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Music Education Research

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Charting future directions for research in jazz pedagogy: implications of the literature
Kevin E. Watson
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Jacobs School of Music, Indiana University, 1201 East Third Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA Version of record first published: 17 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Kevin E. Watson (2010): Charting future directions for research in jazz pedagogy: implications of the literature, Music Education Research, 12:4, 383-393 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2010.519382

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Music Education Research Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2010, 383 393

Charting future directions for research in jazz pedagogy: implications of the literature
Kevin E. Watson*

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Jacobs School of Music, Indiana University 1201 East Third Street, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA (Received 6 July 2009; nal version received 21 February 2010) This paper surveys and evaluates extant empirical research in jazz pedagogy. Investigations in the following areas are addressed: (a) variables that predict achievement in jazz improvisation; (b) content analyses of published instructional materials; (c) effectiveness of pedagogical methods; (d) construction and evaluation of jazz improvisation achievement measurement instruments; and (e) relationships between the construct of creativity and jazz improvisation achievement. A number of possible directions for future research are suggested, including possible extensions of research on instructional methodologies, assessment of achievement that considers group dynamics and the application of confluence models of creativity to jazz improvisation research. Keywords: jazz; improvisation; creativity; measurement

In an article published over 20 years ago, former NAJE Research Chairman Charles Brown (1988) noted that while jazz research was expanding in a number of areas, there was little organisational logic about the overall direction of this research. The development of such an organisational structure in the field of jazz pedagogy research is especially important because it is only through the collected findings of multiple studies that explanations of educational phenomena can be understood (Duke 2000). In the past two decades, a number of distinct streams of jazz pedagogy research have emerged: (a) investigations of variables that predict achievement in jazz improvisation; (b) content analyses of published instructional materials; (c) investigations of the effectiveness of pedagogical methods; (d) the construction and evaluation of jazz improvisation achievement measurement instruments; and (e) investigations of a possible relationship between jazz improvisation achievement and the construct of creativity. This paper will survey and evaluate extant empirical research in each of these categories in order to suggest future directions for such research.

Predictor variables for jazz improvisation achievement A number of studies have employed multiple regression analyses in order to examine variables that might serve as predictors of either instrumental (e.g. Bash 1983; Ciorba 2006; May 1998) or vocal (e.g. Greennagel 1994; Heil 2005; Madura 1996) jazz
*Email: kwtsn14@mac.com
ISSN 1461-3808 print/ISSN 1469-9893 online # 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14613808.2010.519382 http://www.informaworld.com

384 K.E. Watson improvisation achievement. One of the potential benefits of this line of research lies in the possibility of identifying factors related to achievement that might be addressed in teaching methodologies. Variables that have been examined as possible predictors include sex (Bash 1983; Heil 2005; Hores 1977; Madura 1996), motivation (Ciorba 2006), academic achievement (Ciorba 2006; Greennagel 1994), jazz ensemble experience (Greennagel 1994; Heil 2005; Madura 1996), time spent practicing improvisation (Ciorba 2006; Heil 2005; Madura 1996), aural skills (May 1998) and jazz listening experience (Ciorba 2006; Greennagel 1994; Heil 2005; Hores 1977; Madura 1996; May 1998). Some conflicting findings have emerged. While May (1998) found that previous improvisation study was a significant predictor of instrumental jazz achievement, Heil (2005) found that such study did not predict achievement in vocal jazz improvisation. Heil found that private instrumental lessons predicted vocal jazz achievement, while Greennagel (1994) found no predictive role for this variable. Interestingly, the variables of music aptitude, as measured by Gordons Musical Aptitude Profile (1965) and Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (1989), and music performance achievement, as measured by the Watkins Farnum Performance Scale (Watkins and Farnum 1954), have been found to play no predictive role in jazz improvisation achievement (e.g. Bash 1983; Ciorba 2006; Greennagel 1994; Hores 1977). These findings raise questions about whether jazz improvisation achievement is really unrelated to music aptitude or performance achievement, or whether these constructs have actually been measured in a valid and reliable manner (Bowman 1988). Three variables have been found to play predictive roles for jazz improvisation achievement in at least two studies: (a) jazz theory knowledge; (b) aural imitation; and (c) self-evaluation of improvisation skill. May (1998) investigated collegiate wind players (N 073) who were either enrolled in a jazz ensemble or had completed one course in jazz improvisation. Self-evaluation of improvisation emerged as the single best predictor of achievement, followed by aural imitation and improvisation class experience. Ciorba (2006) investigated high school students (N 0102) who were members of a school jazz ensemble. Results confirmed Mays (1998) earlier finding that self-evaluation of performance was a significant (p B0.01) predictor of instrumental jazz improvisation achievement. In contrast to Mays results, jazz theory knowledge (p B0.001) also entered Ciorbas prediction model. Madura (1996) investigated relationships between various aspects of vocal jazz improvisation and several predictor variables. Subjects were collegiate students (N 0101) who were enrolled in either a vocal jazz ensemble or solo jazz singing class in which instruction in jazz improvisation was given. Results revealed that the best predictors of vocal jazz improvisation achievement were jazz theory knowledge, imitative ability and a composite jazz experience variable. The results of Greennagels (1994) study of vocal jazz majors (N 030) showed that the variables of creativity and self-rating of improvisation skill accounted for the greatest proportion of variance in the multiple regression analysis. In Heils (2005) investigation of the effects of two instructional treatments on high school students (N 090) vocal jazz improvisation attitudes and performance achievement, the two variables found to be significant predictors of achievement were self-perception of improvisation skill and years of private instrument study. However, these variables accounted for only 15% of the total variance in performance achievement.

