GPDP 5

Greater Perth
Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5
GREATER PERTH INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT DISCUSSION PAPER FIVE
Prepared for: WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PLANNING COMMISSION August 2003
Greater Perth
State of Western Australia Published by the Western Australian Planning Commission Albert Facey House 469 Wellington Street Perth, Western Australia 6000 Published August 2003-11-03 ISSN: 0 7309 9408 2 Internet: www.wapc.wa.gov.au Email: corporate@wapc.wa.gov.au Phone: (08) 9264 7777 Fax: (08) 9264 7566 TTY: (08) 9264 7535 Infoline: 1800 626 477 Copies of this document are available in alternative formats on application to the Disability Services Co-ordinator Disclaimer
This document has been published by the Western Australian Planning Commission. Any representation, statement, opinion or advice expressed or implied in this publication is made in good faith and on the basis that the Government, its employees and agents are not liable for any damage or loss whatsoever which may occur as a result of action taken or not taken (as the case may be) in respect of any representation, statement, opinion or advice referred to herein. Professional advice should be obtained before applying the information contained in this document to particular circumstances.
Preface
Integrating Land Use and Transport is one of nine Discussion Papers presenting challenges and choices relevant to developing a new strategic plan for Greater Perth, which consists of the Perth Metropolitan Region, the Peel Region Scheme area, the Greater Bunbury Region Scheme area and the Avon Arc. This paper is an update of, but not a replacement for, the Future Perth Working Paper No. 7: Transport, published by the Western Australian Planning Commission in December 2001. That paper covered the Perth Metropolitan Region, while this Discussion Paper considers a wider range of issues that are relevant to the expanded study area of Greater Perth. The Department for Planning and Infrastructure would like to acknowledge the significant contribution made by Carey Curtis of Curtin University to this Discussion Paper which, was drawn from her Future Perth Working Paper No. 7: Transport (2001). In addition, the Discussion Paper draws on the work of Patric de Villiers of Urbanizma (unpublished), also undertaken for the Future Perth Project in 2001. The current paper provides a basis for discussion on the integrating of land use and transport. It introduces some of the challenges and choices to be made in formulating a plan for the sustainable development of Greater Perth.
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INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT CONTENTS Page
1 . Summary ............................................................................................................. 3 Part I A Context for Integrating Land Use and Transport............................ 3 2 Introduction......................................................................................................... 3 Why Integration Matters ................................................................................. 3 Integrated Land Use....................................................................................... 6 Balanced Transport........................................................................................ 8 Integrating Mixed Land Use with Balanced Transport.................................... 8 The Evolution of Greater Perth ...................................................................... 11 Greater Perth Today - the Dispersed City .................................................... 17 3 Policies and Strategies for Integrating Land Use and Transport ................... 21 International Policies ...................................................................................... 21 Australian Policies.......................................................................................... 24 Western Australian Strategies and Policies ................................................... 29 Part II Challenges and Constraints................................................................. 46 4 Maintaining Our High Quality Environment...................................................... 46 Land Consumption ......................................................................................... 46 Energy Use and Resource Depletion ............................................................. 47 Air Quality ...................................................................................................... 47 5 Managing Growth Population, Jobs and Cars............................................... 48 More People, More Diversity.......................................................................... 48 More Workers, More Jobs.............................................................................. 49 Increasing Car Use Blame, Shame and Automobiles ................................. 50 6 Accessibility Balancing Auto-mobility, Proximity and Technology ............ 52 Moving People ............................................................................................... 52 Freight - Moving Things ................................................................................. 55 7 Healthy, Wealthy and Wise Benefits and Costs to the Individual................ 56 Getting and Staying Healthy .......................................................................... 56 Wealth Costs to the Individual..................................................................... 57 People and Ideas ........................................................................................... 58 8 Money Talks (Loudly) ......................................................................................... 59 Economic Performance of Activity Centres .................................................... 59 Congestion Costs........................................................................................... 61 Fuel availability and cost ................................................................................ 61 Growth Driving the Need for Additional Infrastructure .................................... 63 Public Transport Investment Funding............................................................. 66 9 Effectiveness of Land Use Planning Intervention............................................ 67 Part III Ideas for a Change of Course .............................................................. 73 10 Ideas for What to Do ........................................................................................... 73 What to do with Integrated Land Use Planning .............................................. 73 Ideas for What to do with Balanced Transport Planning ................................ 75 Scenarios for Integrating Integrated Land Use with Balanced Transport ....... 76 11 Ideas for How to Do it ......................................................................................... 84
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12 A Way Forward - From Here to Sustainability .................................................. 87 Part IV Additional Information .......................................................................... 89 13 Glossary .............................................................................................................. 89 14 Bibliography........................................................................................................ 89
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Figures Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7:
Page Integrating Land Use and Balanced Transport ......................................... 6 Urban Sprawl Model of Separate Activity Areas....................................... 7 Higher Density Model ............................................................................... 7 Mixed-Use Model ..................................................................................... 7 Preferred Activities Close to Home and Work .......................................... 10 Dispersed City (Status Quo)..................................................................... 19 Employment Centres (Commercial, Industrial and Public Purposes Employment) ............................................................................ 20 Figure 8: Extended Metabolism Model of Human Settlements................................ 33 Figure 9: Metropolitan Centres Policy 2001............................................................. 38 Figure 10: Metropolitan Transport Strategy Targets.................................................. 43 Figure 11: Car-Promoting Urban Development ......................................................... 54 Figure 12: Ideas for Integrating Land Use and Balanced Transport .......................... 73 Figure 13: Compact/Central City ............................................................................... 78 Figure 14: Polycentric City......................................................................................... 81 Figure 15: Integrated Activity Network City................................................................ 83
Tables Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8:
Page The ABC of Business Location Derived from Dutch Planning Policy Model ............................................................................................23 State Planning Strategy Principles ..........................................................30 Proposed funding criteria for sustainability assessment of all projects in the Planning and Infrastructure portfolio ................................35 Metropolitan Centres Policy 2001, Guidelines.........................................39 Contribution of Air Pollutants from Vehicle Emissions to the Perth Airshed ....................................................................................................48 Households Without Cars........................................................................53 Tools for Integrating Land Use and Transport .........................................84 Application of the A-B-C Policy in Greater Perth .....................................86
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1.
SUMMARY
The Western Australian Planning Commission has prepared a set of technical papers as part of its Plan for the Sustainable Development of Greater Perth. The plan is being prepared using the technical resources of the Department for Planning and Infrastructure. Integrating Land Use and Transport is a key issue. Cities around the world exist and grow because they offer greater access to employment, activities and opportunities but as they grow this mix becomes more difficult to maintain. Transport routes to outer areas become more congested, dispersed and costly. Increasing the proximity of land uses, including more mixeduse centres, to each other as well as technology can improve accessibility to the city without increasing car usage. Perth is one of Australias fastest-growing cities and the current economic growth pattern indicates this will continue. Residential densities, employment location and increasing use of car travel are key elements in the better integration of land uses and transport. Within an urban form there are principally residential areas and activity areas where people earn, learn, play and shop. Movement between these places depends on their location and available transport. In the past, improving transport links has improved access but this is becoming more expensive to maintain, not only in financial terms but also in environmental and social terms, as Greater Perth grows. Integrating land uses and transport can deliver a more sustainable city with a high quality of life for current and future residents. Within the next 30 years, the Greater Perth population will increase by more than 50 per cent to some 2.4 million people. The locations chosen for development to accommodate these people, and the transport available to them, will determine whether the current high rate of car use can be regulated. Since the 1950s, booming population and economic growth increased car ownership and led to settlement in low cost areas not serviced by public transport. Greater Perth has a high quality environment but maintaining this is becoming more difficult. As the city grows, more land is cleared for urban use and more motor vehicles impact on the air quality. However, people generally want home, work, essential services including schools, medical facilities, shops, public transport and parks, to be within a 10-20 minute trip, as the diagram below shows. The financial costs and benefits of land use and transport systems are fundamental to making a plan work. It is important for business to be viable as well as for government to have a revenue source to fund infrastructure - these are major issues for the future. Aims and direction of past planning policies have been criticised for their failure to deliver effective implementation mechanisms: there is a need to reflect on what has worked and lessons from other parts of the world. Within the constraints of
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governance, economic forces and demographic trends, these desires can best be delivered in the future through developing high density nodes at train/bus stations, liveable neighbourhoods, redevelopment of old suburbs like Subiaco and East Perth and enhanced public transport. The following diagram illustrates a context within which solutions to land use and transport integration can be found. In thinking about land use and transport interaction it needs to be kept in mind that sustainability for that is what is at the core here - is a direction, rather than a destination. It is important to monitor, review and realign the course of land use and transport system changes over time to keep in focus the original goals of Greater Perth.
Preferred Activities Close to Home and Work Not Near Me,
Monthly Zone Within 20 Minutes

Picnic Spots
Prisons
Cinemas Hospitals Large Parks Schools
Weekly Zone Within 10 Minutes

Daily Zone Within 5 Minutes
Beach Larger Shops Rubbish Tips
HOME
Basic Medical (GP/Pharmacy) Library/ Community Centres
Family & Friends
Small Public ShopsTransportPark
Caf/Rest./Bar Recreation Mobile Phone Towers
WORK CBD
Childcare Bank/ Post Office Airport
Daily Work Zone Within 5 Minutes
Heavy Industry
Adapted from Future Perth Whats Important to the Community? Focus Group Outcomes (November, 2000)
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PART I 2.
A CONTEXT FOR INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT
Introduction
Why Integration Matters 2.1 Around the world there are many cities examining how they might evolve or, in some cases, transform to meet the needs and desires of their respective communities. The advent of the 21st Century seems to have spurred efforts to review strategic plans for the first 20 to 30 years of the new century and millennium. Common to many of these strategic plans are attempts to better integrate land use and transport. Like Perth, many of these western cities have been suburbanised over the past 60 years during a time when increasing affluence has driven increased car ownership. For a number of reasons, of which sustainability plays a principal role, a radical rethink of how cities are designed is common. Two of the fundamental aspects of this rethink are the nature of land use and the transport system. 2.2 The two pertinent elements of urban and regional forms are the location of activity centres the places where people earn, learn, play and pay (shop) and how they move from home to an activity and from one activity to another. Many people in the community are now expressing concern that the structure of this movement network are dictating behaviours instead of peoples needs and wants dictating the network structure (Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC), 2000a). The increasing amount of time spent travelling rather than engaging in activities is one of the indicators pointing to a negative impact on individual quality of life. 2.3 An issue commonly raised in contemporary urban plans is that land use planning should come first and transport should then be planned to connect activities: Transport is a derived demand driven by the need for people to get from one place, where they do something, to another place where they do something else. People dont generally travel for the sake of travelling. Department for Planning and Infrastructure (DPI), Making the Connections: Land Use and Transport Integration, February 2003. This line of reasoning asserts that the transport system should be a function of the land use pattern. In practice, however, transport systems have a significant affect on the structure of urban development. The development of transport networks drives changes in land use. A brownfield example of this is the transformation of the Osborne Park industrial area to commercial and big-box shopping along the high-traffic, high-exposure Scarborough Beach Road. A greenfield example is the South West Metropolitan Railway between Perth City and Mandurah increasing the residential development projections of the corridor
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by more than 50 per cent. Developers have indicated that the South-West and Peel Planning Sectors could now develop at twice the rate of Perths NorthWest sector (WAPC, 2002 and 2003). 2.4 Based on the assertion that the form of urbanisation has a strong influence on the transport network and, conversely, transport systems have a structural effect on urban development, a better coordination and interpretation of land use presupposes policies that closely link these two aspects is needed. 2.5 Within the context of Greater Perth there are a number of assertions that this paper will discuss in more detail. Briefly, they are: A long history of Government policies and strategies articulate the communitys vision for better land use and transport integration but planning intervention aimed at implementing those strategies has been quite ineffective The existing urban pattern follows a dispersed city form, where activity centres are spread throughout the city with many located where they are difficult to serve by public transport, walking or cycling. Most of these strategic and regional centres have failed to attract sufficient employment. Improvements are needed to ensure that the provision of transport infrastructure and services are integrated with land use activity Past planning has been based on an economy driven by mining and manufacturing while employment-generation is now dominated by the commercial sector There are a number of features in the current systems of land use and transport planning that are working away from achievement of the vision of an integrated land use and transport network. Economic and fiscal policies often help to subsidise the cost of development of greenfield areas further encouraging urban sprawl. Continued development at the urban fringes will reinforce the trends of increasing car dependence and longer trip distances Increasing vehicle movements has contributed to reduced local and regional air quality, including photochemical smog and greenhouse emissions. Transport is the largest urban land use source of greenhouse gas emissions There is a move to plan for accessibility other than by increased mobility (or more precisely auto-mobility) as some households do not have access to a car and many people cannot drive (children, elderly, disabled, no licence etc). Many people would also prefer to have a choice of transport modes instead of being dependent on the car Cars and automation have replaced physical activity. Physical inactivity has been found to be the most prevalent major risk factor
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in cardiovascular disease, diabetes and some cancers. There are health benefits to be gained by promoting walking and cycling as major transport choices Western Australia has the second highest road fatality rate of all Australian states and territories Key recurring principles for land use and transport planning relate to how these facets can contribute to an enhanced quality of life, such as activity, amenity, accessibility, equity and safety. Continual improvement in providing these community benefits is critical to maintaining Greater Perths attractiveness as a place to live Creating real change will require strong policy guidance on development location to comprehensively cover major commercial, industrial and public purposes activities. Effective guidance will require regional and local planning to be integrated. Development assessment tools could ensure that future development provides for transport choice.
2.6 A conceptual model for integrating land use and transport is shown in Figure 1. This shows an existing context of urban form, planning practice, Government policy and demographic and economic forces. These extant characteristics are the foundation on which future planning can be built. This isnt to say these characteristics cant be changed but that they need to be taken into account as relatively stable elements of the existing urban fabric. Within this context, planning may have a land use focus, transport focus, or something in-between. There are a range of valid actions along this continuum to achieve integrated land uses and balanced transport systems.
Greater Perth
Figure 1:
Integrating Land Use and Balanced Transport &RQWH[W

