI has to be trimmed to produce the required hash value. The Output UBI allows skein to produce any size output up to 264 bits. Tout is given by the value 63. The characteristics of the proposed algorithm are simplicity, flexibility, Implementability on wide range of platforms, simple rounds, maximum diffusion and simple CPU operations. These properties protect the algorithm from traditional attacks such as differential attack [8], linear attack and related-key attack [9].
Figure 1 . Data process flow of Keyed UBI-Skein
III. proposed method

The key of implementation lies in Tweakable block cipher which includes almost all operations of UBI-Skein.
Figure 2 . Data process flow of Unkeyed UBI-Skein
A. Key UBI
Handling the key occurs before any other message processing indicated by the value of T key in Tweak input equal to zero [6]. Message input to this UBI is zero bytes.
B. Configuration UBI
This stage is required for any Skein hashing. A 32-byte configuration string is used as a message input to the UBI. Value of T conf in Tweak input is 4. When used for Unkeyed hashing the key input is zero bytes.
A. Tweakable block cipher The core component of Keyed and Unkeyed UBI-Skein hashing is Tweakable block cipher. It takes three inputs: Plaintext, Key and Tweak and operates on unsigned 64 bit words. Threefish works on round operation. Each round consists of MIX and Permute function. The block cipher for 256 and 512 bits require 72 rounds to generate result, and 72 rounds have a regular pattern of 9x8. Tweakable cipher consists of two stages: Key scheduler stage and encryption stage. It is shown in Figure 4.
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013 2) Encryption stage: The algorithm of Threefish encryption block is round based, requiring 72 rounds for Threefish-256 and Threefih-512. It takes subkeys and plaintext as inputs and generates ciphertext as output. Figure 6 shows the encryption stage for UBI-Skein-256. It can be extended for 512 bits. Encryption stage consists of three operations: Subkey addition, MIX function and Permutation.
Figure 4 . Tweakable block cipher
1) Key scheduler stage: Key scheduler is responsible for generating subkeys required for the encryption stage. Figure 5 shows the key scheduler for UBI-Skein. It creates (Nr/4) + 1 subkeys (Nr is the number of round). The length of each subkey is equal to block size length. Key scheduler takes Key, Tweak and a Subkey number as input to generate subkeys. Subkeys are inserted every four rounds to cipher encryption stage. An extended key and tweak is generated as the first step. Subkey can be described by following formula: KNw = C240 ^ K0 ^ ^ KNw 1 T2 = T0 ^ T1 K s,i = K (s+i) mod (Nw+1) K s,i= K (s+i) mod (Nw+1) + Ts mod 3 K s,i= K (s+i) mod (Nw+1) + T (s+1) K s,i= K (s+i) mod (Nw+1) + S
mod 3
(1) (2) i = 0,, Nw 4 i = Nw 3 i = Nw 3 i = Nw 3 (3) (4) (5) (6) In Tweakable cipher, Subkey is injected every four rounds to perform subkey addition. Addition is performed on 64 bit inputs; therefore all inputs are split into chunks of 64 bit words. The MIX operation is the main function in a round operation. Each MIX block takes in two 64-bit inputs and produces two 64-bit outputs. Thus each variant of Threefish requires different number of MIX blocks equal to NW /2. It uses three mathematical operations such as addition mod 2, addition mod 264 and rotation by a constant. The rotation values are given in [6]. The rotation values repeat every eight rounds. Since the proposed architecture is 8-unrolled, this reduces the logic compared to iterative and 4-unrolled. MIX function is defined as follows:
Y0 = (X0 + X1) mod 264 Y1 = (X1 <<< R (d mod 8), j) ^ Y0 (7) (8)
Figure 6 . Subkey addition and one of the 72 rounds of encryption stage for state space -256 bits
In the above formula K0K Nw represents the key space. C240 is a constant which makes K Nw not to be zero. S is the subkey counter.
Where <<< is the rotate-left operator. Permutation stage is a simple reordering of the internal states 64 bit words. The internal state is viewed as an array of 64-bit blocks, and the permute stage reorders that array, with no changes occurring within each 64-bit block. The permutation order for 256 and 512 bits are given in [6]
Proceedings of National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013 3) Kogg-stone adder: The adder used in this work is 64-bit Kogg-stone (KS) adder [7]. It is a parallel prefix adder. It is derived from the family of Carry Look Ahead (CLA) adders. KS adder was chosen because it is one of the fastest adders for binary addition. The three stages involved in parallel prefix addition process are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Addition stages in Kogg-stone adder
B. Eight Unrolled Architecture
The tweakable cipher architecture used in this work is 8unrolled approach. In this approach eight rounds of cipher is designed and the same is iterated in order to complete all 72 rounds. The block diagram in Figure 8 shows the 8-unrolled architecture of Tweakable cipher.
Figure 8 . Eight unrolled UBI-Skein architecture
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS

This proposed work focus on the software implementation of UBI-Skein. The architecture of the proposed algorithm is modeled in VHDL language. The simulation results were obtained using the ModelsimSE 6.3f simulator. As a future work the above software design can be implemented on any modern FPGA. The Simulation results for Unkeyed and Keyed UBI-Skein algorithm is shown in figure 9 and 10.
V. CONCLUSION
Software design of Keyed and Unkeyed UBI-Skein architecture is presented in this paper. Two state-spaces are considered 256 and 512 bits. The design is performed using an 8-unrolled approach where eight rounds are unrolled and iterated to generate the result. UBI-Skein has some attractive properties that resist against traditional attacks such as differential attack, linear attack, birthday paradox and related-key attacks. The design use static rotation which reduces the design logic compared to iterative and 4-unrolled approach.
REFERENCES
[1] Figure 9 . Keyed UBI-Skein Simulation result [2] National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Cryptographic hash algorithm competition, 2007. M. Bellare, R. Canetti and H.Krawczyk, Keying hash functions for message authentication, Advances in Cryptology- CRYPTO 06 Proceedings , Springer-Verlag, 1996, pp. 1-15 National Institute of Standards and Technology, The Keyed -Hash Message Authentication Code (HMAC), FIPS 198, 6 Mar 2002. Men Long, Implementing Skein Hash Function on Xilinx Virtex -5 FPGA platform. Available online at http://www.skeinhash.info/sites/default/files/skein-fpga.pdf , February 2009 S.M. Matyas, C.H. Meyer, and J. Oseas, Generating strong one -way functions with cryptographic algorithms, IBM Technical Disclosure Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 10A, 1985, pp.5658-5659. N.Ferguson, S. Lucks,B. Scheneier, D. Whiting, M. Bellare, etc., The Skein Hash Function Family v1.3. Available online at http://www.skein-hash.info/sites/default/files/skein1.2.pdf, September2009. P. Kogg and H. stone, A Parallel Algorithm for the efficient solutio n of a general class of recurrence relations, IEEE transactions on Computers, vol.C-22, No.8, August 1973, pp. 786-793. E. Biham and A. Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data encryption Standard, springer Verlag, 1993 E. Biham New Types of Cryptanalytic Attacks using Related Keys, Journal of Cryptology, v. 7, 1994, pp. 229-246
[3] [4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8] [9]
Figure 10 . Unkeyed UBI-Skein Simulation result
Figure 9 shows the snapshot of Keyed Skein-UBI (Skein256-128). The length of message to be hashed is taken as 640 bits and a output hash of 128 bits is obtained. Figure 10 shows the snapshot of Unkeyed Skein-UBI. The state space, length and message length are same as Keyed UBI-Skein.
Detection and Optimization Of Multisite MIMO Radar System

vijaylaxmi1, B.Roja Reddy2,Uttarakumari M3
1, 2 3
Dept. of Telecommunication, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore, India
HOD Dept. of Electronics and communication, R.V. College of Engineering, Bangalore, India
1
vijaylaxmi.dweepa@gmail.com
Abstract - Multisite Radar Systems (MSRSs) consisting of

MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) radars have important advantages for target detection not only in a background noise of the of receiver but also in clutter noise. MSRS with DBF (Digital Beamforming) plays important role to smooth outputs of different sites, target fluctuations and also increases the SNR. The likelihood ratio test (LRT) detector is based on the spatial
diversity conditions and the MSRS configuration The derived statistics of the LRT detector with the fixed noise background the detectable SNR after digital beamforming is determined and the optimization problem to find the optimal site numbers where min SNR exists is plotted based on the MIMO-MSRS system configurations and also the threshold value of each site is analyzed in accordance with the noise variance. Key words MSRS, MIMO radars, DBF, Spatial Diversity. measuring, and tracking. For example, the radar cross sections (RCS) of a real target can fluctuate significantly even to 10 to 15 dB with a small change of aspect angle. As a consequence, the targets echoes of single radar may possibly be generated from an aspect angle with an extremely small RCS and a target may easily be missed for detection. However, the multiple echoes of a multisite radar system (MSRS) may be assumed statistically independent as long as the spatial diversity condition is satisfied, and the fusion of multisite echoes may be helpful to detect the target by smoothing the RCS fluctuation [4]. Therefore, MSRS systems have been widely used in radar fields to obtain the performance gain via spatial diversity. Besides, compared with the conventional monostatic radar, an MSRS system has superior abilities to cope with the threats of modern radar like strong jamming, low-altitude interception, anti radiation missiles, etc.
I.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of multistatic radars (MSRS) is not new. It has been under investigation for some time and there was even a special issue from IEE on 1986 on bistatic and multistatic radars. Recent technology advances though, especially in digital transmission, better processing power, more reliable communications and the arrival of GPS offer a means to have a common framework for space and time and has led to a reassessment of multistatic radar. A MSRS is a radar system including several spatially separated transmitting, receiving and (or) transmitting-receiving facilities where target information from all sensors is fused (jointly processed) [3]. This is a wide definition which covering both Multistatic Radars and Multi radar (Netted Radar) Systems. Thus, a MSRS has two principal distinctions: 1) several spatially separated stations and 2) fusion (joint processing) of target information. The surroundings of modern radar become more and more complicated Stealthy, far-range, high-altitude, and high-speed targets cause a serious challenge for effective radar detection,
Recently, multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) radars have attracted increasing attention. MIMO (multiple-input multiple-
output) radar uses multiple antennas to simultaneously transmit several (possibly linearly independent) waveforms and it also uses multiple antennas to receive the reflected signals. By exploiting the waveform diversity[2], MIMO radar can overcome performance degradations caused by the radar cross section (RCS) fluctuations, achieve flexible spatial transmit beam pattern design, provide highresolution spatial spectral estimates and significantly improve the parameter identifiability. Normally, the existing MIMO radars may be roughly divided into two classes one is with widely distributed transmitting and receiving (T/R) channels and the other is with closely collocated T/R channels[4]. For the former, e.g., a statistical MIMO radar , the obvious radar aspect angle differences exist among separate T/R channels, which can improve fluctuating target detection via spatial diversity[4] like the MSRS.
Figure 1: Signal processing flowchart of MIMO-MSRS system
II.
PROPOSED MIMO-MSRS SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