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Music Education Research 385 Content analyses of jazz improvisation pedagogical materials The very limited work that has been done in the area of content analysis of existing jazz pedagogical materials (e.g. Herzig 1997; Witmer and Robbins 1988; Zwick 1987) has shown that the surveyed content tended to emphasise the use of notated exercises on tonal concepts. Witmer and Robbins (1988) surveyed teaching materials produced in the field of jazz pedagogy from the 1950s through the 1980s. The authors chose materials for their review based on what we know to be widely used or widely discussed and included less well-known material in order to illustrate certain trends (8). The researchers concluded that most of the surveyed material placed a strong emphasis on tonal principles, approached by mechanical exercises on chords and scales, with much less space provided for the concepts of melodic construction/ development, ear training, rhythm and swing. However, the authors presented no systematic content analysis data as evidence for their conclusions. Zwick (1987) analysed and compared instructional areas and major teaching strategies that had been emphasised in selected texts in order to recommend a sequential format for the teaching of jazz improvisation. The researcher sent questionnaires to respected jazz educators in order to determine which criteria were important to jazz improvisation instruction. Texts were chosen for inclusion in the study based on the criteria established from questionnaire responses. The number of pages devoted to each topic was used as the recording unit in order to determine the per cent of emphasis of each instructional area. The researcher-coded instructional areas were: (a) history of improvisation; (b) prerequisites for study of improvisation; (c) jazz improvisation fundamentals; (d) ear training; (e) jazz style; (f) analysis; (g) form and structure of jazz music; (h) melodic improvisation; (i) patterns for improvisation; (j) chord progressions; (k) rhythm section; (l) substitutions; (m) transcription of jazz solos; (n) improvising on jazz music; (o) scales for improvisation; (p) non-harmonic tones; and (q) the blues. Results showed that materials emphasising aural instruction were not common. For example, 9 of the 13 texts presented no information about transcription of jazz solos, while an additional three texts devoted less than 6% of their content to discussion of this activity. The instructional area of ear training received no coverage in six texts and constituted less than 6% of the content of an additional three books. Herzig (1997) set out to identify instructional components of jazz piano technique by undertaking quantitative and qualitative analyses of 12 jazz piano method books. For the quantitative analysis, content was assigned to one of the following categories: (a) theory; (b) technique; (c) melodic improvisation; (d) creating harmonic accompaniment; (e) rhythm; (f) style characteristics; (g) aural training; and (h) other. Results showed that the category of creating harmonic accompaniment was given the most coverage (27.95%) in the surveyed material, followed by theory (23.70%), while the categories of rhythm (3.34%) and aural training (1.52%) ranked lowest.