Transport Focus
Governance Economic forces Demographic trends Travel patterns & behaviours Perceived transport costs Transport policy & practice
Land Use Focus

Existing urban form & land use Land values & investment Planning policy and practice
,QWHJUDWHG /DQG8VH
Mixed land use activity centres Business clusters Work at home Trip-replacing mixed land uses Infill development to increase residential and employment densities Relating residential density and commercial centre viability Metropolitan centres policy
Connecting & integrating modes Park and ride Bikes on trains and at Mixed-use, high density stations nodes at train/bus stations Bus transfer stations Liveable Neighbourhoods Minimising mode transfer Redevelopment Authorities at penalties Transit Nodes (ie. Subiaco, Feeder services Midland, Armadale) Integrated timetabling DC 1.6 Planning to Enhance Public Transport Use Making public transport faster than car travel Integrated Transport Plans and Metropolitan Transport Strategy
,QWHJUDWLQJ ,QWHJUDWHG /DQG8VH ZLWK %DODQFHG 7UDQVSRUW
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Notes:
The items in italics refer to specific policies or organisations that are currently in place. DC 1.6 - Western Australian Planning Commission, Development Control Policy No. 1.6, Planning to Enhance Public Transport Use
Integrated Land Use 2.7 Integrating land uses means bringing together activities that have conventionally been separated, particularly over the past 50 years in Greater Perth. Figure 1 shows a number of possible actions (in the blue section on the left) that can contribute towards integrating land uses. One action to move towards this integration is (re)introducing residential development in existing activity centres such as commercial town centres and the Perth CBD. A converse action to achieve the same aim could be to bring activities into residential areas, such as telecommuting or working at home. In many cases this can eliminate the need for journeys normally made by car or public transport and replace them with walking and cycling journeys. 2.8 The degree to which activity centres are dispersed and separated from residential areas induces travel demand and largely dictates the choice of travel mode between them. Figures 2 to 4 show, in conceptual form, the impacts of different land use patterns on the travel system. A dispersed urban form, such as in Figure 2, has longer travel distances and favours car travel between the
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activities. A higher density urban form, such as Figure 3, reduces travel distances and makes mass transit more attractive. The mixed-use urban form shown conceptually in Figure 4 means bringing together activities and residential development so that relatively long-distance travel is no longer a necessity but a choice as many regional trips are replaced by local trips. Figure 2: Urban Sprawl Model of Separate Activity Areas
Residence Work
Dispersed activities and long travel distances encourage car travel.
Shops
Recreation/ Entertainment
Figure 3: Higher Density Model

Residence Work
Shops
Recreation/ Entertainment
Higher residential and employment densities and shorter distances encourage more walking/cycling and public transport travel.
Figure 4: Mixed-Use Model

Work Residence Shops Recreation/ Entertainment
Mixed use development results in short or no travel distances to and between activities.
Greater Perth
Source: Adapted from DPI, Making the Connections: Land Use and Transport Integration, February 2003. 2.9 Mixed use urban form will not remove the need for travel. For instance, someone who lives in a mixed residential-commercial area may not necessarily work in that same area but more of that persons daily and weekly needs are likely to be met within a walkable distance. Research from the Challenge Melbourne project found that the closer a person lived to the CBD, the more trips they were likely to make. However, a far greater proportion of all trips were made by walking instead of driving. 2.10 While mixed use can only cater for a small proportion of all residential development, the key benefit is in co-locating the activities that people access. Most trips are generated to access non-work activities and multiple purpose trips suggest that people need to move from one activity to another (i.e. work to shops to restaurant to cinema to home) (WAPC, 2001). 2.11 Many of the smaller activity centres are located off the major transport routes but can still benefit from the integration of land uses. For instance, the commercial district centres are important land uses in a sub-regional context and could benefit from better design and increased residential densities in surrounding areas. Balanced Transport 2.12 The other end of the spectrum is a transport focus on what actions may better link the various transport modes. This is shown in the yellow section on the right in Figure 1. Balanced transport is concerned primarily with getting the various transport modes (i.e. cars, trains, buses, cycling, walking) to connect with each other appropriately in order to provide a greater range of travel choices. This aims to reduce the time and cost-transfer penalties from one mode to another and encourage people to use transport modes most appropriate for their needs. 2.13 Physical actions to improve the balance of transport modes include efficient transfer stations for trains, buses, cars and walking/cycling. Functional improvements include interconnecting services to minimise transfer times between modes.
2.14 As well as physical and functional changes to the transport system, behavioural changes in mode choice can have significant impacts on utilisation. In this regard, the TravelSmart program has been very successful in effecting changes in travel patterns by providing pertinent information on travel options. Integrating Mixed Land Use with Balanced Transport 2.15 Bringing together the elements of integrated land use and balanced transport aims to provide the maximum benefits for the community. Existing public
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transport nodes are a logical place to concentrate activities in order to increase patronage and maximise the choice each individual has when choosing a mode of transport. 2.16 A critical element to integration is ensuring that the transport mode is most appropriate to the need defined by the land use. For instance, a distribution and warehousing area would benefit from good highway access, while entertainment areas (cinemas, public bars, restaurants) would be better served by public transport and taxis. 2.17 Community preferences expressed in the Future Perth focus group study (WAPC, 2000c) indicated the types of land uses that could be integrated relative to where people live and work. This report indicated that many of the services people want close to home, they also want close to where they work (see Figure 5). This indicates significant support for greater mixed-use development. At the same time, it is important to note that while people stated that they want the same types of services close to work and home, they may not necessarily be the same actual facilities. For instance, the park or caf five minutes from the office where people eat their lunch may not be the same park/caf people visit on the weekends with their family. The key point is that mixed-use planning optimises the choice individuals have when selecting preferred activities.
Greater Perth
Not Near Me, Please! Monthly Zone Within 20 Minutes