In the following, we give the signal model of proposed MIMOMSRS system based on the spatial diversity conditions. A. SIGNAL PROCESSING BLOCK DIAGRAM
OF
MIMO-MSRS SYSTEM
MIMO-MSRS system, the matched-filter banks shown in Fig. 1 are used at first to generate N M channel outputs from N receiving elements. Because the time delays of different channels may be different, the joint space-time compensation is needed for the spacetime coregistration among different channel samplings. M transmitting elements and N receiving elements are used by the MIMO-MSRS system for transmitting M orthogonal waveforms and receiving their echoes, simultaneously shown in Figure. 2 Also, a fluctuating target, composed of numerous little scatterers, exists in the detection plane with a centroid located at ( ) . The size of but is B. RECEIVED SIGNAL MODEL OF MIMO SYSTEM From fig. 2 for M transmitting elements and N receiving elements the signal received by the nth receiving element may be given as
Figure 2: MIMO-MSRS system and its configuration
The aspect angle difference from the above two virtual T/R elements to target is denoted as in Fig. 2 To describe the
statistical properties among different virtual T/R elements, the spatial diversity conditions have to be defined for the fluctuating target detection in MSRS and for statistical MIMO radar.
the fluctuating target is much larger than radar wavelength still irresolvable in a single range unit.
.................................(1) where Pt is the constant total transmitting power of radar, denotes the time delay in the n-mth channel caused by the propagating range from the mth transmitting element to the from the targets centroid to (t) distributed (IID) complex Gaussian distributed scattering
coefficients for different channels.
III.
LIKELIHOOD RATIO TEST DETECTOR OF THE MIMO-MSRS SYSTEM
So, after the coherent integration via DBF in as specific site for all the channels samplings, the output SNR of the it h site may be given as .(7) For the multisite radar application, the LRT has been derived as a weighted sum of square detector outputs for the multiple incoherent
targets centroid and the range
the nth receiving element, respectively, c is the light speed and
denotes the waveform emitted by the mth transmitting element, which satisfies the orthogonality condition [4] among different waveforms. The complex Gaussian-distributed variable variance is given by ...(2) where and represent the antenna gains of the mth and with a
signals with mutually uncorrelated fluctuations. In this paper, we directly extract the output of the square detector of different sites as ......................................................(8) where the statistics of the detector as i = 1,2,, L where .....(9) may be given
transmitting element and the nth receiving element,
are a Rayleigh-distributed RCS and a uniform-distributed phase in [] among the multiple channel samplings, respectively. Because M transmitting elements and N receiving elements may totally form N M different T/R channels, the maximum system DOF of the MIMO-MSRS system is Ds =MN. C. DIGITAL BEAMFORMING Beamforming in radar system focuses the radar transmitter and receiver in a particular direction. The side to side direction is commonly referred to as the azimuth and the up and down direction as the elevation. Beamforming can be used to focus the radar over both azimuth and elevations. In fig. 2 After coherent integration among these channels, the DBF outputs of the different sites may be given as ...(4) .(5) ............................(6) Because where the ratio detector is defined as ............(11) , i =1,2,: : : ,L, are the site squared outputs normalized .(10)
denotes the local noise level of DBF output in the ith
site. Therefore, the likelihood ratio(LR) of Xi is given as
by the local noise level and they are independently distributed from each other. Therefore, the LRT detector of the MIMO-MSRS system may be given as .............(12) where are and is a threshold preset according to a preset constant PF (13)
Are steering vector for the ith site respectively,
and
matrix transpose operator and conjugate transpose operator, respectively, i=1L are the L independently identically
For the implementation of the proposed LRT the local noise level should be estimated to generate the ratio detector i =1,2,: : :
,L at first. Then, the SNRs of different sites are estimated to
determine the weight with the T/R number Finally, the
weighted sum of the ratio detector is used for LRT.
A. OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM OF MIMO-MSRS

Optimization problem for min SNR : With a given Ds, constant PF and PD, obtain the minimum detectable SNR of the target, i.e. by optimizing the parameter vector based on the LRT detector of the MIMO-MSRS system. Solution: With given PF, L, and , the probability of detection for a target with optimal configuration [4] may be given as (14)
Figure 3: detectable SNR verses site number(without optimization after digital beamforming for L=30 )
IV.
NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
To verify the concept of the MIMO-MSRS system and its optimal configurations, as well as the proposed closed-form approximations. Some numerical experiments are designed in this section. In the following, the defaulted MIMO-MSRS system Configuration parameters are M=5,N=6 and variances of noise and target as 0 to 0.1 and 0 to 0.02 respectively SNR is defined as .....(15) With the gain of the transmitting(Gmt) and receiving antenna(Gnr) as Gmt = 37db , Gnr = 37db respectively, the wave length of the transmitted signal as = 0.3012msqr and the range of transmitted
Figure 4: Detectable SNR versus site number(with optimal configuration i.e with optimization)
and received signal as Rm = 20m and Rn = 30m with Et = 1000J, the Gaussian-distributed scattering coefficient is obtained by
In fig. 3 after the coherent integration via DBF in a specific site for all the channels samplings the detectable SNR verses site number is plotted according to (7) withought optimization and the detectable SNR withought optimization is found to be 6.3db for site number L=30. It is shown that as L increases the SNR also increases gradually to improve the system performance but we cannot find the optimal site numbers where min SNR exists to detect the target. In fig. 4 with the fixed PD =0.8, number of transmitting and receiving elements M=5, N=6 = and = and the three different = ,
(16) and are a Rayleigh-distributed RCS and a uniform] among the multiple channel samplings,
distributed phase in [respectively.
three curves of the detectable SNR versus
L are plotted according to (14) respectively. It is clear that there are optimal site numbers, i.e., system diversity DOFs exists for L=3 to 5
with respect to the minimum detectable SNR for the MIMO-MSRS system. When the real system diversity DOF L is larger than this small optimal system diversity DOF, the detectable SNR will be inversely increased with the increase of L and the max SNR is found to be 6.5db That is, to improve the ultimate system performance, more tightly located T/R channels should be allocated for DBF to increase the local SNR of a specific site.
REFERENCES
[1] Luzhou Xu . , Jian Li, Petre Stoica , Target Detection and Parameter Estimation for MIMO Radar Systems . IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And Electronic Systems Vol. 44, No. 3 July 2008. [2] Yang Yang, Rick S. Blum, MIMO Radar Waveform Design Based on Mutual Information and Minimum Mean-Square Error Estimation, IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And Electronic Systems Vol. 43, No. 1 January 2007. [3] An Introduction to Multistatic Radar by Chris J. Baker College of Engineering and Computer Science, ANU. [4] ) Jia Xu, Xi-Zeng Dai, Optimizations of Multisite Radar System with MIMO Radars for Target Detection Member, IEEE Tsinghua University, Radar Academy of Airforce ,IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And Electronic Systems Vol. 47, No. 4 October 2011. [5] Daniel R. Fuhrmann, Geoffrey San Antonio, Transmit Beamforming for MIMO Radar Systems using Signal CrossCorrelation , IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And Electronic Systems Vol. 44, No. 1 January 2008 .
Figure 5: threshold value of the signal verses noise variance(withought optimization for = 0 to 0.1)
In fig. 5 the threshold value of the MIMO-MSRS signal verses noise variance is plotted according to (11) and (12). It is shown that as the variance of the noise signal is indirectly proportional to the threshold, the value of threshold increases according the noise variance of each site.
[6] Eran Fishler, Alexander Haimovich, , IEEE, Rick S. Blum, , IEEE Leonard J. Cimini, Jr., Dmitry Chizhik, and Reinaldo A. Valenzuela, Spatial Diversity in RadarsModels and Detection Performance , IEEE Transactions On Signal Processing, Vol. 54, No. 3, March [7] Bekkerman, I. and Tabrikian, J. Target detection and localization using MIMO radars and sonars. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, 54, 10 (Oct. 2006), 3873 3883. [8] Bo Tang, Jun Tang, Member, . MIMO Radar Waveform Design in Colored Noise Based on Information Theory. IEEE Transactions On Signal Processing, Vol. 58, No. 9, September 2010. [9] Ross Deming, John Schindler , Leonid Perlovsky., MultiTarget/Multi-Sensor Tracking using Only Range and Doppler Measurements. IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And Electronic Systems Vol. 45, No. 2 April 2009. [10] Antonio De Maio, Marco Lops, Design Principles of MIMO Radar Detectors , IEEE Transactions On Aerospace And Electronic Systems Vol. 43, No. 3 July 2007.
V.
CONCLUSION
A MIMO-MSRS system signal model for fluctuating target detection is proposed with the MIMO-MSRS configuration the detectable SNR after Digital beamforming for different sites is plotted without optimization and with optimum solution the optimal number of sites where min SNR exists is found to detect the target with the fixed noise background. As the noise variance is indirectly proportional to threshold hence the value of threshold for each site is analyzed and plotted.
VBS : Virtual Backbone Scheduling to Extend the Lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks
Latha H., Swasthika Jain T.J., Umme Najma S.K.
Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Department of computer science and engineering,Bangalore 560032 Email: Latha_sarang@yahoo.com, jainswasthika@gmail.com, ummenajmask@gmail.com
Abstarct --Wireless
Sensor Networks(WSNs) are key for various applications that involve longterm and low-cost monitoring and actuating. In these applications, sensor nodes use batteries as the sole energy source. Therefore, energy efficient becomes critical. We observe that many WSN applications require redundant sensor nodes to achieve fault tolerance and Quality of Service (QoS) of the stable wireless links. In this paper, we present a novel sleep-scheduling technique called Virtual Backbone Scheduling(VBS). VBS is designed for WSNs has redundant sensor nodes. VBS forms multiple overlapped backbones which work alternatively to prolong the network lifetime. In VBS, traffic is only forwarded by backbone sensor nodes, and the rest of the sensor nodes turn off their radios to save energy. The rotation of multiple backbones makes sure that the energy and achieves a longer network lifetime compared to the existing techniques. The scheduling problem of VBS is formulated as the Maximum Lifetime Backbone Scheduling(MLBS) problem.Since the MLBS problem is NP-hard, we propose approximation algorithms based on the Schedule Transition Graph(STG) and Virtual Scheduling Graph(VSG). We also present an Iterative Local Replacement(ILR) scheme as a distributed implementation. Theoretical analysis and simulation studies verify that VBS is superior to the existing techniques.
scheduling, virtual backbone,energy-delay tradeoff,connected dominating set, complexity analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION In Wireless Sensor Networks, a key technology for various applications that involve long-term and low-cost monitoring, such as battlefield reconnaissance, building inspection, security surveillance, etc. In most WSNs, the battery is the sole energy source of the sensor node. Sensor nodes are expected to work on batteries for several months to a few years without replenishing. Thus, energy efficiency becomes a critical issue in WSNs.
The fundamental components of a sensor node,the radio consumes a major portion of the energy[1]. Various techniques are proposed to minimize its energy consumption. In this paper, we focus on Backbone Scheduling (BS),which dynamically turns off the radio of the sensor nodes to save energy. BS lets a fraction of some of the sensor nodes in the network in a WSN turn on their radio to forward messages, which forms a backbone; the rest of the sensor nodes turn off their radio to save energy. This technique does not affect communication quality because WSNs have redundancy. By redundancy, we mean that turning off the radio of some sensor nodes in a WSN does not affect the connectivity of the network. This redundancy results in more than necessary wireless links. Thus, it is possible to construct
Index Terms Wireles Sensor Networks (WSNs), backbone scheduling, sleep