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Investigations of the effectiveness of pedagogical methods While numerous potentially valuable pedagogical methods for jazz improvisation have been proposed (e.g. Aitken 1975; Allen 1999; Birkett 1994; Heglund 2004; Paulson 1985; Rinzler 1987; Sarath 1992), the number of jazz researchers who have

386 K.E. Watson made an attempt to objectively evaluate the effectiveness of instructional methods (Bash 1983; Burnsed 1978; Coy 1989; Damron 1973; Flack 2004; Heil 2005; Hores 1977; Laughlin 2001) is still relatively small. These studies are important contributions to the literature because of their attempts to establish systematically the effectiveness of various instructional approaches. However, previous reviews (Bowman 1988; Herzig 1995) have noted concerns about the methodologies and statistical procedures followed in some of these investigations. The most recent studies (Flack 2004; Heil 2005; Laughlin 2001) have each investigated the effectiveness of aural instructional materials. Flack (2004) examined whether the use of Aebersold (1979) play-along recording was an effective tool for becoming a more proficient improviser. Collegiate jazz studies majors (N 035) were assigned to either an experimental or control group. Participants self-reported a total of four hours of individual practice over 13 days with the control group practicing the F blues criterion task without the aid of a play-along, while the experimental group practiced with a play-along. Three expert judges evaluated participants improvisations. Pre- and post-test performances were identified as such to the judges before ratings took place, potentially compromising results. The researcher reported that both groups improved significantly from pre- to post-test and that the experimental group improved by a larger percentage than the control group. An examination of the results, however, also shows that the control group in fact scored higher than the experimental group on both the pre-test and post-test. No mention is made of whether these differences were tested for significance. Two recent studies (Heil 2005; Laughlin 2001) have compared the relative effectiveness of aural- and notation-based instruction. Laughlin (2001) compared the effects of aural exercises and notated exercises as pedagogical procedures for teaching harmonic accuracy to beginning high school jazz improvisation students (N 020). Subjects were designated to either an aural (n 012) or a notation (n 08) instructional method. The stimulus task was a 32-bar improvisation over the chord progression of the tune So What. Instructional materials consisted of exercises employing dorian and harmonic minor scales and arpeggios, application of scale and arpeggio materials to the chord changes of So What, single measure melodic patterns, an exemplary improvised solo and a play-along recording. Six expert judges evaluated subjects performances, with interjudge reliability correlations ranging from 0.47 to 0.88. However, it appeared that some of the judges did not complete all of the items on the evaluation measure. Laughlin reported that both groups scores improved significantly from pre- to post-test (p B0.001) and that the aural instruction method produced greater increases in achievement. No reliability evidence was provided for these difference scores. Heil (2005) examined the relative effectiveness of melodic/imitative and theoretical/technical approaches to vocal jazz improvisation instruction with high school choral students. Pre- and post-test performance data were collected for 90 subjects. Participants were assigned to a control group or one of two instructional groups that each received eight 10-minute treatment sessions. The melodic/imitative instructional treatment included scales, chords, patterns, listening, call and response activities, and variation of jazz melodies, while the theoretical/technical treatment included notated musical examples, chords, scales, harmonic progressions and patterns. Three judges evaluated recordings, with interjudge reliability coefficients ranging from 0.70 to 0.80. However, judges were made aware of which performances were pre- or

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Music Education Research 387 post-treatment, a potential source of contamination. Results showed no effect of instruction on achievement in rhythmic skill or tonal aspects of blues performance, however, a significant effect was found for achievement in tonal aspects of improvising over rhythm changes. No significant difference in achievement was found for instructional method.