Prisons Picnic Spots
Weekly Zone Within 10 Minutes Daily Zone Within 5 Minutes

Basic Medical (GP/Pharmacy) Library/ Community Centres Larger Shops
Beach
Rubbish Tips
Police Hospitals Large Parks Schools
Figure 5: Preferred Activities Close to Home and Work
Based on Whats Important to the Community Focus Group Outcomes, Future Perth Project, Western Australian Planning Commission, November 2000.
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HOME
Family & Friends
Mobile Phone Towers
Small Public Park Shops Transport Childcare Caf/Rest./Bar Bank/ Recreation Post Office
Heavy Industry CBD
WORK
Airport
Daily Work Zone Within 5 Minutes
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2.18 Figure 5 shows the desired location of services and facilities relative to home and work in four zones: Daily or Five-minute Zone services that people either use frequently (perhaps daily) or may need unexpectedly or spontaneously such as basic medical services Weekly or Ten-minute Zone services people either use less frequently (perhaps weekly) or want nearby to feel safer (police) Monthly or Twenty-minute Zone services people may use less frequently (perhaps monthly) or that may have regular transport patterns (i.e. CBD and/or work) Not Near Me, Please Zone facilities that people see as undesirable and do not want to live around but may be willing to work in (i.e. heavy industrial areas).
2.19 Together, the five to ten-minute zones may be considered as the community zone that provides for most needs and regular social interaction. The effectiveness of this zone influences how people feel about their community. The 20-minute zone is more of an enhanced lifestyle zone with emphasis on accessing natural assets, such as large parks and the beach. This zone is more likely to influence how people feel about their city in general (WAPC, 2000c). 2.20 Also indicated in Figure 5 is that people generally prefer their place of work to be within 10-20 minutes of where they live. The main exception is that people who live in the CBD also expect to work there. The Evolution of Greater Perth 2.21 At the turn of this century there were less than four million Australians. And of these, 37% lived within what are now the eight state and territory capital cities. But by centurys end, the bush:big-city ratio of Australians has almost reversed: 21% in the bush and 63% in the capitals and 16% in coastal provincial cities. (Salt, 2000, p.13) 2.22 Australia is now described as the most urbanised nation in the world (Elliott, 2001) and this national trend for a gravitation of people to the capital cities is even stronger in Western Australia with Perth currently accounting for more than 73 per cent of the States population (ABS, 2001). Really, we are a suburbanised nation, particularly in Perth where much of its growth has been in the last 50 years. 2.23 For the individual, the attraction of the cities has been explained by better access to a wider range of jobs, goods and services. The 20th century city offered work in shops, transport, factories, trade, finance and communications,
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which were considered better options than mining, sheep shearing and agricultural labouring in regional areas. The wider range of goods and services available in the city also attracts people, particularly the migrants who made up a considerable proportion of Greater Perths population growth in the late 1900s. 2.24 Until the end of World War II, Perth was a relatively compact urban city, with urban expansion largely dependent on access to public transport. A regional train linked Perth City with Fremantle, Midland and Armadale. Tram and trolley bus routes served local transit needs. Together these transport facilities formed the spines of residential corridors radiating from central Perth City (Marsh, 1979). 2.25 The post war economic and population boom, along with the resultant increase in real incomes, led to a rapid increase in car ownership and demand for suburban houses on relatively large lots around 750m2. Freed from the public transit corridors, the land-buying public quickly spread into previously inaccessible areas of the Swan Coastal Plain with an even topography and sandy soils, which provided an abundance of cheap land (Yiftachel and Hedgcock, 1992). Coupled with very low unemployment, high job security and Government support for low-interest housing loans, the Australian dream of owning a home on a quarter acre block became a reality for many (Davidson, 1995; Forster, 1999). This period of strong suburbanisation was largely driven by an expenditure trade-off many people were willing to make, namely spending more on transport and less on residential land. 2.26 In 1962, the developed area of metropolitan Perth extended about ten kilometres from the Perth General Post Office (GPO), with corridor extensions of 15-20 kilometres extending out to Fremantle, Midland and towards Armadale. Since then, Perth has transformed, doubling in size and moving from a largely riverside development pattern to coastal corridors. 2.27 The 100-year population shift from Australias rural and regional areas to the metropolitan suburbs has now changed to coastal suburban growth. Since the early 1990s, there has also been a significant shift to inner-city living in most Australian cities. This demographic shift may be described as the move from the bush to the burbs to the beach to the big city. These demographic trends are driven by, and drive, a shift in social values as we pursue improved lifestyles (Salt, 2000 and 2001). 2.28 The original regional centres (with the exception of Rockingham) were served by the rail network. But since then, major activity centres have developed with no relationship to the rail network. Examples include Galleria Morley, Garden City Booragoon and major public sites such as Curtin and Murdoch Universities. 2.29 Perths urban form has largely been shaped by transport technology. As the bulk of Perths development has taken place in the automobile era over the past 50 years, motor vehicle use is entrenched in our urban system. There is an argument that the larger a city gets the greater its inertia to change until new
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technologies can be adopted. However, the development and increasing efficiencies of a new transport technology of electric trains has made it more attractive to retrofit rail lines to Perths high-growth coastal corridors to the north and south. 2.30 Employment has not suburbanised in pace with the residential population. Many outer areas are essentially dormitory commuter suburbs and provide less than 30 per cent of the jobs required by the resident workforce. Despite this, there is a paradox in that employment has dispersed from the Perth CBD to the neighbouring suburbs that are not as well serviced by public transport. The CBD is now the place of employment for less than 20 per cent of Perths working population. Employment locations dispersed throughout the inner area are difficult to access particularly by the growing numbers of part-time and casual workers, multiple job holders, low-income employees and those working at night and weekends (Kemp, 1997).
2.31 Peter Brains analysis of the spatial distribution of knowledge-based workers (C21 workers) identified Perths central and western suburbs as global city segments: Those areas with high concentrations of C21 workers produced a marked superior performance in real income per household over the 1986 to 1996 period. the embryo global city segment regions had a marked advantage, both in terms of level and trends in the unemployment rate since 1992. Employment and most certainly moderate to high income jobs will increasingly become more concentrated than population. reliance on market forces will produce increasingly marginalised sub-regions and increasing inequality in employment and income generation. (Brain, 1999b, p.9-10) 2.32 Most of Perths urban development has occurred in the mature stages of the industrial age, which encouraged car use over all other forms of transport. The separation of home, work and many other daily activities drives the demand for an ever-expanding transport infrastructure system: The industrial revolution effectively forced apart the dimensions of planning for living and planning for industry. In the new economy there is a rapid convergence of these perspectives and we have to master this quickly if we are to be competitive and prosperous. (Spiller, 2001, p.10) 2.33 The new economy is people and service-focused rather than product-based. Cities are leading the transformation into the new economy as they facilitate the generation and application of new ideas by supporting smaller, more specialised and innovative businesses. They also foster the clustering of
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businesses, described by Michael Porter as the single most important policy initiative in developing national competitive advantage (Porter, 1998). 2.34 Industry and business clusters aid competitiveness by: Creating consolidated and deep labour markets Reducing logistics costs and risks Creating credible and recognisable business addresses Providing synergistic support services Facilitating opportunities for formal and informal technology transfer Providing economies of scale while retaining the flexibility associated with small firms. (Property Council of Australia and Council of Capital City Lord Mayors, 2000; OECD, 2000). 2.35 In spite of the recognition of the critical role of small business in future employment generation, there is no clear strategy at a metropolitan level to preserve suitable business locations for affordable small business premises. In this context the current trend is for the outer suburbs to become dormitory commuter suburbs with jobs for only a small percentage of the resident workforce, leaving the remainder either unemployed or commuting long distances, often to low-income, part-time jobs (Kemp, 1997). 2.36 The modern-day Greater Perth is broadly characterised by low-density development. The urban areas of Perth and Mandurah stretch for approximately 117 kilometres along the coast from Quinns Rocks in the north to Bouvard, south of Mandurah. Bunbury is approximately 90 kilometres further south with no coastal development in between. The eastwards spread of the urban area is restricted, in part, by the Darling Range, with Kalamunda marking the eastern extent approximately 30 kilometres from the coast. There are also a number of suburbs and smaller settlements along the Great Eastern Highway spreading 50 kilometres from the coast. Further inland, within the Avon Arc, the historic towns of Northam and York are the next major settlements. The Arc also extends round to border north of the metropolitan area and include Bindoon, Gingin and the coastal nodes at Guilderton and Lancelin. 2.37 Metropolitan Perth has an extensive road network, planned originally by Stephenson & Hepburn (1955). A central freeway links the northern and southern suburbs to the Perth Central Business District (CBD). A system of arterial distributor roads dissects the urban area at approximately 1km intervals and provides access to the main freeway and between suburbs throughout the Metropolitan Region. 2.38 The region has a public transport system comprising a passenger rail network, bus service and ferry service, which services almost all urban areas from
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Yanchep to Mandurah. The level of service varies from very minimal and infrequent for small, isolated or sparsely populated areas at the urban fringe to frequent services on multiple routes serving the Perth Central Area and other metropolitan centres. Mandurah currently has limited public transport services but this will be improved significantly over the next five years.
2.39 The passenger rail network consists of four rail lines running from Perth CBD westwards to Fremantle, eastwards to Midland, south-east to Armadale and northwards to Currambine. A fifth line extending south-west to Mandurah will be operational within five years. 2.40 Existing bus services are generally based on radial routes feeding to railway stations, metropolitan centres and the Perth Central Area. Some crosssuburban public transport trips are catered for by the Circle Route bus service which links Perths middle suburbs, major hospitals, tertiary education campuses, railway stations and parknride car parks. Express bus services to and from Perth and Fremantle supplement the existing network of railway lines and the most significant of these are being upgraded by the construction of bus transitways (the Fremantle to Rockingham transitway and Kwinana Freeway bus lanes are currently under construction). 2.41 Transperth ferries provide regular services between Mends Street (and Coode Street in summer) and Barrack Street jetties (i.e. across the Swan River between South Perth and Perth). 2.42 Car parking is an integral part of the transport system. Provision, design and management of car parking must be considered as part of an integrated transport network. At present there are approximately three parking spaces provided for each registered vehicle in the Perth metropolitan area, with 800,000 registered vehicles. Given that the average parking space requires 20 square metres of land (including space for manoeuvring), approximately 5,000ha of land is dedicated to car parking in the Perth metropolitan area. 2.43 Perths freight network has four key components road, rail, air and sea. Overall, roughly equal shares are carried by road, rail and sea. Rail has the largest share for freight entering the Perth Metropolitan Region but sea has the largest share for outbound freight. Air freight accounts for just 0.1 per cent of the total tonnage but comprises high value and time-sensitive commodities. 2.44 The majority of road freight movement can occur on any of the roads within the metropolitan area but to help encourage the use of certain roads, Main Roads Western Australia has developed a system of freight routes. 2.45 The Perth metropolitan area is serviced by a number of rail freight lines. Rail lines from the south and east converge on the metropolitan area in several inter-modal and trans-modal terminals from around the State. These lines
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facilitate the movement of raw materials, consumer products and processed materials from within the metropolitan area, regional areas and interstate. 2.46 Rail lines in the metropolitan area focus on three types of terminals ports and harbours (Fremantle), major industrial areas (Kwinana) and locations where cargo is transferred between modes (Kewdale, Forrestfield and Canning Vale). Some direct services to other industries such as food processing and construction are also in operation. 2.47 Fremantle, the principal port within the Perth metropolitan area as well as one of the major ports in the State, extends south from the terminus of the Swan River in Fremantle and covers an area of 876 sq km extending southwards to Rockingham. The port is serviced by road and rail freight services, however the majority of freight (95 per cent) accesses and egresses the Inner Harbour by road, placing increasing pressure on the surrounding regional road network. 2.48 Of great strategic importance to Western Australias valuable export industry, airfreight allows quick export of perishable goods to a variety of domestic and international destinations. Perth International Airport is the major departure and arrival point for domestic and international airfreight. 2.49 Perth has three-quarters of all employment located in the inner area defined by Reid Highway to the north, Tonkin Highway to the east and Roe Highway to the south. The present hierarchical urban form suited past employment creation and worked well when employment was being created through relatively highincome, full-time jobs for males (Kemp, 1997). 2.50 It is generally supposed that employment growth in the CBD flattened in the past 10-15 years. Such a conclusion is, however, critically dependent on the boundaries used for analysis and it is now generally accepted that central area employment has, in fact, increased substantially. Such growth has not, however, occurred in the narrowly defined CBD but in surrounding areas such as West Perth, Northbridge and South Perth. 2.51 The major reason for this trend of decentralisation is that most recent employment growth has been occurring in small businesses in the service sector that are not able to afford CBD rentals. The availability of cheap/free car parking outside the CBD is also an attraction for businesses and their employees. The outcome of this trend has been stagnant employment growth in the CBD proper and substantial inner-area employment growth. The geography of such growth has been highly problematic in terms of undermining the traditional advantage of public transport in servicing central area employment commuter trip-demand. 2.52 In subdivisions developed during the past three decades footpaths are not common. Instead, cul-de-sacs and loop roads were often judged to have low enough traffic volumes that pedestrians could safely walk on the road. This thinking is now changing and the design of new subdivisions increasingly
16
Greater Perth
incorporates paths on more local streets. This trend is being reinforced by the recent adoption of the Australian Road Rules, which include a requirement for pedestrians to walk on paths or nature strips (verges) instead of the road, wherever possible. 2.53 In some local government areas there is pressure to remove Public Access Ways (PAW) because of associated social problems and security concerns for neighbouring residents. The importance of the PAWs in local cycling and walking routes is always taken into consideration but sometimes closure is still found necessary despite its detrimental impact on cycling and walking. In response to this, the Commission released a Planning Bulletin in May 2003, which asserts its role in approving the amalgamation of a PAW into the adjoining lots. This Bulletin also provides alternatives to closing PAWs and guidelines for local governments to assess options. Greater Perth Today - the Dispersed City 2.54 Urban form refers to the arrangement of the key land uses (activity centres or nodes with high levels of activity, major open space and location and density of residential areas) and transport networks (road, rail, etc.) that connect them. 2.55 The urban form of cities may be described as mono-nuclear (one dominant centre) or polycentric (many centres). This, in part, describes the distribution of centres of activity or nodes. But even within these broad types of urban form the distribution of activity centres can differ between concentration, dispersal or a uniform distribution. 2.56 A further classification describes the pattern of urban form as either concentric (circles of land use, development intensity, etc.), satellite or linear. Transport networks can also be classified according to whether they are linear, radial, grid or a combination of these. 2.57 There are mixed views regarding the energy efficiency and travel demand patterns of different urban forms. Even within a particular strategic model or regional level of urban form, the way places are designed at the local and neighbourhood level will help or hinder the promotion of pedestrian and cycling modes of transport (Breheny, Brotchie et al, Newman & Kenworthy, Gordon et al, Cervero). 2.58 The Future Perth Draft Working Paper No. 7: Transport considered the existing and three potential options for the urban form of the Perth-Mandurah urban system. The existing form of the dispersed city shown in Figure 6 is also the business as usual base case, where dispersed activity centres promote increased car use and discourage public transport and walking/cycling. 2.59 The transport benefits of a dispersed urban form are limited. It is evident that as activity centres become more dispersed they are difficult to serve by public transport, walking or cycling. New development is accommodated at the urban
17
Greater Perth
fringe, distant from centres. As a city disperses more widely (also known as sprawl), the individuals trip distances and dependence on the car increases. 2.60 The Metropolitan Region Scheme currently has enough land zoned Urban or Urban Deferred to accommodate outward expansion of the Perth Metropolitan Region for around 25 years on current development patterns. Much of this land was zoned many years ago, primarily in response to a shortage of land for residential development at that time, but community attitudes are changing and the wisdom of continued urban expansion is being questioned, particularly in relation to the perceived impacts on sustainability. A similar dilemma faced planners in the UK when the value of the long-established green belt policy was questioned in light of the new sustainable transport policy. Long-established green belt boundaries have been redrawn to cater for development in closer proximity, giving sustainable transport policies new weight. 2.61 The Peel Region Scheme and draft Greater Bunbury Scheme have less surplus zoned land but ample land for foreseeable development demands. 2.62 The conceptual diagram shown in Figure 6 is portrayed in actuality in Figure 7 for the Perth Metropolitan Region, showing employment distribution in commercial, industrial and public purpose complexes. 2.63 Some of the potential sustainability implications of the dispersed city form are: Environmental allows for retention of bushland and native vegetation assets throughout the city, dispersed built structures permits greater use of landscaping and larger private green areas (backyards), large ecological footprint from extent of development, high resource consumption to develop and sustain city (eg land , water energy), high vehicle use creating high level of emissions and pollution Economic congestion is generally lower with low density development, larger lot sizes provide for less expensive extensions and additions to private homes (rather than building a second story), high cost of infrastructure provision, high cost of travel Social provides range of opportunities for lot sizes, more open space, larger private living areas, higher cost of living putting pressure on family budget, fringe development can reduce access to services and lead to social isolation.
2.64 There is a distinct variation in the distribution of employment among the six planning sectors as shown in Figure 7. While the central city dominates Inner Sector employment, the employment blob is spreading beyond the central area. Employment in the Middle Sector is more dispersed but clearly follows major transport routes. Together, these two sectors contribute the bulk of Perths employment nodes.
18
Greater Perth
Figure 6: Dispersed City (Status Quo) Dispersed City - Characteristics