communication backbones to save energy.
Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013
Specifically, we use Connected Dominating Set (CDS) algorithms to construct such backbones. However, a single backbone does not prolong the network lifetime. An intuitive idea is to construct multiple disjointed CDSs and let them work alternatively. This approach has been studied [2] and is formulated as a Connected Domatic Partition (CDP) problem. Fig. 1 shows an example of two disjoint backbones.
VBS combines BS with DC by letting backbone sensor nodes work in a duty-cycled fashion. Fig. 3 gives the schedules produced by VBS of the two backbones in Fig. 1.
In order to find the optimal schedule that maximizes the network lifetime by using VBS, we formulate the Maximum Lifetime Backbone Scheduling(MLBS) problem. We prove that it is NP-hard. We then present two centralized approximation algorithms to the MLBS problem. We also design a distributed implementation of VBS. We demonstrate, through extensive analyses and simulations, that our proposed solutions significally prolong the network lifetime compared to the existing approach. Our contributions in this paper are as follows: O We propose VBS, a combined backbone
scheduling and duty-cycling method for WSNs with redundancy. VBS employs a fine-grained sleep-scheduling method, which significantly prolongs the network
In this paper, we propose Virtual Backbone Scheduling (VBS), a novel algorithm that enables fine-grained sleep-scheduling. VBS schedules multiple overlapped backbones so that the network energy consumption is evenly distributed among all sensor nodes. In this way, the energy of all of the sensor nodes in the network is fully utilized, which in turn prolongs the network lifetime. A motivating example is illustrated in Fig 2. The figures show a network of five sensor nodes and one sink.The stack beside each node represents its initial energy. Assuming that all sensor nodes cunsume 1 unit of energy per unit of time,each sensor node can continuously work for 3 units of time. Since only one disjointed CDS, which is {sink,0,1}, {sink,0,3}, or {sink,1,3}, can be constructed, the network lifetime is 3 units of time. On the contrary, VBS schedules {sink,0,1} to work for 1, {sink,0,3} for 1, and {sink,1,3} for 2 units of time, which achieves a network lifetime of 4 units of time. These backbones are overlapping. This example demonstrates that scheduling on a finer granularity can exploit the redundancy in the network and achieve a longer network lifetime than the CDP-based approach. Nowdays, Duty-Cycling (DC) has become an integral technique for WSNs [3],[4],[5] ,[6],[7].
lifetime. We formulate the MLBS problem and prove its NP-hardness.

O We design two centralized approximation
algorithms and a implementation of VBS.
distributed
O We conduct extensive theoretical analyses
and simulation studies to verify the performance of VBS. 2. NETWORK MODEL AND PROBLEM DEFINITION 168
In this section, we discuss the network model and the assumptions used in this paper. We then define the MLBS problem and prove its NPhardness. 2.1 Model and Assumptions We have the following assumptions about the WSNs that we consider in this paper. Sensor
nodes are randomly placed in the field and are immobile thereafter. A battery is the sole energy source of the sensor nodes. There is only one sink in the network, which is always active and has an infinite power supply. All sensor nodes have an identical communication range(links are bidirectional). The power consumption of a sensor node is comprised of three parts: sensing,computing, and radio. The lifetime of a sensor node is the time span from when it starts working to when its energy is depleted. The lifetime of a network is the minimum lifetime of all of the sensors in the network. Because backbones rotate after each round, the lifetime is counted in rounds.
based on a new concept called Schedule Transition Graph (STG). In each round ,possible states are listed vertically, which are represented by ellipses. The number of possible states for each round is equal to the number of backbones. Each state contains a backbone and the corresponding energy levels. The state and the backbone have a one-toone mapping. An initial state is placed at round 0 and is connected with all states in the first round to represent\a starting point.
3.1.1 Time Span of an STG

The length of the horizontal direction of an STG is the maximum number of rounds that the network
can run without depleting the energy of any sensor node,which is denoted as C. First , we assume that each backbone node consumes a fixed amount of energy in each round.. Suppose that the size is n, then the minimum energy consumption in each round is atleast n x . Denote IE as the initial energy of the sensor node in the network. Then, the total amount of energy that can be used is |V|IE, where |V| is the number of sensor nodes in the network. The maximum round number C is given by 1
2.2 The Maximum Lifetime Backbone Scheduling Problem and its NP-Hardness In order to find the optimal schedule, we formulate the Maxiimum Lifetime Backbone Scheduling problem. 3. CENTRALIZED APPROXIMATION ALGORITHMS FOR THE MLBS PROBLEM The MLBS problem is NP-hard, we focus on designing approximation algorithms. In this section, we present two centralized approximation algorithms. CDS construction algorithms are used.
3.1 A Scheduling Transition Graph-Based
(1). 3.1.2 Energy Level The reason behind introducing the concept of energy level is to facilitate clean criteria for the search in the STG. An energy level is zero if at least one element is zero. Zero energy levels are less than any nonzero levels, and indicate the end of the network lifetime. 3.1.3. The STG-Based Algorithm Its pseudocode is listed in Algorithm 1. The search starts from the initial state. After a 169
Approximation Algorithm
Our first centralized approximation algorithm is
backbone transition, the states energy levels are computed from those of the starting state of the transition. Each state keeps the larger energy levels. A path terminates when its associated energy level is zero. When all paths terminates, the longest path is found.
same virtual group are indexed. Two virtual groups are neighbors if their ancestor are neighbors in the orginal graphs.. Fig. 5 shows an example of these concepts
For example,nodes B and Cin Fig. 5 have 3 and 2 units,respectively. Virtual nodes 0 and 1 of B and C are connected,but virtual node 2 of B is isolated.
3.2.2 The Algorithm The algorithm is shown in Algorithm 2. The algorithm uses the Marking Process (MP) for constructing the CDS. Backbone nodes are removed from the VSG in each iteration. The VSG rules are applied after each iteration to preserve the correspondence between the original graph. Algorithm 2. VSG-based algorithm 1: S = {}; 2: Construct the VSG Gs (V,E) of G(V,E); 3: repeat
4: Apply the marking process on Gs (V,E);
3.2 Virtual Scheduling Graph (VSG)-Based
Approxiamtion Algorithm In this, we aim to design a heuristic with less complexity than the STG-based algorithm. In STG,the energy and structure of the WSN are modeled separetly. In this section,we propose a new concept called Virtual Scheduling Graph,that can model the energy and structure together,which facilitates an elegant greedy algorithm. In a VSG, a sensor node in the original network graph is covered into multiple virtual nodes, A schedule can be obtained by applying any CDS construction algorithm on the VSG. 3.2.1 The Definition of VSG
As stated before, each sensor node consumes a fixed amount of energy in each round when working as a backbone node. We define a virtual node that corresponds to a sensor node as a node that contains energy.The original node is called the ancestor. The virtual nodes of the same ancestor form a virtual group. Virtual nodes in the
5: Apply Rules 1 and 2 or Rule K on the induced graph 6. Construct the PMCDS C from the resultant CDS C;
7. Remove the highest indexed virtual nodes
of the ancestor whose virtual nodes is in C from Gs (V,E);

8. Find the corresponding CDS Ci of C in G;
9. S = S U {<Ci,Ti>}; 10.until Any ancestors virtual nodes are all eliminated from Gs (V,E); 11.return S. When all of the virtual nodes of any ancestor are removed,i.e., the energy of its ancestor is depleted, the algorithm ends. 4.THE DISTRIBUTED IMPLENTATION OF VBS 170
In this section, we present a distributed implementation of VBS called Iterative Local Replacement(ILR). ILR lets each backbone sensor node find replacement nodes to form a new CDS that preserves the connectivity of the network. Each sensor node of the backbone sensor only needs local information to do this.
Algorithm 3. Iterative local replacement 1: loop 2:

3:
At the beginning of each round;

Sensor node N computes the switching
probability Pswitch using 2; 4:

5:
if Decide to switch then

Collect or update the h-hop information
of N;
6:
Apply the marking process on the subgraph;
If all backbone nodes start the replacement simultaneously, many sensor nodes may contend the shared channel, which causes packet collision and loss. This situation may cause an increased execution time and more energy consumption. In order to avoid this problem,we employ a control-based scheme to make sure that sensor nodes do not perform replacement at the same time.
7: Apply Rules 1 and 2 or Rule K on the induced graph using residual energy as the priority; 8: R = The IDs of sensor nodes have more residual energy and can form a new CDS by replacing N; 9: Notify each sensor node N R; 10: endif 11: end loop 5. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
We assign a switching probability, Pswitch (2), to each backbone node. At the end of each node,backbone nodes switch statuses according to this probability. This probability is related to the residual energy of the backbone node and its h-hop neighbors. The mean of the residual energy of hhop neighbors is obtained from the information collected from neighbors up to hop away, as
We use simulations to evaluate the performance of VBS. We present the results of the network lifetime and the energy balance.
5.1 Network Lifetime In this section, we present the results of the network lifetime achieved by our proposed algorithms.
shown in the pseudocode of Algorithm 3. The parameter h trades overhead for efficiency. The larger h is, the better the obtained results can be. When the residual energy of the backbone node is greater than the mean of its neighbors,the switching probability is also set to 0. 171
Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WISE 2013 Protocols, Proc. IEEE Wireless Comm. And Networking Conf. (WCNC 05), pp. 15-28,2008. [8] L. Doherty, W. Lindsay, and J. Simon, Channel Specific Wireless Sensor Network Path Data, Proc. Sixth ACM Conf.Computer Comm. And Networks(ICCN 07), pp. 89-94,2007. [9] J.W. Hui and D.E. Culler, IP is Dead, Long Live IP for Wireless Sensor Networks, Proc.Sixth ACM Conf.Embedded Network Sensor Systems (SenSys 08), pp.15-28,2008. [10] F. Dai and J. Wu, An Extended Localized Algorithm for Connected Dominating Set Formation in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks, IEEE Trans. Parallel Distributed Systems, vol. 15, no.10, pp. 908-920, Oct. 2004.
6. CONCLUSION
WSNs require energy efficient communication to be able to work for a long period of time without human intervention. Two centralized
approximation algorithms with different complexities and performances are presented. Additionally, we design ILR, an efficient distributed implementation of VBS. We also conduct extensive theoretical analyses and simulation studies to verify the performance of VBS. REFERENCES
[1] V. Shnayder, M. Hempstead, B.-r. Chen, G.W. Allen, and M. Welsh, Simulating the Power Consumption of Large-Scale Sensor Network Application, Proc. Second Intl Conf. Embeded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys 04), pp. 188 200,2004 [2] C. Misra and R.Mandal, Rotation of CDS via Connected Domatic Partition in Ad Hoc Sensor Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing,vol.8,no.4,pp. 488-499, Apr.2009. [3] W.Ye,J.Heidemann, and D.Estrin, An EnergyEfficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks, Proc.IEEE INFOCOM, pp.15671576,2002.
[4] Q. Cao,T.Abdelzaher,T.He,and J.Stankovic,Towards Optimal sleep Scheduling in Sensor Networks for Rare-event detection, Proc. ACM Fourth Intl Symp. Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN 05), pp.20-27,2005
[5] A. Keshavarzian, H. Lee, and L. Venkatraman, Wakeup Scheduling in Wireless Sensor Networks, Proc. Seventh ACM Intl Symp. Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing (mobihoc 06), pp.322333,2006.
[6] R. Cohen and B. Kapchits, An Optimal Wake -Up Scheduling Algorithm for minimizing Energy Consumption while Limiting Maximum Delay in a Mesh Sensor Network, IEEE/ACM Trns. Networking, vol.17,no. 2, pp. 570-581, Apr.2009
[7] Y. Li, W. Ye, and J. Heidemann, Energy and Latency Control in Low Duty Cycle MAC
172
Balancing the Query Delay in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks with High Data Availability
data from some nearby replicas. However, most
Dr.M.Jayaprasad, Sunita.T.N, Jyothi.B.K Principal , RGIT College, Bangalore, M.Tech Student, Dept of Computer Science, RGIT, Bangalore, mj_prasad@yahoo.com,sunita.neelagiri@gmail.com
Abstract In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), nodes move freely and link/node failures are common, which leads to frequent network partitions. When a network partition occurs, mobile nodes in one partition are not able to access data hosted by nodes in other partitions, and hence significantly degrade the performance of data access. To deal with this problem, we apply data replication techniques. Existing data replication solutions in both wired or wireless networks aim at either reducing the query delay or improving the data availability, but not both. As both metrics are important for mobile nodes, we propose schemes to balance the trade-offs between data availability and query delay under different system settings and requirements. Extensive simulation results show that the proposed schemes can achieve a balance between these two metrics and provide satisfying system performance. Index TermsData replication, data availability, data
modification, network monitoring, query delay, mobile ad hoc network (MANET).
mobile nodes only have limited storage space, bandwidth, and power, and hence it is impossible for one node to collect and hold all the data considering these constraints. By taking these issues into consideration, we expect that mobile nodes should not be able (or willing) to replicate all data items in the network (more discussions in Appendix A, which can be found on the Computer Society Digital Library http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/TPDS.2 011.222) One solution to improve the data access performance considering the resource constraints of mobile nodes is to let them cooperate with each other; That is, contribute part of their storage space to hold data of others When a node only replicates part of the data, there will be a trade-off between query delay and data availability. For example, replicating most data locally can reduce the query delay, but it reduces the data availability since many nodes may end up replicating the same data locally, while other data items are not replicated by anyone. To increase the data availability, nodes should not replicate the same data that neighboring nodes already have. However, this solution may increase the query delay since some nodes may not be able to replicate the most frequently accessed data, and have to access it from neighbors. Although the delay of accessing the data from neighbors is shorter than that from the data owner, it is much longer than accessing it locally.
1.
INTRODUCTION
In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), since mobile nodes move freely, network partition may occur, where nodes in one partition cannot access data held by nodes in other partitions. Thus, data availability (i.e., the number of successful data accesses over the total number of data accesses) in MANETs is lower than that in conventional wired networks. Data replication has been widely used to improve data availability in distributed systems, and we will apply this technique to MANETs By replicating data at mobile nodes which are not the owners of the original data, data availability can be improved because there are multiple replicas in the network and the probability of finding one copy of the data is higher. Also, data replication can reduce the query delay since mobile nodes can obtain the
. .
In this paper, we propose new data replication techniques to address query delay and data availability issues. As both metrics are important for mobile nodes, we propose techniques to balance the trade-offs between data availability and query delay under different system settings and requirements. Simulation results show that the proposed schemes can achieve a balance between these 173
two metrics and provide satisfying system performance. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The next section presents some preliminaries of data replication. In Section 3, we describe the proposed schemes in detail. Section 4 evaluates the proposed schemes through extensive simulations and Section 5 concludes the paper.
2. DATA REPLICATION
Data replication has been extensively studied in the web environment and distributed database systems (See Appendix B, available in the online supplemental material, for detailed literature review). However, most of them either do not consider the storage constraint or ignore the link failure issue. Before addressing these issues by proposing new data replication schemes, we first introduce our system model. In a MANET, mobile nodes collaboratively share data. Multiple nodes exist in the network and they send query requests to other nodes for some specified data items. Each node creates replicas of the data items and maintains the replicas in its memory (or disk) space. During data replication, there is no central server that determines the allocation of replicas, and mobile nodes determine the data allocation in a distributed manner. The MANET studied in this paper can be represented as an undirected graph G(V,E) where the set of vertices V represent the mobile nodes in the network, and E V V is the set of edges in the graph, which represents the physical or logical links between the mobile nodes. Two nodes that can communicate directly with each other are connected by an edge in the graph. Let N denote a network of m mobile nodes, N,N, ...Nm and let D denote a collection of n data items d,d, ... ,dn distributed in the network. For each pair of mobile nodes Ni and Nj, let tij 174
denote the delay of transmitting a data item of unit-size between these two nodes. Similar to [4], we assume that the delay function defines a metric space; that is, they are nonnegative, symmetric, and satisfy the triangle inequality. Links between mobile nodes may fail and the link failure probability between Ni and Nj is denoted as fij, which is equal to fji as we assume symmetric links. The failed links may cause network partitions. Queries generated during network partition may fail because the requested data items are not available in the partition to which the requester belongs. Each node maintains some amount of data locally and the node is called the original owner of the data. Each data item has one and only one original owner. For simplicity, we assume that data items are not updated and can be used to extend the proposed scheme to handle data update or data consistency issues. To improve the data availability, these data items may be replicated to other nodes. Because of limited memory size, each node can only host C(C< n) replicas besides its original data. The data replication problem, either optimizing the query delay or optimizing the availability, has been proved to be a reduction from the metric incapacitated facility location problem, which is known to be NP-hard (see Appendix C, available in the online supplemental material). Therefore, instead of trying to find a complex algorithm that is not practical to solve or approximate the problem, we use heuristics that can provide satisfying performance with much less computation overhead. The following notations are used in this paper. N: the set of mobile nodes in the network. m: the total number of mobile nodes. D: the set of available data items in the network. n: the total number of data items. s i: the size of d i.
3.
THE PROPOSED DATA REPLICATION SCHEMES
In this section, we propose several schemes to address the data replication problem based on heuristics. Before presenting these heuristics, we first use an example to illustrate the basic ideas. 3.1 A Motivating Example Suppose a network has only two nodes N1 and N2. These two nodes may access four data items d1, ... ,d4 with equal size, and each node only has enough space to host two data items. we assume that the access probability of a mobile node to a data item is available. According to the Dynamic Access Frequency and Neighborhood (DAFN) scheme proposed by Hara neighboring nodes should try to remove duplicated data items to save storage space and increase data availability. In the first replication step, nodes replicate the data that they are interested in, and hence both nodes replicate d1 and d2 locally. In the second step of DAFN, when two neighboring nodes have the same data item di, the node that has a lower access probability should replace di with the next most frequently accessed data. Therefore, N1 replaces d2 with d3 and N2 replaces d1 with d4. The final replication result is: N1 hosts d1 and d3 whereas N2 hosts d2 and d4. From this example and verified by simulations in DAFN is a good scheme because duplicated data can be removed from neighboring nodes and the memory size can be used effectively. However, the data availability may be affected when the link failure probability is high.DAFN scheme because DAFN does not consider two important factors: the link stability between mobile nodes and the query delay. Due to the complexity of the data replication problem shown in Appendix C, available in the online supplemental material, we propose some heuristics. 175
Heuristics. Because mobile nodes have limited memory, it is impossible for them to hold all their interested data items. As a result, they have to rely on other nodes to get some data. If mobile nodes only host their interested data, it is possible that some data items are replicated by every node while some other data items are not replicated by anyone. Therefore, it is important for mobile nodes to cooperate with each other and contribute part of their memory to hold data for other nodes. The problem is to determine the memory space that a mobile node should contribute because bad cooperation may actually degrade the performance, as shown in the above example. We have the following heuristics: For a mobile node, if its communication links to other nodes are stable, more cooperation with these nodes can improve the data availability; if the links to other nodes are not very stable it is better for the node to host most of the interested data locally. The above heuristic mainly addresses the issue of data availability. For query delay, it is better to allocate data near the interested nodes. The degree of cooperation affects both the data availability and the query delay. In the following, we propose various schemes to achieve various performance goals. 3.2 The Greedy Data Replication Scheme One naive greedy data replication scheme is to allocate the most frequently accessed data items until the memory is full. However, this naive scheme, referred to as Greedy, does not consider the data size difference between different data items. The data size should be considered because smaller data require less memory space, and hence replicating them can save some memory space for other data items. Therefore, a better greedy scheme is to calculate the data access frequency of a data item dk by normalizing it against the data size, i.e., aik/sk. This greedy scheme, referred to as Greedy-
S, lets node Ni repeatedly pick the data item with the largest aik/sk value from the data set that has not yet been replicated at Ni until no more data can be replicated in the memory. One drawback of the greedy scheme is that it does not consider the cooperation between the neighboring nodes and hence its performance may be limited. We present the performance analysis and numerical results in Appendix D, available in the online supplemental material. The following sections present schemes that apply different levels of cooperation between neighboring nodes following our heuristics. 3.3 The One-To-One Optimization (OTOO) Scheme In this scheme, each mobile node only cooperates with at most one neighbor to decide which data to replicate. Suppose node Ni and Nj are neighboring nodes. N i calculates the combined access frequency value of Ni and Nj to data item dk at Ni, denoted as CAF ij, by using the following function:
link failure probability is high, Ni may like to replicate the data locally. Therefore, we define a priority value for node Ni to replicate data d k given its neighboring node Nj, denoted as P ij, by using the following function:
P ij= CAF ij w ij
(3)
where wij indicates the impact on data availability by the neighboring node and the link failure probability. The value of w ij is calculated as follows: j
if data dk is replicated at Nj,
wij =
{1
if data dk is not replicated at Nj.
CAF ij
(a ik
ajk (1-fij))/si
(1)
Each node sorts the data according to the priority value P and picks data items with the highest P to replicate in its memory until no more data items can be replicated. The P value function is designed so that
Similarly Nj calculates its combined access frequency to dk with the following function:
5.
CAF ji = (ajk + a ik (1-fij))/s i (2)
We also need to consider the increased data availability due to neighboring nodes. If the neighboring node Nj of Ni has already replicated the data and the link failure probability between Ni and Nj is low, Ni is less likely to replicate this data because it can always get the data from Nj. However, if the 176
it considers the access frequency from a neighboring node to improve data availability; 6. it considers the data size. If other criteria are the same, the data item with smaller size is given higher priority for replicating because this can improve the performance while reducing memory space; 7. it gives high priority to local data access, and hence the interested data should be replicated locally to improve data availability and reduce query delay; 8. it considers the impact of data availability from the neighboring node and link quality. Thus, if the links between two neighboring