Measurement of jazz improvisation achievement Investigations of instructional effectiveness depend on reliable measurement of the dependent variable of achievement. In the relatively young field of jazz research, there has been a significant interest in the construction of research instruments that could be used to reliably measure jazz improvisation achievement (e.g. Bash 1983; Bongiorno 1990; Burnsed and Price 1984; Ciorba 2006; Hores 1977; Laughlin 2001; Madura 1996; May 1998; Pfenninger 1990; Schilling 1987). Investigations of these instruments have also raised questions about whether the individual items assessed within each measure are discrete or are in fact measuring the same construct. For example, Burnsed and Price (1984) proposed six evaluation criteria for their instrument: (a) technical facility; (b) melodic and rhythmic development; (c) style; (d) tonal materials; (e) emotional effect; and (f) overall effect. The results of correlational analyses indicated that, with the exception of emotional effect, all items were highly correlated with one another, suggesting that these separate dimensions may represent the same variable. Pfenninger (1990) constructed rating scales for the measurement of three dimensions of jazz improvisation achievement: (a) tonal; (b) rhythm; and (c) expressive. The researcher found high correlations (r 00.71) between the expression and rhythm dimensions, but lower correlations between the tonal and rhythm dimensions (r 00.40), and the tonal and expression dimensions (r 00.18). Madura (1996) developed the measure of vocal jazz improvisation achievement for the researchers study of factors influencing vocal jazz achievement. This measurement instrument assessed 19 criteria that were grouped into the same three dimensions employed by Pfenninger. In contrast to Pfenningers results, Madura found high and significant (p B0.001) correlations between the tonal and rhythmic dimensions (r 00.79), tonal and expressive dimensions (r 00.82), and rhythmic and expressive dimensions (r 00.76). More recent investigations on measurement instruments have continued to produce reliable measurement tools for jazz improvisation evaluation. May (1998) developed the Instrumental Jazz Improvisation Evaluation Measure (IJIEM), which incorporated the constructs of jazz improvisation proposed by Burnsed and Price (1984) and added the categories of rhythm/time feel and creativity. A seven-point Likert scale (1 0 low, 7 0 high) was used to measure each of the items. The researcher reported high interrater reliability for both the total scores (r 00.97) as well as for each of the individual items (r 00.91 0.96). Strong statistically significant correlations (p B0.001) were revealed among all subtests of both improvisation tasks, leading the researcher to suggest that jazz improvisation achievement might not be multidimensional. A principal components analysis procedure supported the researchers hypothesis. The most widely accepted criterion for deciding on the number of factors to retain is Kaisers rule, which states that only those components whose eigenvalues are greater than one should be retained (Mertler and Vannatta

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388 K.E. Watson 2005). The researchers analyses revealed only one factor that met this eigenvalue criterion. Ciorba (2006) developed the Jazz Improvisation Performance Assessment (JIPA) measure for use in a study of variables that might predict jazz improvisation achievement. The researcher adopted the following seven categories as criteria for assessment: (a) technical facility; (b) rhythm/time feel; (c) melodic/rhythmic development; (d) style; (e) expression; (f) harmony; and (g) creativity. A rating scale of 1.0 5.0 was used for each category. Achievement was measured by assessing participants improvisations on Bb blues and Satin Doll chord progressions. The measure was found to have high internal reliability (a 0 0.96) and interjudge reliability coefficients among three judges for individual items ranged from 0.92 to 0.97. No correlations among individual items of the JIPA were reported. Relationship between creativity and jazz improvisation achievement While some researchers have included creativity as a dimension for evaluation on their jazz improvisation achievement measurement instruments (e.g. Ciorba 2006; May 1998), only a limited number of studies (e.g. Greennagel 1994; Madura 1996; Madura Ward-Steinman 2008; Wills 2003) have systematically investigated the relationship between the construct of creativity and achievement in jazz. Historically, creativity has been studied using a number of different approaches, including: (a) psychometric; (b) social-personality; (c) cognitive; and (d) confluence. The psychometric approach to creativity study was originally proposed by Guilford (1950), who suggested that creativity could be studied in everyday subjects by measuring divergent thinking tasks (Sternberg and Lubart 1999). This approach has been very influential on music creativity research (e.g. Baltzer 1988; Gorder 1980; Webster 1979), but has yet to be widely used to investigate creative achievement in jazz. Two exceptions are Maduras (1996) and Madura Ward-Steinmans (2008) investigations of the relationships between vocal jazz improvisation achievement and creativity in subjects who were enrolled in collegiate vocal jazz ensembles. In an initial investigation, Madura measured subjects general creativity using the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)-Verbal Form (Torrance 1990). The TTCT was used to measure creative fluency, flexibility and originality, and a creativity variable was generated from a composite of the z-scores from these three tests. Results showed no significant relationship between vocal jazz improvisation achievement and the Torrance measure of creativity. However, the results of a subsequent factor analysis procedure on achievement data revealed a small creative factor defined by the use of originality and variety in rhythm, melody, tone colour, range and dynamics. In a follow-up study, the same researcher investigated the roles of convergent and divergent thinking in vocal jazz improvisation achievement with a sample that included both American and Australian college-level jazz singers (N 0102). One of the three factors that emerged from the jazz improvisation achievement data was labelled a Vocal Creativity factor and was represented by factor simple items addressing vocal tone colour originality, vocal tone colour variety dynamic variety, and vocal range variety. The social-personality approach to creativity study has focused on personality, motivational and sociocultural variables as sources of creativity (Sternberg and Lubart 1999). In line with this model, Wills (2003) investigated biographical material