Population growth provided at the urban fringe (urban expansion) Limited control of commercial development spread across the mix of centres in an ad hoc pattern Ad hoc incremental additions to the existing public transport system Substantial increases in road funding Little opportunity for significant increases in patronage of public transport, cycling or walking
Source: Curtis (2001)
2.65 Employment in the North-West Sectors is quite highly dispersed and while Joondalup is the only area that seems to combine commercial, industrial and public purposes employment, it does not dominate the Sector in terms of total employment. In contrast, the Eastern Sector has a very strong employment node in Midland and Midvale. The South-East Sector shows an employment corridor that roughly aligns the passenger rail and Albany Highway transport routes. The South-West Sector generally has employment nodes along the coast with a string of industrial complexes from Henderson to East Rockingham and commercial centres in Rockingham and Kwinana.
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Greater Perth
Figure 7: Employment Centres (Commercial, Industrial and Public Purposes Employment)
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Greater Perth
3.
POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT
3.1 Planning concepts developed in the early 20th Century formed the genesis of modern centres policies, although it was not until the end of World War II that these came to the fore. 3.2 In general, the contemporary centres policies are designed to cluster human activities and higher-density housing, encouraging pedestrian and bicycle transport for short trips and public transport for longer and commuting trips. 3.3 There is good evidence to show that while decentralising activities has a minor impact on shortening commuter journeys, it has a substantial effect on increasing private car use (Hall, 1998 and Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). Cervero (1998) asserts that activity dispersal cannot be uncontrolled and must be directed to transit-oriented centres. International Policies 3.4 Australia is committed to the United Nations global action plan for sustainable development called Agenda 21. This has clear recommendations for ecologically sustainable development as it applies to land use and transport. In order to attain the objective of reducing the negative impacts of energy production and use on health and the environment, the plan proposes: Promoting efficient and environmentally sound urban transport systems in all countries should be a comprehensive approach to urban-transport planning and management. To this end, all countries should: a) b) c) Integrate land-use and transportation planning to encourage development patterns that reduce transport demand; Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring highoccupancy public transport in countries, as appropriate; Encourage non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe cycleways and footways in urban and suburban centres in countries, as appropriate; Devote particular attention to effective traffic management, efficient operation of public transport and maintenance of transport infrastructure; Promote the exchange of information among countries and representatives of local and metropolitan areas; Re-evaluate the present consumption and production patterns in order to reduce the use of energy and national resources. (Agenda 21, 7.52)
d)
e) f)
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Greater Perth
3.5 In 1995, the Dutch government issued a planning guidance titled The Right Business in the Right Place. Known as the A-B-C concept, this guidance requires local authorities to designate and promote activity centres on the basis of accessibility. A locations are highly accessible by non-automobile transport, which usually means rail rapid transit. Activities that generate highvolumes of person traffic are directed to these centres and freightintensive enterprises are excluded C locations generate relatively few person-trips and are poorly served by public transport but have well-developed freight transport infrastructure including freeway on-ramps. Warehouses, heavy industry and other freight-intensive activities are directed to these locations B locations are intermediate locations that have both reasonable public transport and road access. Activities that produce moderate intensities of person-traffic and freight movement are directed to these locations.
3.6 This policy recognises that many businesses need exposure to traffic and passing trade, while others need access to mass transit. Businesses that deal with goods and industrial services may only need access to freeways and other regional roads (DPI, 2003).
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Greater Perth
Table 1: The ABC of Business Location Derived from Dutch Planning Policy Model Category of Accessibility Specific Business Requirements Criteria/Policies A Locations Major Regional Trip City/town Generators centre Possible extension Large Within 400-800 Major offices/business metres of the away from station secondary centres entrance of a train where very high centres in quality local (distinguished by station providing conurbations size, no. of fast and frequent services are concentrated and employees and no. services of visitors) link closely with it Centrally located in relation to a network Maximum parking Specialist/durable allowance 10-25% goods shopping of good quality public transport of theoretical centres demand services near to the Major train station Minimum of 4 cultural/leisure attractions Easy, safe and urban public transport routes convenient Universities with 5+ services movement by Regional hospitals per hour with walking/cycling to Any B location nearby residential potential speed and activity capacity areas commensurate with ensuring low car dependence For major cities the criteria can appropriately be stiffer in terms of public transport service speed, frequency and coverage B Locations Major Town/District District Generators centres Small offices, eg. Within 400 metres Maximum parking Centres of up to 500-1,000m2 of an urban public allowance 25-50% small towns Convenience transport hub of theoretical providing a good of demand shopping centres, access in most including Minimum of 4 local directions superstores and public transport hardware stores routes (or 2 routes Good access to walking and cycling crossing) with 5+ Leisure centres facilities services per hour Technical colleges (3+ for smaller Embedded within District hospitals
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Greater Perth
the built-up area Intensive manufactur9ing (with high employee density and frequent visitors) C Locations Heavy freight generators Within 2 km of direct Regional access to a national wharehouses road network without passing Distribution centres through residential Manufacturing areas (with low employee Direct access on to densities and railways, waterways visitor numbers) or coastal shipping or the potential to achieve direct access in the future Source: Barton, 1995 (UWE/LGMB Design Guide)
towns) For major cities a B location should include high capacity train services 75-100% parking allowance subject to a maximum number per hectare Within 800 metres of a bus route with 2+ services per hour (to give the option to the ablebodied)
3.7 Developed from a strong government commitment to sustainability principles, Great Britain developed a strong regulatory approach to activities networks. The national Planning Policy Guidance 6: Town Centres and Retail Developments (PPG6) emphasises planned activity centres, which encourage mixed-use, vitality, viability and focus developments in areas that maximise choice of transport mode by restraining car use. 3.8 Activity centres are set out in a hierarchy, encouraging the integration of activities that generate high volumes of people traffic with well-served public transport. New developments are directed to existing transit-oriented town centres and developers can only develop outside existing centres if they can prove that there are no suitable sites within an existing centre and that their development will not adversely affect the existing transit-oriented centre. 3.9 Importantly, PPG6 does not simply cover retail developments but includes public purposes facilities such as hospitals, higher education institutions, leisure, entertainment and employment-generating uses. Australian Policies 3.10 After World War II, Sydney, Melbourne, Perth and Adelaide developed metropolitan plans that attempted to integrate land use and transport. The County of Cumberland Plan (1948), Melbourne Metropolitan Planning Scheme (1953), Perth Metropolitan Region Plan (1955) and the Metropolitan Adelaide Plan (1962) all included District Centres or District Business Centres that were generally well integrated with existing or proposed rail lines.
24
Greater Perth
3.11 Despite this early planning, commitment to these district centres was generally lacklustre. In Melbourne, the policy was dropped in the 1960s, revived in 1980 and dropped again in 1993. In Adelaide and Perth, the nominated centres survived successive plans but there was little commitment to support or enforce the policies. Sydney was the most successful city at sticking to its original transit-linked centres policy and supporting it with development controls. 3.12 A comprehensive Activity Centres Review undertaken as part of the Melbourne Metropolitan Strategy was released in June 2001 involved a detailed assessment of 367 activity centres in Melbourne and Geelong. These activity centres included major and small commercial and shopping centres, hospitals, educational institutions, business parks, airports and industrial estates. One key inference from the report is that land-use and transport policies have to be fully integrated in order for either to be effective. 3.13 The assessment of Melbournes activity centres was based on social, economic and environmental sustainability criteria and determined that the key opportunities and actions to improve sustainability included: Maintaining the central city as the highest level activity centre in the activity network hierarchy Focusing on a limited number of major, transit-oriented centres in strategic outer locations, linked to the radial rail system Developing a network of viable and vibrant neighbourhood centres in middle and outer areas Improving public transport infrastructure and services linking activity centres Developing integrated public transport that facilitates inter-modal transfers Developing comprehensive sustainability criteria for the assessment of development applications for all activity centres Promoting the clustering of activities into mixed-use, transit-oriented centres Providing a mixture of employment and services to promote more multi-purpose trips and reduce travel time and energy use Restricting the dispersal of activities outside transit-oriented and neighbourhood centres by strengthening the development approvals process Limiting new business parks and industrial estates Promoting compact urban form and higher density residential development within and around mixed-use and neighbourhood activity centres
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Greater Perth
Using smarter urban design to encourage social interaction and create pleasant, safe and vibrant centres that encourage non-car travel modes Actively discouraging the stand-alone development of activities such as major educational institutions, health facilities, office complexes, big-box and superstore retailing and entertainment complexes.
3.14 Recent initiatives from the New South Wales Departments of Transport, Roads and Urban Affairs and Planning to integrate land use and transport include the draft State Environmental Planning Policy (SEPP) No 66. The overall aims of these initiatives are to: moderate unsustainable growth in car travel; reduce the number and length of trips; increase the choice of available transport mode; and provide more equitable access to housing, jobs and services. planning to reduce the need for car trips; supporting the efficient and viable operation of public transport services; promoting opportunities for walking, cycling and public transport; and providing for the efficient movement of freight.
by
3.15 Part of this policy focuses on the location of businesses in the right places. This means clustering trip-generating businesses around transit nodes and supporting a network of mixed-use centres to accommodate different activities. The role of the market is recognised in developing vibrant, accessible centres, at the same time as protecting the public and private investment in land, infrastructure and services. 3.16 The cost and availability of parking is recognised as a tool to manage travel demand by influencing choice of transport mode.
3.17 Development of new residential areas is acknowledged as an opportunity to get it right from the start. In this respect, the policy promotes development in areas with existing and planning public transport services. Targeted residential densities of 15 dwellings per gross hectare equate to subdividing land at R25 into 400m2 average lot sizes. This aims to promote the patronage of public transport and to slow the take-up of new land.
26
Greater Perth
3.18 To improve the choice of transport mode, the guidelines use ten principles: Concentration in centres Mix uses in centres Align centres with corridors Link public transport with land use strategies Connect streets Improve pedestrian access Improve cycle access Manage parking supply Improve road management Implement good urban design.
3.19 Initiatives in Queensland include integrating the transport systems with SouthEast Queensland through an Integrated Regional Transport Plan (IRTP). This Plan aims to: Ensure there is a public transport system which combines all available public transport operations and provides a range of alternatives to car travel Upgrade the traditional rail and bus systems to cope with massive peak period increases Improve cross-city public transport services and introduce more flexible types of transport including on demand and hail and ride mini bus services Give priority and congestion-free running to road-based public transport vehicles in major urban areas Ensure land use planning supports the provision of cost-effective public transport Provide additional peak period road capacity for higher occupancy passenger vehicles and freight Support economic development by ensuring quality passenger and freight transport links are available to major industry and employment areas Focus on ring roads and bypasses and avoid increasing peak period traffic to congested major centres Plan and provide local arterial road systems as part of new urban development Where necessary, widen and upgrade existing roads to maximise their usefulness Provide cycleways and cycle lanes that link to public transport networks Create safe and well maintained walkways and pedestrian crossings Provide for the participation of the entire community in planning for a better transport system.
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Greater Perth
3.20 Another initiative is Queensland Transports Interests in Planning Schemes (QTIPS) which aims to achieve better transport outcomes during the land planning process. QTIPS No.1 has three principal outcomes: Wherever practicable, the safety, efficiency and effectiveness of existing and future transport routes and corridors of State and regional significance are enhanced To protect and wherever practicable enhance the safety, efficiency and effectiveness of existing and future transport facilities Development patterns that reduce reliance on private vehicles and promote public and non-motorised transport options.
3.21 The third outcome is the most relevant to integrating land use and transport and aims to better link private investment in land development with investment in transport infrastructure. From this outcome extend a number of specific ideas that can be addressed in local government planning schemes: (a) Promote higher density urban settlement patterns where the potential for walking and cycling trips is increased, local vehicle trip lengths are reduced and public transport potential can be maximised Co-locate major centres interchanges or stations and town centres with transport
(b) (c) (d)
Integrate major freight handling areas with freight routes Ensure accessibility by a range of transport modes has been considered in proposals for locating major activity generators such as universities, hospitals, airports, TAFE colleges, correctional facilities, major sporting/entertainment facilities, major retail and/or town centres Facilitate higher residential densities, increased employment opportunities and a greater mix of land uses within 400m walking distance of viable centres, rail stations and major public transport interchanges Facilitate mixed land use development close to centres, rail stations and major Public Transport interchanges, rather than single purpose land use areas Encourage safe and comfortable pedestrian environments to and from centres, around transport stops and stations and along key pedestrian paths Ensure all major employment, community facilities and retailing centres can be serviced by public transport as efficiently as practicable Facilitate local employment opportunities through encouraging home based business and providing mixed business and industry areas
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
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Greater Perth
(j)
Facilitate the redevelopment of existing residential and commercial areas around public transport nodes, particularly rail stations, to increase the mix and density of land uses Ensure a hierarchy of roads, bikeways, and pathways which are functional and legible to users Make adequate provision for a turnaround area for buses at the end of no-through roads in residential and rural-residential areas, where appropriate Will not unduly constrain future urban expansion needs Are located within reasonable proximity to existing and proposed schools so that school bus services can be economically provided Consolidate already fragmented rural residential areas prior to developing new dispersed areas for development which would be expensive and inefficient to supply with infrastructure and services. Provide opportunities for efficient local bus routes and that 90 per cent of all new dwellings are within a 400m walk of possible bus stops Are well connected to existing adjoining neighbourhoods, facilities and public transport opportunities Provide high levels of connectivity in the design of local street networks Provide safe and efficient pedestrian and cycle networks.
(k) (l)
(m) Ensure new rural residential development opportunities:

o o
(n)
Ensure new residential areas:

o
o o
Western Australian Strategies and Policies 3.22 At least since the Corridor Plan (Metropolitan Region Planning Authority, 1970), Perths land use planning policies have assumed that activity is focused in certain regional centres and has ordered these centres into hierarchies in response to market forces. These market forces have also challenged the zoning of land uses, leading to non-conforming land uses (particularly in industrial and commercial zones) and created pressure to broaden land uses. 3.23 The definition of regional centres has historically been something of a moving target. Initially, regional centres comprised traditional town centres (Fremantle, Midland etc) and planned centres, such as Joondalup. These centres tended to be located in the corridors at some considerable distance from the CBD. Rather than facilitate self-sufficient development, these locations raised major problems in regard to viable catchments and market pressure saw the development and subsequent growth of a ring of retail centres between the regional centres and the CBD. Planning policy was subsequently revised to give recognition to these retail centres, which were now designated either as strategic or other regional centres, while the original regional centres were rebadged as strategic regional centres.
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Greater Perth
3.24 The current planning policies and designations do not adequately address how market forces are changing the form and function of these activity networks. These market pressures are forcing greater mixed use development as retail, service and public purpose uses encroach into industrial areas and entertainment, residential, community and office uses redistribute into typically retail areas. 3.25 Further policy development has seen a shift from simply a metropolitan retail hierarchy to the Metropolitan Centres Policy Statement for the Perth Metropolitan Region (Western Australian Planning Commission (WAPC), 2000g) in an attempt to encourage a broadening of the land use base in regional centres. However, this does not effectively address the commercialisation of Perths industrial complexes. The central challenge is to move towards the restoration of this balance through the creation of a hierarchical, interlinked system of effectively planned activity centres. State Planning Strategy 3.26 The State Planning Strategy includes five principles that provide guidance for formulating land development options, describe the considerations influencing good decision-making in land use planning and provide the basis for evaluating those options against an agreed position. Infrastructure, including transport and utilities, is recognised as one of these five key principles along with environment, community, economy and regional development. These principles and related policies promote integrated decision-making throughout government: 3.27 The infrastructure principle aims to facilitate strategic development by making provision for efficient and equitable transport and public utilities. 3.28 The five principles of the State Planning Strategy are summarised in Table 2. Table 2: State Planning Strategy Principles
Principle
Aim
Connection with Land Use and Transport Integration
The protection of o Conserve and manage natural resources, including environmental assets air quality, energy and land to support environmental and the wise use and quality and sustainable development over the long management of term; and resources is essential o Protect areas and sites with significant historic, to encourage more architectural, aesthetic, scientific and cultural values ecologically from inappropriate land use and development. sustainable land use and development
30
Environment
Greater Perth
Principle
Aim Anticipate and respond to the needs of existing and future communities through the provision of zoned and serviced land for housing, employment, recreation and open space, commercial and community facilities. Planning should recognise the need for and, as far as practicable, contribute towards more sustainable communities Contribute to the economic well-being of the State, regions and local communities by supporting economic wealth and development through the provision of land, facilitating decisions and resolving land use conflicts
Connection with Land Use and Transport Integration o Accommodate population growth and provide housing choice and diversity to suit the needs of different households, including specialist housing needs, and the services they require; o Provide land for a range of accessible community resources, including affordable housing, places of employment, open space, education, health, cultural and community services; o Promote patterns of land use which reduce the need for transport, promote the use of public transport and reduce the dependence on private cars; o Encourage high standards of urban design and a sense of neighbourhood and community identity in residential suburbs; and o Promote commercial areas as the focus for shopping, employment and community activities at the local, district and regional levels. o Provide suitable zoned and serviced land for industry, business and other employment and wealthgenerating activities; o Avoid land use conflicts by separating industry and other economic activities with off-site impacts from incompatible uses; o Promote local employment opportunities in order to reduce the time and cost of travel to work; and o Provide sites for tourism accommodation and facilities taking account of their special location and servicing needs.
Economic Development
Community Development
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Greater Perth
Principle
Aim
Connection with Land Use and Transport Integration
Ensure that physical o Logical and efficient provision and maintenance of and community infrastructure, including the setting aside of land for infrastructure by the construction of future transport routes and public and private essential services; agencies is coo Protect key infrastructure, including ports, airports, ordinated and roads, railways and service corridors, from provided in a way that inappropriate land use and development; is efficient, equitable, o Facilitate the efficient use of existing urban accessible and timely. infrastructure and human services and preventing development in areas which are not well serviced, where services and facilities are difficult to provide economically and which creates unnecessary demands for infrastructure and human services; and o Encourage providers of infrastructure, whether public or private bodies, to have regard for planning policies and assist strategic land use planning in making their investment decisions in order to ensure that land use and development are closely integrated with the provision of infrastructure services. Planning should assist o Enhance major regional links such as sea and air the development of ports, rail and freight networks. regional Western o Facilitate regional land and infrastructure Australia by taking development for the needs of industry and account of the community development. regions special assets and accommodate the individual requirements of each region
State Sustainability Strategy 3.29 The draft State Sustainability Strategy (SSS) refers to a number of roles that infrastructure can have in moving towards greater sustainability in economic and community activities. The Consultation Draft of this strategy outlined six long-term sustainability visions for Western Australia, each with a goal setting out priority actions for the State Government. These visions cover governance, global contributions, natural resources, settlements, community and business. The most relevant vision for this discussion paper is the vision for Western Australias settlements:
Regional Development
Infrastructure
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Greater Perth
Western Australias settlements are among the most attractive places to live in the world, constantly becoming more innovative and efficient in their use of resources and management of wastes while simultaneously being more liveable and equitable. Focus on the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy, Consultation Draft 2002 p.130 3.30 This vision is based on a principle of settlement efficiency and quality of life, which is supported by the Extended Metabolism Model (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999) of human settlements developed for the 1996 and 2001 Australian State of the Environment Reports (CSIRO, 1996 and Newton et al. 2001). Under this model, depicted in Figure 8, the resource inputs are consumed dynamically according to priorities and are converted into liveability factors and waste outputs. The liveability dimension of this model is fundamentally concerned with activities that take place at centres. Figure 8: Extended Metabolism Model of Human Settlements
Source: Focus on the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy, Consultation Draft 2002 p.132 3.31 The SSS vision for settlements aims to manage growth and urban structure and create a sustainable balance of employment, transport, housing choice and community development. The Strategy defines the relevant goal and priority actions as: Plan and provide settlements that reduce the ecological footprint and enhance quality of life at the same time as: Managing urban and regional growth Revitalising declining centres and suburbs Integrating land use and balanced transport Managing freight and regional transport
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Greater Perth
Preserving air quality Reducing and managing waste Managing our water future Promoting sustainable energy Preserving cultural heritage and landscapes and creating sense of place Building sustainably Source: Focus on the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy, Poster 2002
3.32 One of the strategys key actions to help create sustainable settlements is to integrate land use and balanced transport. In this context, balanced transport refers to a mix of transport modes appropriate to the purpose, including walking, cycling, public transport and car trips. 3.33 Sustainability in settlements is strongly influenced by the priority given to transport modes and by how land use is integrated with these modes. Perths development has been heavily influenced by our dependence on the car and truck and this needs to be more balanced with betterintegrated land use and transport. Focus on the Future: Draft State Sustainability Strategy 2002, p.139 3.34 As pointed out in this strategy, the Department for Planning and Infrastructure is developing a sustainability assessment for planning and funding infrastructure. This has a particular focus on the land use and transport aspects of planning. The proposed model is shown in Table 3.
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Greater Perth
Table 3: Proposed funding criteria for sustainability assessment of all projects in the Planning and Infrastructure portfolio
Source: Focus on the Future: The Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy, Consultation Draft 2002
Metropolitan Centres Policy, Statement for the Perth Metropolitan Region, 2000 - Statement of Planning Policy No. 9 3.35 The purpose of the Metropolitan Centres Policy is to provide a broad regional planning framework to co-ordinate the location and development of retail and commercial activities in the metropolitan region. It is also the policys intent to achieve a balanced distribution of employment throughout the Perth Metropolitan Region to facilitate a reduction in travel times, the application of best urban design practice to centres and the need for centre sizes to reflect available infrastructure and locational requirements. 3.36 The objectives of this policy statement are to: Establish a hierarchy of well-located centres in the metropolitan region that will:
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Greater Perth
o Promote the Perth Central Area as the dominant centre and the primary focus for retail, commercial, cultural, entertainment and tourist facilities o Promote Strategic Regional Centres as cities in the suburbs and the preferred location for major offices and retailing as well as a mix of entertainment, recreation and community facilities o Promote Regional Centres as important suburban centres offering a focus for the community by providing a mix of retail, office, entertainment, recreation and community facilities o Promote District Centres to meet the weekly shopping and service needs of the community including the provision of offices and community facilities o Promote Neighbourhood Centres, Local Centres and corner shops as performing a vital role in providing the day-to-day convenience shopping for the neighbourhood as well as an important focus for neighbourhood services and community facilities. Encourage centres to be developed as the focus of the community and employment activities comprising a range of appropriate commercial and community uses Ensure that centres are highly accessible, of a high standard of urban design and developed with due regard to the residential amenity of the locality Encourage local governments to develop Local Planning Strategies to provide detailed planning mechanisms to implement the objectives of this policy Provide policy measures and guidelines for the planning and design of centre developments.
3.37 The policy identifies the Perth Central area as the dominant centre and primary focus for retail, commercial, cultural, housing, entertainment and tourist activities. Eight strategic regional centres are provided for (see Figure 9 and Table 4) as major multi-purpose and employment centres containing a full range of regional shopping, office, administrative, social, entertainment, recreation and community services. On the next level down are the 14 regional centres, which are to function as multi-purpose [centres] providing a predominantly retail function, a mix of offices, community and entertainment facilities. Below this sit district then neighbourhood and local centres. 3.38 Figure 9 shows the distribution of centres under the Metropolitan Centres Policy. The map also shows the extent of Perths urban and urban-deferredzoned land, road reserves and existing and proposed rail lines. Rockingham
36
Greater Perth
and Morley are the only strategic regional centres not served by rail. This map also shows that Booragoon and the proposed Amarillo development are the only regional centres that are not located on or near regional roads.
37
Greater Perth
Figure 9: Metropolitan Centres Policy 2001
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Greater Perth
Table 4: Metropolitan Centres Policy 2001, Guidelines

Strategic Regional Centres Regional Centres District Centres Neighbourhood and Local Centres Traditional Main Street Centres (all levels in hierarchy) As for centres in the hierarchy.
Primary Functions
Office and Community Uses
Retail Types
Shopping Floorspace Guide
Multi-purpose and major employment centres for a full range of retail, commercial, administrative, entertainment recreational and regional community facilities. Major offices of businesses and government, professional offices and major entertainment facilities such as multiplex cinemas. Department stores, discount department stores, major supermarkets, major specialised retail stores and convenience stores. 2 Up to 80,000m net lettable area (nla)
Multi-purpose centres for retail, office, community and entertainment facilities
Centres for weekly retail, service and community facilities.
Local centres for convenience shopping, small offices and local services and community facilities.
Office development, professional offices and entertainment facilities.
District level offices such as professional, sales and service offices.
Small offices.
As for centres in the hierarchy.
Discount department stores, supermarkets, specialty stores and convenience stores.