nodes are stable, they can have more cooperations in data replication. It is possible that according to OTOO, node Ni should host dj but Ni is separated from nodes that have dj because of network partitions. In this situation, Ni selects the next best candidate (data item) according to the replication scheme. This rule is also applied to other replication schemes proposed in the following. The detailed pseudo-code and descriptions of the OTOO scheme and the following schemes are provided in Appendix E, available in the online supplemental material.
Cmin(1,
Cc(i) (1-fij)/) (4)
Where is a system tuning factor which affects the memory allocated to itself and its neighbors. Intuitively, Ni contributes more memory if its links with neighboring nodes are more stable. The two extreme cases are: 1) when Cc(i) = C, Ni contributes all its memory to hold data for neighboring nodes; 2) when fij= 1, Nj nb(i), Ni does not contribute any memory. The reason behind the RN scheme is that when links to neighboring nodes of Ni are stable, Ni can hold more data for neighboring nodes as they also hold data for Ni. Because links are stable, such cooperation can improve the data availability. If links are not stable, data on neighboring nodes have low availability and may incur high-query delay. Thus, cooperation in this case cannot improve data availability and nodes should be more selfish in order to achieve better performance. The data replication process works as follows: Node Ni first allocates its most interested data to its memory, up to C-Cc(i) memory space. Then all the rest of the data are sorted according to P to a list called the neighbors interest list. The P value of Ni to dk is defined as
3.4 The Reliable Scheme.
Neighbor
(RN)
OTOO considers neighboring nodes when making data replication choices. However, it still considers its own access frequency as the most important factor because the access frequency from a neighboring node is reduced by a factor of the link failure probability. To further increase the degree of cooperation, we propose the Reliable Neighbor scheme which contributes more memory to replicate data for neighboring nodes. In this scheme, part of the nodes memory is used to hold data for its Reliable Neighbors. For node Ni, a neighboring node Nj is considered to be Nis reliable neighbor if
1-fij > T, (5) where T is a threshold value. Let nb(i) be the set of Nis reliable neighbors. The total contributed memory size of N i, denoted as Cc(i), is set to be 177
The memory space of Cc(i) is used to allocate data with the highest P values. There
may be some overlap between Nis interested data and the allocated data interested by Nis neighbors. If during the allocation, a data item is already in the memory, this data item will not be allocated again and the next data item on the neighbors interest list is chosen instead. 3.5 Reliable Grouping (RG) Scheme OTOO only considers one neighboring node when making data replication decisions. RN further considers all one-hop neighbors. However, the cooperations in both OTOO and RN are not fully exploited. To further increase the degree of cooperation, we propose the reliable grouping scheme which shares replicas in large and reliable groups of nodes, whereas OTOO and RN only share replicas among neighboring nodes. The basic idea of the RG scheme is that it always picks the most suitable data items to replicate on the most suitable nodes in the group to maximize the data availability and minimize the data access delay within the group. In the RG scheme, there is no redundant replication until every data item is replicated at least once. Therefore, the maximum degree of cooperation within the reliable group can be achieved. Because the function for selecting the best node to place each data replica considers the access delay between the query node and the nearest replication node in the group, the RG scheme can reduce the number of hops that the data need to be transferred to serve the query. Due to the page limitation, the detailed protocol description and a comprehensive performance complexity and bound analysis of the proposed schemes are presented in Appendices E and F, available in the online supplemental material. 4. PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS In this section, we evaluate the performance of the proposed schemes: OTOO, RN2 (RN 178
with =2), RN8 (RN with =8), RN16 (RN with =16), and RG by comparing them with the DAFN scheme and the Greedy scheme through extensive simulations. We have developed a simulator based on CSIM 19 to evaluate the performance of the data replication schemes. At the beginning of the simulation, m nodes are placed randomly in a 2500 m 2500 m area. The radio range is set to be D. If two nodes Ni and Nj are within the radio range (i.e., D(i,j) <D), they can communicate with each other. The communication link between them may fail and the link failure probability fij is defined as
(6) Equation (6) is adopted according to the facts that the wireless signal strength decreases with a rate between the order of , where r is the distance to the signal source. For example, if two connected nodes have a long distance, they are easier to disconnect and the link failure probability between them is higher. is used to adjust fij to a more reasonable value. The proposed schemes do not depend on the failure model in (6) and they are able to work as long as the failure probability between neighboring nodes can be estimated.the number of data items n is set to be the same as the number of nodes m. Data item dis original host is Ni, for all I [1,m]. The data item size is uniformly distributed between smin and smax. Each node has a memory size of C. Two access patterns are used in the simulation. All nodes follow the Zipf-like access pattern, but different nodes have different hot data items. This is done by randomly selecting an offset value for each node Ni: offset i, which is
between 1 and n-1. The actual access probability of Ni to data item dk is given by This means that the most frequently accessed data item id is moved to be offset instead of 1; the second frequently accessed data item id is offset+1 instead of 2, and so on. All nodes have the same access pattern and they have the same access probability to the same data item. In order to avoid routing cycles on the query path, a maximal hop count is used to limit the number of hops for each query. It is set to be where 2,500 is the size of the simulation area. The performance metrics used in the simulation are mainly data availability and query delay. The amount of query traffic is also evaluated to show the protocol overhead. Here, we note that the amount of query traffic can also be used as a metric of system power consumption. This is because in wireless communication, data transmission is the key factor affecting the system power consumption compared to other factors such as disk or CPU operations Therefore, if there is more query traffic, more energy consumption is expected. If one replication scheme generates less traffic, it is more power efficient. When a query for data dk is generated by node Ni, if dk can be found locally, or at a node that is reachable through single or multi-hops, this access is considered successful. The query delay is the number of hops from N i to the nearest node that has d k multiplied by the data size, and query traffic is defined as all messages involved to serve the query. If d k is in the local memory of N i, the query delay and query traffic are both 0. Most system parameters are listed in Table 2. Experiments were run using different workloads and system settings. The performance analysis presented here is designed to compare the effects of different workload parameters such as Z ipf parameter, 179
network size, radio range, memory size, and node mobility (due to the space limitation, the effects of different mobility models are provided in Appendix G, available in the online supplemental material). For each workload parameter (e.g., the mean update arrival time or the mean query generate time), the mean value of the measured data is obtained by collecting a large number of samples such that the confidence interval is reasonably small. 4.1 Fine-Tuning T r In Fig. 2, we evaluate the effects of T r, which affects the number of cooperative neighbors in the RN scheme and the RG scheme. Larger Tr results in smaller number of cooperative neighbors, and vice versa. We can see that Tr has more significant effects on the performance of RN2 (RN with = 2) than RN8 and RN16, because RN2 contributes the largest portion of the memory size to neighbors. The performance of the RG scheme is also affected by Tr, because the change of Tr affects the number of nodes in a reliable group. From Fig. 2a, we can see that when Tr < 0.4, as long as Tr increases, the data availability of RG, RN8, and RN16 are decreasing while the data availability of RN2 is increasing; when 0.4 < Tr < 0.6, all schemes have a decreasing trend in data availability as Tr increases; similar trend can be found when Tr > 0.6. In Fig. 2b, when Tr changes from 0.2 to 0.4, RG and RN2 have a large decrease in query delay; however, when Tr becomes larger than 0.4, all four schemes have stable and small delay decrease. When Tr is around 0.6, all schemes have relatively stable performance, which means the change of Tr does not have significant effect on the relative performance of different data replication schemes. Thus, we use Tr = 0.6 in the following 4.2 Fine-Tuning By controlling the link failure probability can be adjusted. When the link failure
probability deceases, data availability increases as shown in Fig. 3. We choose = 0.95 to achieve a balance among all replication schemes. As can be seen from the figure, DAFN has high-query delay because it tries to avoid duplicated data among neighboring nodes. Even if a data item is popular among two neighboring nodes, it is still allocated at only one of the neighboring nodes. Therefore, many accesses have to be satisfied by the querying neighboring nodes, which increase the query delay. For similar reasons, the query delay of RG is also high. However, RG considers all nodes in a reliable group during data replication. It organizes data better within each reliable group, which helps RG achieve higher data availability
Fig. 4b shows the query delay of different schemes. The DAFN scheme is outperformed by the proposed schemes in all situations. This shows that our schemes can achieve better performance in terms of data availability and query delay. From Fig. 4b, we can also find that the relation of query delay is RG > RN2 > RN8RN16 > OTOO. This shows that when nodes have different interests, to achieve a low-query delay, it is better for them to host the data that they are interested in, and cooperation among them does not show significant advantage. Fig. 5 shows the effects of the Zipf parameter on the system performance when nodes have the same access pattern. We can see from Fig. 5 that all the proposed schemes perform much better than the DAFN scheme in terms of data availability and all the proposed schemes in most situations perform better than DAFN in terms of query delay. Greedy-S performs better than Greedy because it gives higher priority to data items with smaller size, and thus more important data can be replicated and the performance is improved. Comparing RN2, RN8, RN16, OTOO, and RG, we find that the relation of their data availability is RG > RN2 > RN8 > RN16 OTOO (RG performs the best as expected) while the relations of their query delay is RG > RN2 > RN8 > RN16 > OTOO (OTOO performs the best). This clearly shows the trade-offs between these two performance metrics. Higher degree of cooperation improves the data availability, but it also increases the query delay because more data items need to be retrieved from neighboring nodes. This figure also gives us directions on how to achieve certain performance goals. If high data availability is required, nodes should be more cooperative with neighboring nodes so that more data can be replicated in the network. If low-query delay is more important, nodes should be more selfish so that requests can be served locally instead of by neighboring nodes. 180
4.2.1
Effects of the Zipf Parameter ( )
In this section, we evaluate the effects of the Zipf parameter on the system performance. As increases, more accesses focus on hot data items and data availability is expected to increase. Fig. 4 demonstrates the effects of the Zipf parameter on the system performance when nodes have different access pattern. Fig. 4a shows that the proposed schemes outperform the DAFN scheme in terms of data availability in most cases. The reasons are as follows: first, our schemes consider the link failure probability when replicating data (for OTOO and RN) or organizing groups (for RG); second, the OTOO and RN schemes avoid replicating data items that are not frequently accessed by using the P value. On the other hand, the DAFN scheme does not consider the link failure probability and it sometimes replicates data items with low-access frequency instead of frequently accessed data items, as shown in the example in Section 3.1.
Since RN2, RN8, and RN16 exhibit similar performance when other parameters change, to make the simulation figures clear, we will only use RN8 to represent the RN schemes.
=300 as the default setting to see the effects of different schemes on the system performance. 4.2.3 Effects of the Radio Range (D)
Fig. 7 shows the effects of the radio range on the system performance under different access pattern. When the radio range increases, the network is better connected and the data availability is expected to increase. Fig. 7a shows that all schemes perform as expected. The proposed schemes perform much better than DAFN when the radio range is small. When the radio range is very large, different schemes have similar data availability. This is because the network partition is very rare in this situation and most data can be found in a reachable node. Figs. 7b and 7c show that the query delay and query traffic increase as the radio range increases. This is because when the network is better connected, some previously unavailable data can be found at faraway nodes. The proposed schemes always result in lower query delay and traffic than the DAFN scheme. When the radio range is extremely small, the query delay of all schemes reduces to near zero, since it is hard to find a neighbor with such small radio range and almost all requests are served locally. 4.2.4 Effects of Memory Size (C)
Fig:Tranferring the Files From One to Another node 4.2.2 Effects of the Number of Nodes in the Network (m)
The number of nodes in the network indicates the node density of the network. When the number of nodes increases, the density of the network increases and it becomes better connected and the data availability increases. Fig. 6 shows the effects of the number of nodes on the system performance. In Fig. 6a, we can see that when there are only 100 nodes in the network, all schemes have relatively lower data availability due to the sparse network connectivity. As the number of nodes increases, nodes have more opportunities to get the data from their neighboring nodes, and all schemes have performance improvements in terms of data availability as expected. When the network density further increases, e.g., in a 500-nodes scenario, the data availability of all schemes approaches to 0.9. Similar observations can be found in Fig. 6b. Therefore, we choose m 181
In this section, we evaluate the system performance when the memory size (C) changes. As C increases, more data can be hosted by a node and the data availability increases. Similarly, more data can be found locally as C increases and the query delay and query traffic decrease. Fig. 8 shows that when nodes have different access patterns, the proposed schemes increase the data availability while providing lower query delay and query traffic compared to the DAFN scheme. The difference of data
availability for OTOO, RN8, Greedy, GreedyS, and DAFN is not very large because when nodes have different access pattern, they can simply replicate their interested data locally to achieve a high data availability. Thus, the room for improvement is small. RG, however, organizes data replications within each reliable group. It can provide more different data items in each group. Thus, its data availability is much higher than other schemes.
between data availability and query delay. Higher degree of cooperation improves the data availability, but it also increases the query delay because more data need to be retrieved from neighboring nodes. REFERENCES [1]Data Replication for Improving Data Accessibility in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing,vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 1515-1532, Nov. 2006 [2] Supporting Cooperative Caching in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 5, no. 1pp. 77-89,Jan. 2006. [3] Benefit-Based Data Caching in Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 289-304, Mar. 2008 [4] Approximation Algorithms for Data Placement in Arbitrary Networks, Proc. 12th Ann.ACM-SIAM Symp. Discrete Algorithms (ACM-SIAM) [5] Consistency Management Strategies for Data Replication in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 950-967 [6] Replica Allocation in Ad Hoc Networks with Periodic Data Update, Proc. Intl Conf. Mobile Data Management (MDM),2002. [7] Data Consistency for Cooperative Caching in Mobile Environments, Computer vol. 40,no. 4, pp. 60-66, Apr. 2007. [8] Effective Replica Allocation in Ad Hoc Networks for Improving Data Accessibility, Proc. IEEE INFOCOM, [9] A Powerful Tool for Building System Models, Proc. 33rd Conf. Winter Simulation
Fig:Replicating The data items 5. CONCLUSIONS In MANETs, due to link failure, network partitions are common. As a result, data saved at other nodes may not be accessible. One way to improve data availability is through data replication. In this paper, we proposed several data replication schemes to improve the data availability and reduce the query delay. The basic idea is to replicate the most frequently accessed data locally and only rely on neighbors memory when the communication link to them is reliable. Extensive performance evaluations demonstrate that the proposed schemes outperform the existing solutions in terms of data availability and query delay. Results also show that there is a fundamental trade-off 182
Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded SystemsWISE 2013
Pulse Compression for Target Tracking