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Music Education Research 389 relating to 40 eminent jazz musicians in order to investigate a possible link between psychopathology and levels of creativity in jazz. Some of the musicians investigated included Charlie Parker, Chet Baker, Art Pepper, Stan Getz and Miles Davis. The researcher transformed biographical data into psychiatric diagnoses by using classifications and criteria from the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association 1994) in order to ascertain levels of psychopathology. The researcher concluded that there was evidence that levels of psychopathology in the sample were above average and were similar to those found in other previously investigated creative samples. The researcher acknowledged a number of potential shortcomings in the methodology, including the possibility of biased biographers, the interpretation of biographical data as fact, and a lack of evidence for validity and reliability of results.

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Charting future directions The five streams of jazz pedagogy research summarised here present jazz researchers with a number of possible directions for future investigations. Examinations of predictor variables for jazz improvisation achievement have uncovered significant relationships between the dependent variable and jazz theory knowledge, aural imitation ability, self-evaluation of improvisation skill and jazz experience. An examination of this body of research reveals some conflicting findings, likely due to varied operational definitions, sample sizes and research methodologies. Further exploration of these findings with a variety of age and experience levels is needed. Future research might seek tighter operational definitions and/or more objective measurement of experience variables such as jazz listening, jazz improvisation class experience or jazz ensemble experience. The lack of demonstrated relationships between jazz improvisation achievement and variables such as music performance achievement or music aptitude is a fascinating area for future inquiry. The finding that self-perception of improvisation performance has emerged as a significant predictor of both instrumental and vocal jazz improvisation achievement suggests that further research is needed to determine what aspects of this variable (e.g. aural discrimination skills, self-regulation ability) are particularly relevant to predicting achievement, and how such self-evaluation skill might be developed. There are also a number of additional potentially relevant variables that have yet to be investigated. For example, improvisation is often referred to as spontaneous composition. Given that both improvisation and composition require a synthesis of aural skills, knowledge of musical structures and styles, and the ability to order and arrange sounds in some meaningful way (Boyle and Radocy 1987), would composition skill predict improvisational achievement, or are these variables unrelated? The few studies that have undertaken content analyses of pedagogical materials have found that such materials emphasised the use of notated exercises on tonal concepts with less attention given to the topics of aural and rhythmic development. The most recent of these studies, however, is now more than 10 years old and it is possible that more recent materials stress different approaches to improvisation study. Advances in interactive technology may also have altered the composition of instructional materials. Content analyses of recently produced pedagogical materials are needed in order to determine instructional approaches that are currently being emphasised in jazz pedagogy.