2
Minor discount department stores, supermarkets, specialty stores and convenience stores.
2
Supermarkets, Convenience stores and local shops. As for centres in the hierarchy.
As for centres in the hierarchy.
Up to 50,000m nla
Up to 15,000m nla
Up to 4500m nla
Preferred Location
Centre Plans
Primary road, rail station and major public transport services. Required
Primary road, rail station and major public transport services. Required
District distributor road and public transport services. Recommended
Local distributor road and bus route. Recommended
Additional individual retail development of up to 1,000m2 or cumulative developments of 2 up to 2,500m in any calendar year subject to qualifications in 1 clause 5.4 of this policy. As for centres in the hierarchy.
Required
Source: Western Australian Planning Commission

1
Clause 5.4 allows for determination by local government for development approvals up to the floorspace limits defined in approved Local Planning Strategies. If no Local Planning Strategy exists then any application exceeding the 1,000m2 (individual development) and 2,500 m2 (cumulative development in any calendar year) must be referred to the WAPC.
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3.39 It is interesting to compare Figure 7, showing the actual distribution of employment, with Figure 9, which shows the centres covered in the Metropolitan Centres Policy. Clearly, the commercial areas in the policy only pick up a fraction of the full activity centres network. 3.40 Although the Metropolitan Centres Policy is recognised for having good objectives, it lacks the implementation mechanisms to have a significant impact on land use. The Activity Centre Policy Review produced for the Victorian Department of Infrastructures Melbourne Metropolitan Strategy rated Perths centres policy as ineffective: where centres policies have consisted largely of exhortations in documents, they have had little impact on actual land-use trends. Examples here include Montreal, Perth and Adelaide. (Peter McNabb et al., 2001, p.24) 3.41 In many cases, the market has greater control over where and how activity networks function and grow than the policy that is supposed to guide them. In some cases, this market control is appropriate and fosters change and growth but in many cases the broader social, environmental and economic needs of the community are not addressed. 3.42 Criticisms of the shortcomings of the Metropolitan Centres Policy include: Narrow land use focus that has tended to concentrate on retail hierarchy The Policy has not actively addressed metropolitan employment location Many activity centres are not recognised in the Policy. include hospitals, universities, major sporting venues, etc These
Significant commercial activity nodes have developed in industrialzoned areas not covered by the policy.
Liveable Neighbourhoods 3.43 The Liveable Neighbourhoods concept provides a rationale for grouping together neighbourhoods to create large town clusters and linking these towns and neighbourhoods together with a strong movement network to provide a context for sustainable activity. It aims to provide a movement network that maximises safety, encourages walking and cycling and supports public transport patronage. 3.44 This policy was introduced in 1997 (Edition 1) and an updated Edition 2 in 2000 for a trial period. Liveable Neighbourhoods is an alternative approach to subdivision and development, aimed at making the States suburban areas
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more sustainable through greater housing, local employment and transport choice. The Commission has now endorsed the scope for the review to a single policy suite that will deliver more sustainable urban areas for WA. 3.45 The nine key principles of the Liveable Neighbourhoods policy are: 1. Town Structure - The town structure should be compact and well defined. It should consist of a clustering of highly interconnected neighbourhoods, which is mutually supportive of both neighbourhood centres and the town centre Neighbourhood Structure - A neighbourhood is typically defined as a 400-450m radius circle (five-minute walking distance) with a shop supplying daily needs, or another type of community focus, at its centre Neighbourhood Walkability - Walking is the most energy efficient mode of travel. It can be encouraged by an interconnected street network that provides pedestrians with a choice of routes at intersections to enable access to neighbourhood facilities via a safe and attractive environment Walkability to Facilities and Public Transport - As a measure of efficiency, at least 60 per cent of the dwellings in a neighbourhood should be within a 400-450m walk of a neighbourhood centre or bus stop, or 800m of a rail station Safety and Surveillance - To reduce opportunities for crime, a clear definition is required between public places and private back yards. Development should provide frontages with windows and entrances onto the public realm Choice/Flexibility/Variety - The urban layout should respond to the current and future needs of society. Buildings and lots should be designed to be adaptable in order to accommodate either changes in land use or additions over time Environmentally and Culturally Responsive Design - Key environmental and cultural features should be identified and protected within the design Site Responsive Design - Character and Identity - Local identity should be complemented or created by responding to site features, context, landscape and views Cost and Resource Efficiency - The development should promote neighbourhood sustainability in terms of the efficient use of infrastructure, promotion of affordable and energy efficient housing and satisfying the daily needs of the residents through access to appropriate types of community facilities.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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3.46 Locating new development in synergy with existing development and in support of a public transport network also provides a further opportunity to influence the travel patterns of existing residents. This approach, put forward in the Liveable Neighbourhoods design code (Western Australian Planning Commission, 2000c), could reverse the travel patterns and trends which result in a negative impact on our community. Metropolitan Transport Strategy 3.47 The Metropolitan Transport Strategy (MTS) proposes directions for moving from a transport system that is dominated by low occupancy car use to a more balanced transport system in which public transport and non-motorised transport options are feasible for many trips. 3.48 The strategy aims to develop an economically and environmentally sustainable transport system in the Perth metropolitan area. The main elements of the strategy include recognition that: Cars will remain the dominant form of urban passenger transport in metropolitan Perth for the foreseeable future Increasing car dominance is undesirable Technological changes alone cannot resolve problems created by increasing car use technology Public transport, cycling and walking provide many social benefits including road use efficiency, community safety and local area economic development Higher car occupancy can significantly improve transport efficiency The volume of service traffic and freight transport will continue to grow Gateways to the urban region, including national and state highways, seaports and airports, are critical to its well being A package of coordinated measures will be required to ensure residents and businesses in Perth continue to enjoy high levels of mobility and access. The MTS has a series of principles with defined goals and targets. These are: Safety Efficiency Effectiveness Environmental responsibility Social responsibility
3.49
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Robustness.
3.50 The main objective is to ensure Perths transport system provides affordable and sustainable access for all residents and businesses in the region. The strategy outlines ways to achieve this through a balanced transport system with an emphasis on providing access and transport for people, goods and services rather than for vehicle movement in its own right. 3.51 One target is to substantially decrease single occupancy car trips and increase walking, cycling, public transport, car passenger and other types of trips. Such change needs transport infrastructure and services to be planned to maximize benefits and minimise costs and impacts on the community. Figure 10: Metropolitan Transport Strategy Targets
Integrated Transport Plans 3.52 Integrated Transport Plans are the practical implementation tool designed to achieve the objectives of the MTS. The goal is to create appropriate integrated transport plans that can be used as a blueprint to provide for and manage future transport demand in this locality and more regionally. Their outcomes are determined by a range of transport opportunities and constraints within a specific area.
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3.53
Integrated Transport Plans have been undertaken for: Central Stirling Fremantle - Cottesloe Joondalup Midland Shenton Park West Vincent.
TravelSmart and Demand Management 3.54 TravelSmart is a program aimed directly at creating behaviour change in people when choosing a mode of transport. It is a community and workplace-based program that encourages people to use alternatives to car travel. The program aims to: Decrease traffic congestion on our roads and reduce air pollution Provide personal health benefits from more cycling and walking Deliver efficiency savings from reduced vehicle running costs Encourage a sense of "community belonging" by increasing personal interactions in the community.
3.55 For public transport, future planning directions include: Providing bus and rail routes with frequent services to serve major trip generators Locating bus stops and railway stations in close proximity to land use activity, also taking building orientation into account (door-to-door service) Providing high-quality walking and cycling access to public transport Providing public transport at a early stage of new subdivision occupation in order to avoid the need for additional car purchase Innovative public transport solutions for access to facilities in local areas.
3.56 Applying this principle to road planning includes careful consideration of the need to build or extend and consideration of induced demand and increased trip distances must be factored in. Use of pricing controls (including parking controls) may offer an effective and financially efficient demand management solution.
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3.57 The 1986 Perth Travel Surveys found a high proportion of car use was by single occupants. It is estimated that there are up to 5.4 million empty seats on Perths roads each weekday (the 1986 Perth Travel Surveys show three million trips undertaken per weekday, 1.8 million of these are by car drivers, with an occupancy rate of 1.25 leaving three empty seats per car, or 5.4 million (3x1.8 million) empty seats each weekday). Promoting car-sharing schemes may offer one solution. 3.58 Education and changing travel behaviour are clearly important components of any future transport strategy.
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PART II 4.
CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS
MAINTAINING OUR HIGH QUALITY ENVIRONMENT
4.1 Perth is renowned for its quality environment, which is a vital factor in making the city exceptionally liveable (WAPC, 2000d). Although there are some location-specific issues, on the whole we seem to be maintaining its natural quality. However, these current lifestyles are criticised for being unsustainable. Increased resource and energy consumption is still the basis of Western Australias economic prosperity. This trend of increased consumption is the main cause of deterioration of the global environment and has been identified as the fundamental environmental priority for Western Australia (Department Environmental Protection (DEP), 1998; UN, 1999). 4.2 Although the environment may not be a direct driver of change in the short term, it is critical in the medium term and the ultimate driver or constraint in the long term. Our social and economic systems are fundamentally dependent on the environment and natural resources. As awareness about the impact of human settlements on the environment grows, this driver is likely to increase considerably in importance. While some of these social and political pressures will come from Perths residents, international pressure will also have a major effect on planning policies. In this regard, a current pressure surrounds the Kyoto Protocol and the issue of global warming. 4.3 Excessive energy use, resource depletion and pollution are three key issues that are attributed to inefficient land use and transport integration. Past transport planning has tended to be dominated by concerns about technological efficiency, particularly the movement of vehicles, rather than the environmental impacts. One reason for this is the historical abundance of energy resources and Perths relatively high air quality. Despite this, the environmental impact of continued land consumption is unlikely to significantly constrain where and how we develop Perths urban form. Technological changes will assist in reducing environmental impacts but these offer only part of the solution in moving towards sustainability. Land Consumption 4.4 Cities that are more car-dependent tend to consume more land both directly for roads and car parking and indirectly by encouraging urban sprawl and large lot sizes. A graphical representation of the growing urban footprint in the Perth Metropolitan Region is shown in the Greater Perth Population and Housing Discussion Paper. (Figure 2) This indicates that the land consumed by urban growth between 1995 and 2002 averaged 10.3 square kilometres (or over 1,000 hectares) per year. 4.5 Current practices indicate that lot sizes are averaging 650m2. Combined with pressures in many of the developed localities in Perths Inner and Middle
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Planning Sectors, more of the future population will be housed on the fringe in a sprawling urban form. 4.6 This indicates two important measures to combat this development pattern are to increase infill/densification of the Inner and Middle Sectors and also increase densities of newly developed greenfield areas in order to slow down the rate of land consumption. 4.7 Green wedges and belts are popular with the community but in some cases they can lead to more sprawl. Careful planning and review of these areas in the UK suggests that similar measures may be required in the Greater Perth region. Energy Use and Resource Depletion 4.8 Researchers (e.g. Breheny, Brotchie et al, Newman & Kenworthy, Gordon et al, Cervero) have examined the efficiency of different urban forms in terms of energy use, travel reduction and so on. There are mixed views. Even within a particular strategic model (or regional level) of urban form, the way places are designed at the local and neighbourhood level will help or hinder the promotion of pedestrian and cycling modes of transport. 4.9 Scientists at the Energy Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology expect standard new passenger cars to be five per cent more expensive in 2020, despite being more efficient. They also predict hydrogen fuel cell hybrid vehicles will be 40 per cent more expensive (Trans Scan, 2001, pp6-7). The extra cost for fuel cell vehicles could delay the changeover of the motor vehicle fleet, even if it is made mandatory, by encouraging motorists to keep older cars on the road even longer (Trans Scan, 2001, p5). 4.10 When public transport systems are fully patronised they offer a very efficient mode of transport, moving greater numbers of people per unit of energy, consuming less road space per traveller and therefore reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the required road network (ERM et al, 2000). Air Quality 4.11 The dominance of Perths transport system by private cars has led, in part, to reduced local and regional air quality. The exhaust from motor vehicles contains all the main air pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, photochemical oxidants, sulphur dioxide, and particulates). There are two main areas of concern in relation to pollution: photochemical smog and its impact on health and the enhanced greenhouse effect leading to global warming.