Harish Naidu V1, Mr S.N Prasad1
1Department of ECE, Reva Institute of Technology & Management (RITM) Bangalore, India-560064 vharishnaidu@gmail.com, prasadsn@revainstitution.org
Abstract- Pulse compression plays an important role in design of the radar system. Pulse compression using linear frequency modulation techniques are very popular in modern radar. The linear frequency modulation is used to resolve two small targets that are located at long range with very small separation between them. Pulse compression is commonly used in radar applications to improve range resolution while keeping transmitted peak power low. This is achieved by modulating the transmitted pulse and then correlating the received signal with the transmitted pulse. Range resolution is the ability of radar to resolve between two targets on the same bearing, but at slightly different ranges. The primary focus of this paper is to implement Pulse compression using digital technology. With high performance digital computing, the convolution operation required for pulse compression can be done digitally. This digital approach eliminates the calibration requirements and the limited reconfigurability of analog approaches. This digital processing is done in frequency domain. When doing the processing in the frequency domain, a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is used to transform both the reference waveform and the return signal waveform into the frequency domain. The complex conjugate of the reference waveforms FFT is then multiplied (point-by-point) with the returned signal waveforms FFT. The result is transformed back into the time domain (with an inverse FFT) to produce the output signal, with peaks that represent the targets.
radars. Frequency modulation can be classified as Linear Frequency Modulation (LFM) and Nonlinear Frequency Modulation (NLFM). LFM is the most popular radar waveform due to good range resolution and Doppler sensitivity. LFM waveform generation schemes are classified in analog and digital techniques. Analog pulse compression techniques are based on the surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. However, design and fabrication of the SAW device for the large time-bandwidth product chirp signal is very complex and expensive, while the digital technique gives better advantage of programmability, flexibility, better stability, accuracy and repeatability. This paper describes LFM generation and implementation in the Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA).
II.
LINEAR FREQUENCY MODULATION(LFM)
In LFM, the frequency of the modulating signal increases linearly during the pulse duration of the signal. In a linear chirp, the time domain chirp signal is given by the equation 1.1. S (t) = exp (j (t)) (1.1)
Keywords-Pulse compression,Linear Frequency Modulation, Matched filtering,Digital resolution down conversion(DDC),Range
I.
INTRODUCTION
In modern pulsed Radar, range resolution (R) is Proportional to the pulse duration (). Therefore improved range resolution necessitates shorter pulse duration. Similarly the energy (E) content of the signal is also proportional to pulse duration () and the detection probability depends it. Therefore to improve the detection, the pulse duration is required to be longer. To overcome this two conflicting requirements, pulse compression method is used. The pulse compression usually done through Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation are very popular in 183
Where (t) is the instantaneous phase, given by the equation as below: (t) = 2 ( t k ) t (1.2)
Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded SystemsWISE 2013 IV. SYSTEM OVERVIEW
Figure 3: Digital receiver subsystem block diagram (DRS)
Figure 1: Typical LFM Waveforms (a) up-chirp (b) down chirp where is the centre frequency (@ time t = 0) and k is the rate of the frequency increase or chirp rate
III. MATCHED FILTER
Matched filter can be implemented in time-domain and frequency-domain. In this paper, it mainly analyses the frequency-domain matched filter which can realize the pulse compression effectively. The matched filter algorithm process is shown in figure 2.
The Pulse compression module is implemented in the PMCE2202 FPGA v5sx95t .The PMC-E2202 is a 16bit digital receiver mezzanine card consisting of 4 ADC channels with a sampling rate of up to 160 Msps and a Xilinx Virtex-5 SX95T FPGA. The card also has 4 DAC channels that can be used to generate test patterns to test the ADC. The brief overview of the data path of 1 channel is as shown below. 2 channels are implemented in one E2202 card hence 2 E2202 cards are used for 4 channels. The data path is same for all the channels.
Figure 4: Data flow in FPGA
Digital down Conversion (DDC)
Figure 2: Matched filter algorithm process
Matched filtering correlates receiver and transmitted pulse in frequency domain. Echoes correlating to the transmitted pulse will produce a high peak, others will be ignored. IFFT will bring signal back to time domain.
184
Figure 5: DDC
The function of a Digital down Converter is to translate the frequency of a signal either to a lower, intermediate frequency or to baseband. The usual reason for this is to reduce the data rate required to represent the desired signal.
Pulse Compression
Pulse compression module takes the output of Ddc core, correlates with the stored waveform data in the ROM. Correlation is performed in frequency domain hence fft cores and complex multipliers are used in the design.
Block Description
The complex data stream from the digital down converter flows into the pulse compression unit. This unit: 1. Performs a time-domain multiplication, to reduce the magnitude of the side lobes. 2. Performs an FFT operation, to transform the time domain complex sample stream into a frequency domain representation of the return signal. 3. Performs single point-by-point multiplication (in the frequency domain) of the transverse equalization filter coefficients (to compensate for the non-flat response of the analog receiver on the front end) and of the conjugated coefficients of the FFT of the reference waveform (to detect correlations with the transmitted waveform). 4. Performs inverse FFT operation, to generate a time domain data stream, with peaks that correspond to targets.
Ddc_fft_data_controller interface Pulse compression output
1. Both fft and ifft cores are configured to a specific size (N-point) by the Ddc_fft _data_controller_interface depending on the number of samples acquired. 2. Ddc out with or without zero padding is fed to fft core to compute fft. 3. Simultaneously the data from the TX rom is popped out one sample at a time and multiplied (complex multiplication) with the corresponding fft output sample. 4. The complex product is then fed to ifft module to compute the final pulse Compression output.
TX-ROM Module
TX ROM module is a very important block which consists the stored transmit waveform which is correlated with the received waveform while performing pulse compression and a small addressing logic for rom which selects TX waveform of specific size from a generalized waveform stored in the rom.
Tool used
Complex Fft Core Multiplier Ifft Core
Fft_out Product
SCILAB-Scilab is a freely distributed open source scientific software package. It is similar to Matlab, which is a commercial product. Yet it is almost as powerful as Matlab.
V. RESULTS
TX rom
Figure 6: Pulse compression module block diagram
Transmitted (Reference) waveform coefficients are processed and stored offline using Scilab and Xilinx rom generator. TX rom of both I and Q channel consist of stored ideal chirp waveform which is 185
considered as transmit waveform.Hanning window is performed offline in Scilab to reduce sidelobes. Fft conjugate is computed offline in scilab and rom coefficient file is generated which is given as input to rom generator. The complex conjugate of the reference waveforms FFT is then multiplied (point by-point) with the returned signal waveforms FFT. The result is transformed back into the time domain (with an inverse FFT) to produce the output signal, with peaks that represent the targets.
The following figures show the snapshot of the LFM signal and pulse compression output done in SCILAB.
Figure 9: Chirp I and Q channel
Figure 7: LFM pulse envelop
Figure 10: Pulse compression output
The following figure shows the snapshot of zero padded output from FIFO using Xilinx ISim
Figure 8: LFM pulse spectrum
186
[1]Jun Wang, Duoduo Cai and Yaya Wen, Comparison of matched filter and dechirp processing used in Linear Frequency Modulation Computing, Control and Industrial Engineering (CCIE), 2011, pp.70-73. [2]Qadir S.G, Kayani J.K, Malik S, Digital Implementation of Pulse Compression Technique for X-band RadarApplied Sciences & Technology, 2007, pp.35-39. [3]Salemian S, Keivani H, Mahdiyar O, Comparison of radar pulse compression techniques Microwave, Antenna, Propagation and EMC Technologies for Wireless Communications, 2005, pp. 1076-1079. [4] Patel K , Neelakantan U , Gangele S , Vacchani J.G. Desai N.M, Linear Frequency Modulation Waveform Synthesis, Electrical, Electronics and Computer Science (SCEECS), IEEE Students' Conference,2012, pp.1-4. [5] Introduction to Radar systems by Merill l .Skolnik
Figure11: Waveform of Zero padded output from the FIFO
VI.
ADVANTAGES
Pulse compression increases the range resolution as well as signal to noise ratio (SNR).The main advantage of LFM is it is quite insensitive to doppler shifts, it is the easiest to generate, a variety of hardware being available to form and process it .
[6]Radar Signal R.Mahafza.
Analysis
and
processing
by
Bassem
[7]Journal paper on FPGA Cores Enhance Radar Pulse Compression. [8] Document on Principle of The Pulse Compression Radar by Vijaya Chandran Ramasami, RSL, Univ of Kansas.
VII.
CONCLUSION
Pulse compression allows coverage of large range area using a reduced transmitter power and achieving the high range resolution. Best for resolving overlapping returns coming from closely spaced targets. The cost of applying pulse compression was paid in the form of complexity added to both transmitter and receiver. The other challenging thing was proper suppression of range side lobes. The advantages generally outweigh the disadvantage, so pulse compression is best technique for radar systems, where main challenging factors are "transmit power" and "high range resolution".
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been fully supported by Mistral Solutions Private Limited, Bangalore and RITM, E & C department Bangalore.
REFERENCES
187
Comparative study of Spectrum estimation technique in cognitive radio