390 K.E. Watson Jazz improvisation has often been viewed as a talent that does not lend itself to instruction (May 2003). However, a growing body of literature exists that has proposed and evaluated instructional methods for jazz improvisation, providing some evidence for the fact that jazz improvisation is a skill that can be taught and learned successfully. Unfortunately, many of these investigations have suffered from flawed research methodology. While such growing pains are to be expected in any relatively young domain of research, the challenge for future jazz researchers is to learn from these pioneering studies and continue to improve research procedures. There is still much work to be done in the area of investigations of instructional effectiveness. While aural imitation has been found to be a predictive variable in jazz improvisation achievement, solid empirical research investigating the effectiveness of this instructional method relative to other approaches is lacking. A number of other questions also remain, for example: (a) Which instructional methods are best suited to beginning improvisers? (b) Are these same methods also effective for more experienced students? (c) What are the benefits of chord/scale pedagogies relative to more melodic variation approaches to improvisation? and (d) What behaviours or characteristics do effective jazz teachers exhibit, either in classroom or private lesson settings? Extant research investigating jazz improvisation measurement instruments has provided evidence that jazz improvisation is a skill that can be reliably measured. One commonly held perspective is that because jazz improvisation is (or should be) a creative act of self-expression, such a performance does not lend itself to evaluation (Burnsed and Price 1984). Yet, when educators advocate for the inclusion of jazz improvisation as a credited curricular offering, such inclusion comes with a responsibility for valid and reliable assessment and grading (Garcia 1998). It is only through consistency of measurement that a teacher may be sure of the accuracy of his/her assessment of a students achievement (Schilling 1987). The question of how parsimoniously such achievement can be measured, however, appears to still be open for debate. The relatively consistent finding of high correlations among individual dimensions of jazz improvisation achievement may suggest that the designation of a single score to assess achievement is as effective as assessing individual dimensions. Further exploration of this finding using expanded training of judges or tighter operational definitions of dimensions is needed. Another consideration of assessment that has yet to be explored is the issue of how an individuals achievement might relate to the performances of other group members. Assessment of more advanced jazz students might wish take into account such group performance dynamics. The application of creativity research to eminent creative achievement in jazz is a realm of investigation that is still in its nascent form. While a great deal of music creativity research has focused on the psychometric model of measurement of divergent thinking, such models have been criticised as lacking validity because they fail to predict practical criteria (Sax 1997). Others have questioned the idea that noneminent samples can shed light on eminent levels of creativity (Sternberg and Lubart 1999). Future studies might alternatively adopt a confluence approach to investigating the relationship between creativity and jazz performance achievement. The confluence approach holds that multiple components, including cognitive, social and cultural elements, must converge for creativity to occur (Sternberg and Lubart 1999). For example, Sternberg and Lubarts investment theory of creativity has proposed

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Music Education Research 391 that intelligence, knowledge, thinking style, motivation, environment and personality factors are all critical components of creativity (Sternberg and OHara 1999). Confluence theories would appear to be relevant to investigations of eminent creative achievement in jazz. For example, Owens (1995) analyses of the recorded solos of Charlie Parker showed that a significant proportion of Parkers greatest solos was constructed from formulas that he had acquired from various sources, such as musicians of the previous generation, the common vocabulary among his peers and those he himself developed. Owens analysis provides one example of the way that creative achievement in jazz improvisation may depend on a confluence of knowledge, skill and culture-specific elements. The two decades that have passed since Browns (1988) call for increased organisational logic in jazz research have seen a number of defined areas of inquiry emerge. In addition to the five research streams noted here, there are a number of other aspects of jazz pedagogy that might be considered for future investigations. The relationship between gender and participation in jazz is an area that has been explored from a historical point of view (e.g. Tucker 2000), but is one that would benefit from empirical investigations of contemporary contexts. Berliners (1994) landmark work on the thinking processes employed by improvising jazz musicians should be extended in order to develop theoretical models upon which jazz curricula could be based. In addition, given the results of research (e.g. Byo 1999) showing that music teachers often lack confidence in their own abilities to improvise, yet are increasingly being encouraged to incorporate this activity into their teaching, investigations into the development of self-efficacy for improvisation would be beneficial to music educators. The pioneering efforts of the researchers noted here have created a substantial foundation upon which future investigators may build and chart new directions for jazz pedagogy. Notes on contributor
Kevin E. Watson is a visiting professor of music (music education) at the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in Bloomington, IN. He teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in music teaching and learning, music psychology, and measurement and evaluation. His research focuses on the areas of jazz pedagogy and music teacher preparation.

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