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Table 5: Contribution of Air Pollutants from Vehicle Emissions to the Perth Airshed Contribution Contribution of each (tonnes per year) pollutant from vehicle Pollutant emissions to airshed (%) CO 228,290 81 NO2 29,330 49 ROC 22,490 40 PM10 1,440 13 SO2 710 4 Source: DEP, 2000, Perth Air Quality Management Plan. 4.12 Pollutants resulting from high car use are associated with photochemical smog, which has a major impact on health, including reduced lung function, increasing incidence of asthma and eye irritation. National Environment Protection Measure limits for photochemical oxidants were exceeded in Perth 16 times (for the one-hour average) and 27 times (for the four-hour average) from 1990 to 1998 (DEP, 2000, p4). 4.13 Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions in Australia arise from six sectors, including energy (which includes transport emissions), industrial processes, solvent and other product use, agriculture, land use change and forestry (includes land clearing, burning and decay of cleared vegetation) and waste (Environmental Resource Management Australia et al, 2000). The transport sector is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions in Australia, responsible for 16.1 per cent of total net national emissions (CO2 equivalent, excluding land clearing) in 1999 and this proportion is increasing (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2001, pA11). 4.14 Technology is likely to play an important role in improving Perths air quality in the future. Improvements in engine efficiency and emission control and increased availability and use of alternative fuels (such as LPG, compressed natural gas, and hydrogen) are likely to yield significant reductions in emissions from individual vehicles. Technology alone, however, will not solve Perths air quality problems. It is unlikely that technology will be developed and put into widespread use at such a rate that Perths air quality problems will be solved within the planning horizon of the Greater Perth plan. 5. MANAGING GROWTH POPULATION, JOBS AND CARS
More People, More Diversity 5.1 While there will be an increase in the number of people in every age group, the age structure of the population will change significantly as the result of the baby boomers ageing, longer life expectancies and the fall in birth rates. Between 1996 and 2031 the number of Perth residents aged 70 years and over will
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almost triple. By 2031, there will be about 280,000 people aged 70 and over and another 105,000 will be aged between 65 and 69. These people will demand services, including public transport, cultural and leisure activities, Third-Age education and specialist health care close to where they live. 5.2 By 2031, Perth will have about 500,000 people aged under 20 and a total of 750,000 under 30. This growth could fuel increased demand for affordable project homes in lower-cost land suburbs as well as affordable rental properties in older suburbs and redevelopment projects. First-home buyers tend to be the most conservative market in terms of housing choice and are likely to purchase a four-bedroom, two-bathroom house on a large suburban lot, even if it means living a considerable distance from work and other major activities (Alcock, 2001). 5.3 The traditional definition of family has changed radically since the days of two parents with two children. In 1996, couple families with children made up 49 per cent of all Western Australian families. By 2021, the Australian Bureau of Statistics projects this percentage to fall to between 31 and 45 per cent (Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 1999a). The nature and structure of families are changing due principally to later marriage and having fewer children, later in life. These trends highlight that the traditional life stages of individuals and families are stretching out as life expectancies increase. Families with children under 15 years are more likely to live in Perths outer sectors. A combination of housing affordability and lifestyle preferences has made these outer suburbs attractive to young families. 5.4 Households are reducing in size due to later family formation, smaller family sizes and longer life expectancies. There are more single-person households, particularly people in their 20s and over 70 years. This means that demand for new housing is increasing faster than the population growth rate. The type of housing required may also change dramatically. Issues identified by Dale Alcock (2001) include moving from the large brag value house to more niche market housing, demise of formal living areas (formal lounge, formal dining area), increase in two-bed, two-bathroom dwellings on cottage lots, importance of indoor/outdoor interface, allowing for working at home (although it still seems to be a niche demand) and an increasing demand for housing to suit the caf culture. 5.5 Perths projected household growth over the next two decades is considerably higher than the Australian average. Western Australia is projected to have the fastest growth in lone-person households of all Australian States and Territories as well as an increase in one-parent families above the Australian average (ABS, 1999a). This will affect the demand for housing in Perth. More Workers, More Jobs 5.6 Greater income and wealth disparities are causing Perth to become even more geographically segregated into affluent and disadvantaged suburbs. The older
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and more affluent people, seeking an improved quality of life, are able to trade off money for time and move closer to work and social/entertainment amenities. The ageing population will add to this socio-economic divide as the greater numbers of affluent, active, elderly people will have significant wealth to drive land values up in areas of high social amenity. This could effectively exclude less affluent people from the inner and middle sectors of the metropolitan area. This trend is already evident in inner-city residential redevelopment. 5.7 For many Perth residents, the notion of how to achieve a high quality of life has shifted significantly from having more money to having more time. However, if the current trend for longer working hours is matched by longer commuting times, there will be significantly less leisure time available for individuals and families. 5.8 The distribution of services and public facilities favours inner areas that have been established for many years. However, these areas often have high land values and may not be affordable for lower income residents. A division of areas of opportunity and wealth from areas with diminished opportunities was highlighted in Peter Brains analysis of the spatial distribution of knowledgebased workers. In terms of future trends, Brain states that: Employment and most certainly moderate to high-income jobs will increasingly become more concentrated than population. reliance on market forces will produce increasingly marginalised sub-regions and increasing inequality in employment and income generation. (Brain, 1999b, p.10) Increasing Car Use Blame, Shame and Automobiles 5.9 Many of the perceived ills of modern westernised cities are blamed on the dominance of motor vehicles as the principal means of transport. Despite significant costs to both society and individuals, car use could still increase. While the more enthusiastic supporters of non-car travel may profess that the unsustainable use of cars is a matter for shaming people using cars almost exclusively for travel, the current trends of increasing vehicle traffic volumes may be difficult to turn around. 5.10 Congestion levels had been increasing and although recently completed road projects resulted in an approximate average decrease in peak-hour travel times of three minutes since 1995/96, improvements to road infrastructure will offer only short-term relief from congestion unless there is further road construction or preferably some other method is found to reduce the demand for car travel. Besides the fact that maintaining congestion at these levels has required huge investments in road infrastructure, the road improvements themselves often induce more traffic.
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5.11 Some issues relating to increased motor vehicle use include: As private car use and congestion levels increase, the ability to support freight traffic and business trips on the road network is compromised There may be problems funding future infrastructure for new roads and public transport Infrastructure design has not favoured cycling and walking, although new design codes now promote this as an option in new developments There is an oversupply of car parking to the detriment of a balanced transport strategy The cost of transport will increase significantly, with questions about the future availability and price of fuel The changeover to alternative technologies may take more than ten years.
5.12 Kenworthy et al (1997) considered the cost of car-dominant mobility in a study for the World Bank on 37 global cities. They concluded there appear to be no obvious gains in economic efficiency from developing car dependence in cities There is no relative gain in GRP per capita trip times are roughly the same everywhere; transit recovery is much worse and road expenditure higher external costs [include] higher levels of per capita car use, energy, emissions, and transport deaths (Kenworthy et al, 1997, cited in Austroads, 1998). 5.13 Parking is an integral part of the metropolitan transport system. Its provision partly determines when, where and how people travel. One of the benefits of car parking is that it allows those who have access to a car a high degree of mobility and freedom. For many, car use is the only realistic, flexible and reliable transport option. However, the provision of parking facilities can often encourage car use over other modes. Other factors such as the design, orientation and location of the development (which is often influenced or dominated by the supply of car parking) can also deter people from considering alternative modes of transport. 5.14 At present, there is no regional policy to guide the regulation and management of parking within the Perth metropolitan area. However, within the Perth central area (contained within the City of Perth) there is a management approach provided by a parking policy passed in 1999. This policy is intended to ensure that the provision of parking occurs in a co-ordinated manner across the Perth parking management area and that the negative impacts of parking provision are minimised to encourage a broader balance of transport options within its boundaries. 5.15 Outside the Perth central area each local government individually undertakes car-parking regulation. Town planning schemes and associated policies are used to regulate the supply and design of parking facilities within each local government. At present, there are no common standards. Standards for
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providing car parking are typically based on the provision of a minimum number of bays for a particular type of land use. Few local councils have used maximum provision standards or considered the place of parking within an integrated transport strategy. In fact, the parking requirements in some town planning schemes have not changed since the 1960s or 1970s. 5.16 One major concern is that there is an oversupply of car parking and that this is to the detriment of a balanced transport strategy. Parking surveys in several regional centres and other locations carried out for the Department of Transport as part of Enquiry-by-Design Workshops for Mirrabooka Regional Centre (2000) and Claremont Town Centre (2000) indicate that in the majority of cases parking is over-provided and hence under-utilised for much of the year. If the estimate of approximately three parking spaces for each car is correct,(including parking spaces at home, workplace, shops, recreational facilities etc.) , then approximately two-thirds of parking spaces lie vacant at any one time. 5.17 The segregation of land uses into zones and the provision of car parking to meet anticipated peak demand for each use separately is largely responsible for the oversupply and hence under-utilisation of parking. 5.18 Peak demand is often a very short period of time. For example, shopping centres are generally provided with sufficient parking for the fifth highest day, meaning that the car park will, theoretically, be full only five times each year. Planning for this peak period has ensured that in off peak times parking remains under-utilised. If more efficient ways to use parking areas can be found then there is potential to save hundreds, or even thousands, of hectares for more productive purposes. 6. ACCESSIBILITY TECHNOLOGY BALANCING AUTO-MOBILITY, PROXIMITY AND
Moving People 6.1 Accessibility can be promoted either by increasing mobility making it easier to move goods and services around the urban structure or through proximity putting land uses in a logical pattern that reduces the need to move long distances on a frequent basis. Economic and social opportunity relies on facilitating time and cost efficient movement. In addition, the use of technology provides another way of accessing services. Examples of this are telebanking, telecommuting and telemedicine which can replace the need to travel. 6.2 Accessibility is one of the fundamental reasons behind the rapid growth of cities in the developed world. Cities provide greater access to opportunities such as employment, shops and education. However, in cities such as Perth, which have developed significantly over the past 50 years, many of these activity areas have been separated from residential areas and accessibility has been equated with accessibility by car (Austroads, 1998, p51). Continuing to plan for automobility also dictates the form and shape of cities, the scale of streets and
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the relationship between buildings. The result is the creation of unliveable streets, where access for pedestrians, cyclists and public transport users is undermined by the dictates of streets designed for cars (Cervero, 1997). 6.3 One problem with the past emphasis on automobility is that those in the metropolitan area without access to a car (between 6-15 per cent) have very poor access to facilities (see Table 6). The proportion of households without a car in outer suburbs is of particular concern, since these areas do not all have good access to public transport. These outer suburbs are also distant from work with only 25 per cent of all employment in these locations. The household car ownership figures tend to hide a larger issue. If access to a car is considered then a much larger group may be disadvantaged (including significant numbers of the young and elderly). Approximately one-third of all Western Australians do not have a drivers licence and must either have access to other modes of transport or rely on other people to drive them. Table 6: Households Without Cars Sector 1986 Inner Suburb 17.0% Middle Suburb 10.8% Outer Suburb 6.4% Source: WAPC, 1999.
1996 15.0% 10.6% 6.1%
6.4 An alternative approach is to provide for accessibility by ensuring people can live in close proximity to facilities required to serve their daily activities. 6.5 Car-dependence becomes a self-reinforcing cycle. In a study by the Transport Studies Unit at Oxford University it was reported that as land use planning decisions and lifestyles generally adapt to increasing car use, further increases in car use are unavoidable, resulting in a structural dependence on the car. Car-dependence is a difficult term to define but researchers describe it as: a dynamic process both at the individual and the social level. Individually, people increase the use made of cars, tend to rely on them more, and over time pay less and less attention to other alternatives which are open to them. Socially, changes take place in land use and the provision of services, which make a car more necessary, and the alternatives less attractive. Thus at the time of first purchase, the car may be seen as a luxury. However, once bought it encourages changes in behaviour and circumstances, which in effect turn it into a necessity. Car-dependence grows rather than simply existing. (RAC, 1995).