R.NITHYA KUMARI1,M.N.SUMA2
1
Kumari.r5@gmail.com,2suma.bms@gmail.com
Department of ECE
, BMSCE
Abstract-The large demand on the services catered in wireless communication has led to the serious spectral scarcity in present communication scenario. In this context, cognitive radio (CR) is efficient technology to solve todays spectrum scarcity problem. The most important function in CR is spectrum estimation which is the base of spectrum sensing, requires precise accuracy and low complexity methods. In this paper, different spectral estimation techniques their performances are compared by simulation and a system model for it is developed using Simulink. Keywords:Cognitive
2. PARAMETRIC METHOD
Parametric method is basically model based approach which models the data as a sum of a few damped sinusoids and estimates their parameters.Henceparametric modelling techniques find the parameters for a mathematical model describing a signal, system, or process. Once the signal is modelled, all parameters of the underlying model can be estimated from the observed signal. Estimator based on parametric method provides higher degree of detail. In this method, a signal is modelled by Auto Regressive (AR), Moving Average (MA) or Auto Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) process [2]. These techniques use known information about the system to determine the model. An application for parametric modelling includes speech and music synthesis, data compression, high resolution spectrum estimation, communications and simulation.The most commonly used linear system model is the all-pole model, a filter with all of its zeroes at the origin in the zplane. The output of such a filter for white noise input is an autoregressive (AR) process. For this reason, these methods are sometimes referred to as AR methods of spectral estimation. Supposing that a random processx (n) is modelled as anAR (p) process with an AR (p) model, then the system function of the model is
q
Radio, Spectrum Estimation, Parametric Methods, Non-parametric Methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
Spectral estimation can be defined as any process inwhich we automatically determine the frequency content of asignal. It can also be defined as, from a finite record of a stationary data sequence, estimate howthe total power is distributed over frequencies, or more practically, over narrow spectral bands[1]. Estimation of power spectra is useful in a variety of applications, including the detection of signals buried in wideband noise. Spectrum estimation can be performed based upon the knownmathematical properties of the signal. The slight difference between spectrum sensing and spectrum estimation is of interest, spectrum sensing is to identify the presence of user over particular frequency band without the need for finding the exact value of power in that band. On the other hand, the goal of spectrum estimation technique is to obtain the exact power spectrum density overthe bands of interest. The problem in spectrum sensing is more detection problem and thus it has beenovercomeby spectrum estimation approach. In cognitive radio (CR) system, spectrum sensing [3] module is moredesirable due to the fact that the interest is to identify only the presence of primary users in aparticular band. However, it is also interesting to find that most of spectrum sensing techniques are built on the existing spectrum estimation approach. The different types of spectrum estimation techniques are: Parametric method,Non-Parametric method.
bq (k )e H (e jw ) 1
k 1 k 0 p
jkw
(1)
a p ( k )e
jw
In this case, the power spectrum of the process x (n) can be computed in the following manner
Alternatively, if the autocorrelation rx(k) is given, the power spectrum can be obtained from the Fourier transform of rx(k),
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Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded SystemsWISE 2013 values. In addition, the Burg method ensures a stable AR model and is computationally efficient. Parametersap(k) and bq(k) can be determined from rx(k)using the AR model. Then the power spectrum of the AR process is
2.3 Covariance method

It is different from the autocorrelation or Yule walker method in which no windowing of the data is required, since the values of x(n) is used for finding the r x [k ] in Eq.(5) are all in the interval 0 n N 1 and thus no zeropadding is needed. This means that there is no windowing effect in the variance method[8]. Therefore, for short data records the variance method generally gives higher resolution spectrum estimates than the autocorrelation method.
The AR parameters that are determined from the estimated autocorrelation r x [k ] are definedas ap(k)and b(0). Among these parametric spectral estimations, the AR estimation is the most popular. This is because the AR parameters can be found by solving a set of linear equations. Whereas, for the ARMA and MA parameters, a set of nonlinear equations need to be solved, this will be much more difficult. Some of the examples of Auto Regressive model are: Yule walker method, Burgs method, Covariance method and Modified covariance method.
2.4 Modified covariance method

Incontrast to the autocorrelation and covariance methods, [7] the modified covariance method is observed to give statistically stable spectrum estimates with high resolution, and not to be subject to spectral line splitting. The disadvantage of parametric method is that if the signal is not sufficiently and accurately described by the model, the result is less meaningful.
2.1 Yule walker method

Using Yule walker method we can estimate the parameters of an AR (p)model [6]. This method is also called as autocorrelation model because the autocorrelation of the discrete samples values at different lags are found which results in an autocorrelation matrix multiplied with the parameters results in the estimated parameters of an AR(p) model, using these parameters we can estimate the PSD of the signal. The autocorrelation method the AR parametersare found by solving the autocorrelation normal equation.
* *
3. NON-PARAMETRIC METHOD
Non Parametric methods do not have any assumption about the shape of the power spectrum and in this method we try to find acceptable estimate of the power spectrum without prior knowledge about the underlying stochastic approach [7].The basic principle is generally to estimate the autocorrelationfunction RXXand then take Fouriertransforms to obtain the Periodogrammethods of spectrum estimation.Further improvements can be made if weperform various types ofsmoothingor averagingthrough Welchmethod.
r x (0) r x (1)
r x (1) r x (0)
r x ( p 1)
*
a p (1) a p (2) a p ( p)
r x (1)
3.1 Periodogram method

The most commonly known spectrum estimation technique is periodogram, which isclassified as a nonparametricestimator [7]. The procedure starts by calculating the Discrete FourierTransform (DFT) of the random signal being estimated, followed by taking the square of it andthen dividing the result with the number of samples N. The basic ideas of periodogram can beillustrated as:
2 1 1 s (e ) X (e jw ) N N p xx jw N 1 2
r x ( p 2) r x (0)
r x (2) r x ( p)
r x ( p 1) r x ( p 2)
Where the Yule walker estimate is given by
r x [k ]
1 N
N 1 k
x[n k ]x*[n], k
n 0
0,1,.... p (5)
2.2 Burgs method

In contrast to other AR estimation methods, the Burg method avoids calculating the autocorrelation function, and instead estimates the reflection coefficients directly. [6]The primary advantages of the Burg method are resolving closely spaced sinusoids in signals with low noise levels, and estimating short data records, in which case the AR power spectral density estimates are very close to the true
x n exp( j n)
n 0
(6)
The spxx(ejw) in equ(6)is the periodogram estimate of the power spectra while x[n] and X (e jw) arethe sequence whose spectrum is to be estimated and the corresponding transform in frequencydomain, respectively. The main issue in periodogram is the use of rectangular windowing of waveform to obtainfinite length samples.
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Proceedings of TEQIP II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded SystemsWISE 2013 This windowing process introduces a discontinuitybetween the original signal and the aliased version produced by a DFT transformation. In order tomitigate the impact of rectangular window, various window functions can be applied on the databefore the computation of periodogram. 30 Hz and 50-55 Hz along with the white noise is shown in fig 1.
3.2 Welch Method

Welch method is also called as averaging of periodogram [4], which is also recognized as Bartlett Method. It can be employedto reduce the PSD variance in the periodogram estimates. The samples are divided into severalsegments and the periodograms of each segment is averaged.The important thing is to identify a trade-off between number of samples per segment and number of segments.
3.3 Multitaper Method

The Multitaper Spectrum Estimator (MTSE) [1], proposed by Thomson, which uses multipleorthogonal prototype filters to improve the variance and reduce the side lobe and leakage.Instead of using bandpass filters that are essentially rectangular windows (as in the periodogram method), the MTM method uses a bank of optimal bandpass filters to compute the estimate. These optimal FIR filters are derived from a set of sequences known as discrete prolatespheroidal sequences(DPSSs, also known as Slepian sequences). In addition, the MTM method provides a time-bandwidth parameter with which to balance the variance and resolution. This parameter is given by the time-bandwidth product, NW and it is directly related to the number of tapers used to compute the spectrum. There are always 2*NW-1 tapers used to form the estimate. This means that, as NW increases, there are more estimates of the power spectrum, and the variance of the estimate decreases. However, the bandwidth of each taper is also proportional to NW, so as NW increases, each estimate exhibits more spectral leakage (i.e., wider peaks) and the overall spectral estimate is more biased.
Fig 1 Simulation of parametric spectrum estimation. Table 1. Variance of different parametric method. Parametric methods Yule-walker Burgs Co-variance Modified Co-variance Variance 1.1081 3.0108 3.2994 3.1464
4.1 System models for parametric methods

The system model for parametric methods and its estimated spectrum plot of the random signal is shown in fig 2 and fig 3 respectively.
4. RESULTS OF SIMULATION
The variance of an estimator measures how much variability anestimate has around its mean (expected) value. It is defined as: var () = E[( - E[ ])2] Hence we expect that a `good' estimator will makesome suitabletrade-off between low bias and low variance. The simulation of different parametric spectrum estimation method in which the signal is transmitted at frequency 20-
Fig 2. Parametric Spectrum Estimators model.
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Different windows Rectwin Hamming Hann Blackman Kaiser Triang Fig 3. Comparison of different parametric methods spectrum plot using system model. variance 75.04 60.47 55.12 46.6 75.77 61.36
Table4.Variance of Multitaper method for different values of time-bandwidth product for N=256. Time-bandwidth product 2 5/2 3 7/2 4 Variance 25.83 18.63 14.92 11.79 9.82
The spectrum estimation plot of original speech signal with and without noise for Non parametric method like Periodogram, Welch and Multi-taper method is shown in fig 4 and the variance of these estimated spectra is shown in table 2.
-60 -80 -100 -120
-140 -160 -180 -200 -220 PSD using PSD using PSD using PSD using PSD using PSD using 0 0.5 welch method with noise periodogram method with noise periodogram without noise welch without noise multi-taper without noise multi-taper with noise 1 fhz 1.5 2 2.5 x 10
4
From the tabular column it is known that as we increase the time-bandwidth product the variance is reduced but in case of the signal with least guard band, there is a trade-off of variance and time-bandwidth product.
PSD
4.2 System model for Non-parametric method

The system model for Non-parametric method and its spectrum plot is shown in fig 5 and fig 6 respectively.
Fig 4. Simulation of Non parametric spectrum estimation methods. Table 2.Variance of different Non-parametric spectral estimators. Type of spectrum estimation Periodogram Welch Multitaper Variance 3.86e+004 82.12(Blackman) 52.16 Fig 5. Non-parametric Spectrum Estimator, Periodogram model is compared with the FFT spectrum analysis.
The choice of window will play important role as well in the spectrum estimation. As it is shown in table 3, the variance of the estimated spectrum for different windows introduce different window Kernels in frequency domain. In conclusion, the use of windows can be used as a new lever to tune theresolution and the range of the estimator.
Table 3.Variance of Welch method using different windows for N=256.
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Fig 6. Comparison of Non-parametric method spectrum plot of Periodogram and Welch with FFT using system model.
5. CONCLUSION
CR has received a plenty of attention and one of its critical technologies is spectrum estimation and spectrum sensing which requires fast processing and precise accuracy of not to interfere with licensed users.Thus in this paper the efficient spectrum estimation is identified in terms of the computational complexity over the other conventional techniques. By simulation we conclude that for cognitive Radio the best possible estimation technique in Nonparametric method is multitaper and for parametric is Yulewalker. In addition, the system model for these estimation techniques is build and the results are verified.
6. REFERENCES
[1] S. Haykin, Cognitive Radio: Brain-empowered Wireless Communications. [2] J. Mitola and G. Q. Maguire, Cognitive Radio: Making Software Radios More Personal. [3] A. Sahai, D. Cabric, Spectrum Sensing Fundamental Limits andPractical Challenges, A tutorial presented at IEEE DySpanConference,Baltimore, Nov. 2005. [4] M.S. Bartlett, Smoothing Periodograms from Time Series with Continuous Spectra,Nature (London), Vol.161, May 1948. [5] P. D. Welch, The Use of Fast Fourier Transform for the Estimation of Power Spectra:A Method Based on Time Averaging Over Short, Modified Periodograms, IEEETransactions on Audio and Electroacoustic, vol. AU15, no. 2, pp. 70-73, June 1967. [6] P. Stoica and R.L. Moses, Introduction to Spectral Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall, Inc, 1997. [7] D. D. Ariananda, M.K. Lakshmanan, and H. Nikookar, A Survey on Spectrum SensingTechniques for Cognitive Radio. Cognitive Radio and Advanced Spectrum Management 2009 pages 74-79, May2009.
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Proceedings of TEQIP-II sponsored National Conference on Wireless Communication, Signal Processing, Embedded Systems-WiSE 2013

H-shaped Coaxial Fed Microstrip Patch Antenna for Bluetooth Applications

nidhiraj1991@yahoo.com, nithinsethumadhavan@yahoo.com, rakeshcvakkel@gmail.com, sharazkm33@gmail.com

A. H-shaped patch without slot

C. H shaped patch with dual U-Shaped slots

B. H-shaped patch with single U-Shaped slot

Fig. 3: H-shaped patch antenna with dual slots

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A maximum bandwidth of 252.4MHz is attained for slot width of 05mm.

Fig. 4: Return loss

B. With single slot

Width (mm) 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 1.5 1.8 2

Freq (GHz) 2.33 2.301 2.301 2.301 2.317 2.269 2.33

Return Loss(db) -15.6224 -15.2942 -14.34 -13.93 -14.21 -14.13 -14.3

Impedance ( ) 37.33-7.014j 35.72-3.69j 36.14-9.14j 35.2-11.6j 37.5-15.1j 38.42-16.7j 34.3-5.98j

Bandwidth (GHz) 0.0879 0.0814 0.2524 0.1198 0.0916 0.0887 0.0939

Hence it is possible to attain a maximum value of 345.3

Return Loss(db) -12.333 -16.27 -12.0478

Impedance 33.86-7.53j 34.9+11.69j 33.88-7.54j

Bandwith GHz 0.0552 0.1087 0.0531

A Survey on Contributing Entities for Seamless Streaming

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ecnihon136@gmail.com , gayathrifisat@yahoo.com , lilyofvaly@yahoo.com ,alexandermerin@yahoo.com

Fig 1.Structure of CPW fed slot antenna for Design1.

Fig 4. Structure of CPW fed slot antenna for Design4.

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TABLE 1 SIMULATION RESULTS OF CPW-FED SLOT ANTENNA FOR DIFFERENT DESIGNS.

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on the system performance when nodes have

Fig:Tranferring the Files From One to Another node

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Securing the Wireless Sensor Network Communication

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Fig.4.Design of the application

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OFDMA and SCFDMA Analysis in LTE

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Subcarri -er DeMapp -ing

Parallel O/P to Serial

User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4

Figure 2. The block diagram of OFDMA-LTE

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Transmitter and receiver for SC-FDMA

Figure 6. Distributed FDMA

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Figure 5. Localized FDMA

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Figure 7. The SNR Vs BER in OFDMA for different modulation.

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Figure 3.6 Overall block diagram of the approach

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Fig.1.1. number of smv

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