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6.6 The socio-economic functioning of a city is strongly dependent on the transport system and costs. The car-use cycle is facilitated by the pattern of Perths suburban development on the urban front. This is encapsulated in a cycle depicted in Figure 11. Figure 11: Car-Promoting Urban Development
New roads facilitate greater speeds, which allows greater distances to be traveled.
High priority for new roads and parking.
Non-viable public transport.
Pressures created for low density suburbs and sprawl.
Source: Department for Planning and Infrastructure (DPI), Making the Connections: Land Use and Transport Integration, February 2003. 6.7 The strong interrelationship between land use and transport systems translates into a relationship between urban development and travel behaviour. Travel habits depend on choices and availability of travel modes. How people move depends on how urban developments are planned and transport priorities set by Government. 6.8 Quite apart from the effect of urban form and structure and their impact on accessibility, the researchers point out that there is a wide variation among people as to how dependent they are on cars. Also important is that a significant proportion of those who have become car dependent would prefer to travel less by car. The researchers point to the importance of distinguishing between car-dependent people and car-dependent trips. A significant proportion of dependence can be reduced by improvements in accessibility (the proximity of land uses), improvements in alternative modes and changes in attitudes and behaviour. 6.9 Another option is to improve accessibility though technology. A wide range of teles have crept into the dictionary, such as teleworking, teleconferencing and telemedicine, that are reducing the need to physically travel. With this, the Star Trek promise of teleporting is being accomplished in a virtual sense in cyberspace rather than in a physical sense in Euclidean space.
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Freight - Moving Things 6.10 As private car use increases and congestion levels increase, the ability to support freight traffic on the road network is compromised. There is a need for an efficient transport system for the distribution of goods and services. Work practice changes in the logistics industry could result in improvements to such areas as just-in-time delivery, which has resulted in an inefficient use of the transport system. Changes could include consolidating loads and the number of deliveries, creating staging depots for deliveries to intermediate points, changing delivery hours and better use of vehicles. 6.11 A Freight Network Congress held in 2001 led to a review of the regional freight network issues and potential options for moving goods in a more sustainable manner. The ensuing Freight Network Review led to ten recommendations being developed: 1. 2. 3. Develop a Freight Route Improvement Strategy for existing routes Use transparent and accountable processes to assess policies, proposals, projects and hot spots Implement measures to ensure that at least 15 per cent of Inner Harbour containers move by rail within four years, and 30 per cent within ten years Develop a Statement of Planning Policy for the strategic freight network that clearly identifies and protects strategic freight infrastructure (road, rail, sea and air) and land use nodes Commence detailed planning and construction of new rail loop infrastructure into Fremantle Port to replace the link through the Leighton Marshalling Yards Identify requirements for road upgrading or modifications on South Street, Leach Highway, Stock Road, High Street, and roads south, and instigate planning actions Prepare a practical Metropolitan Transport Plan to integrate freight, public transport and general transport, that includes sustainability criteria and targets to form the basis of a ten-year investment program Commence strategic and detailed implementation planning for Fremantle Port overflow facilities in the Outer Harbour Identify a preferred alignment and design of Roe Highway Stage 7 as a priority to enable construction
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
10. Work with industry to develop measures to reduce the number of trips made by empty trucks and encourage a greater spread of working hours for freight vehicles.
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6.12 It will also be important to consider the location of strategic land use in relation to the transport network and facilities such as ports and airports in order to maintain efficiency, e.g. major industrial areas need to have secure, efficient, heavy freight access. Compatibility of land uses adjacent to these freight corridors is also an issue. 6.13 In addition to the adoption of sustainable logistics management practices, it will be important to consider the future potential for e-commerce as a means of replacing individual journeys with home deliveries and the feasibility of providing dedicated traffic lanes for freight vehicles for some key freight routes. Major growth areas within this sector are business to business growth, coupled with growth in business to consumer traffic (National Transport Secretariat, 2001). The nature of freight may change with an increase in the number of white vans on the road network and growth in the volume of interstate freight by as much as 50 per cent. 7. HEALTHY, WEALTHY AND WISE BENEFITS AND COSTS TO THE INDIVIDUAL
Getting and Staying Healthy 7.1 Referring to a study of the Western Australian community, Shilton (2001) asserts that in the past two decades cars and automation have replaced physical activity. This study found that 44 per cent of the population were either inactive (sedentary) or insufficiently active and this was a health burden on the community. The study noted that activity levels were declining, and that 7.5 million Australian adults were overweight or obese (56 per cent of the Australian adult population). Physical inactivity has been found to be the most prevalent major risk factor in cardiovascular disease. Shilton argues that by individuals walking only 30 minutes a day the result would be a 30 per cent reduction in cardiovascular disease, 30-50 per cent reduction in diabetes, cancer prevention, injury prevention and a reduction in mental health illness (stress and depression). 7.2 Western Australia has the second highest road fatality rate of all Australian states and territories (only the Northern Territory is higher). In 2000, Western Australia had 38,137 reported crashes, resulting in 11,999 people being injured and 213 fatalities (the Metropolitan Regions toll was 31,172 crashes, 9,644 injured and 87 fatalities.). The total cost to the WA community is estimated at $1,373 million, of which $838 million was in the Metropolitan Region. These 213 road fatalities represent 2.0 per cent of the total number of deaths in the State but 9.9 per cent (8,011 years) of the potential years of life lost through all causes of death in WA in 2000 (Road Safety Council, 2001). 7.3 Total numbers of fatalities per year in Western Australia peaked in the 1970s (358 in 1973) then declined through the 1980s and levelled to about 200-220 fatalities per year throughout the 1990s. Overall accident rates for fatalities, serious casualties and total reported crashes per capita, per vehicle and per
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distance travelled have also followed broadly similar patterns, resulting in lower accident rates in the 1990s than the 1970s. Nevertheless, road trauma remains a significant cost to society. In addition to specific measures to reduce the numbers and severity of accidents, any reduction in the need to travel should also lead to reductions in the numbers of accidents and the associated societal cost. 7.4 The infrastructure provided for pedestrians and cyclists can be one of the key factors in encouraging people to choose these modes. At present, it is estimated that 20 per cent of all car trips in the metropolitan area are for distances of less than 1km and 45 per cent are less than 3km (Department of Transport). Cycling or walking can easily cover these distances. Such car use is inefficient, has costs to the environment and health and such high levels of car use detract from the environment for those wishing to walk and cycle. Wealth Costs to the Individual 7.5 During the post World War II economic boom, households benefited from an increase in disposable incomes. The result was a shift in household expenditure from housing, food and health to discretionary items such as cars. A key benefit of car ownership was the increased access to cheap residential land, previously unattractive due to its remoteness from train, tram and trolleybus transit routes. This was the beginning of a long-term trend to spending a greater proportion of the household budget on travel. 7.6 Since then, cars have gone from a discretionary status symbol to a necessity for many suburban residents. Table 6 shows that households in outer suburbs have the highest rate of car ownership. 7.7 Current studies in the United States show that most familles spend more on driving and maintaining cars than on health care, education or food and the poorest families spend most because they live in low-density suburbia and have no other alternatives for transport (Driven to Spend, report by the Surface Transportation Policy Project and the Center for Neighbourhood Technology, Huston, 2000). 7.8 Australia is heading in the same direction, with consequences that can impact dramatically on the cycle of household and individual wealth: Unfortunately, it is the lower income households which generally have the greatest dependency upon private car transport due to their need to reside in less expensive outer suburban areas, which are not serviced by effective public transportation networks. Blair Warman, Urban Economist, Financial Review 15 February 2001. 7.9 Car travel and ownership has been inculcated into our society for many good reasons, including the perceived freedom of movement and safety it offers.
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However, the downsides are beginning to show, particularly in many US and Australian cities that have developed without widespread mass transit systems. 7.10 The perceived cost of car travel is much lower than its actual cost. While in contrast, public transport is seen as being relatively expensive (WAPC 2000c). Based on research by National Roads and Motorists Association Limited (NRMA), if the average household was to get rid of one car and invest the money saved into superannuation, it could amass an extra $750,000 over a working life (DPI, 2003). 7.11 From an economists viewpoint, distortions in the perceived relative costs of car travel and housing means that the community is making investment decisions on imperfect information. Buying cheaper land on the urban fringe is more attractive in the short term but in the longer term can be a very poor investment decision. Putting money into an asset that appreciates (i.e. land) versus one that inevitably depreciates (i.e. cars) leads to a significant opportunity cost to individuals. 7.12 This was pointed out by commentators Badcock and Beer, who indicated that as the baby boomers in Australia move closer to retirement their investment decisions will receive greater attention and potentially drive shifts from outer to inner suburban areas. People and Ideas 7.13 To suggest that land use and transport integration can make us smarter may seem like a tenuous link. However, the Greater Perth Creativity Discussion Paper refers to many examples where this is the case. Academics point out that the number and frequency of human interactions is a fundamental driver of creativity and innovation (Florida, 2000). This is facilitated by an urban form and transport network that maximises these interactions. 7.14 The social environment of cities is important to fostering innovation. Research by Professor Richard Florida (2000) asserts that the factors supporting hightech workers include strong universities, deep labour markets, broad cultural diversity and extensive recreational alternatives. This research indicates that universities, not corporate towers, are the hubs of the new economy community. He also asserts that how cool a city is correlates strongly with its competitiveness in the new economy. In this context, coolness includes cultural richness, demographic diversity, openness, strong educational culture and abundant recreational opportunities. It also includes assessing the number of knowledge workers, including societys original knowledge workers - poets, writers and musicians. 7.15 While globalisation rewards knowledge, skill and innovation, it generally undermines job security for blue-collar workers in export-orientated and mature industries. This will affect areas of Perth differently depending on the socioeconomic composition of those areas. The trend for spatial polarisation of
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incomes within Australian metropolitan areas that emerged during the 1990s is intensifying (National Economics, 1999). 7.16 Perth has the opportunity to become a significant knowledge hub in the Asian region. This would require promoting the clustering of large numbers of education, training and research and development organisations and building stronger linkages with industry. This will require a commitment to build Perth as a hi-tech centre with world-class capabilities and build on existing strengths, including mineral value-adding, environmental technology, medical research and oil and gas research and development (TIAC, 2000b). 7.17 Urban planning in Perth has not traditionally taken a major active role in fostering innovation and it is still seen as beyond the role of land use planning. Recent research from the Brookings Institution Centre on Urban and Metropolitan Policy shows, however, that planning plays a critical role in developing high-tech industry (Sommers et al., 2000). 8. MONEY MATTERS
Economic Performance of Activity Centres 8.1 The economic performance of designated Regional Centres has varied widely with a number of the Strategic Regional Centres stagnating in terms of employment growth. This suggests that the future economic potential of regional centres needs to be critically assessed and that, if warranted, government investment is targeted to assist the economic development of identified centres. It is anticipated that these issues might be addressed in the Greater Perth Liveability and Revitalisation Discussion Paper to be released in late 2003. 8.2 While recognising the challenges established by current pressures and constraints, we should acknowledge a number of potential opportunities in tackling future planning for metropolitan activity centres. A number of traditional urban activity nodes and corridors within the Metropolitan Region have recently demonstrated a strong base for renewed economic growth. Areas such as Albany Highway in Victoria Park and Hay Street/Rokeby Road in Subiaco have shown strong growth in recent years. It is interesting that the urban fabric of such areas has suggested a robust adaptability to current economic circumstances often lacking elsewhere in the metropolitan area. This process has basically been market driven and occurred independent of any Regional Centre designation under current policy. Such development has tended to cater for the more affluent inner city residents, which raises equity issues associated with economic exclusion. 8.3 Of considerable importance in contributing to this economic rebirth is the degree of integration of such areas into the broader Metropolitan Region. Two factors have contributed to this integration. Firstly, historical growth in such areas occurred naturally, with new development responding to what had gone before
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and consequently no artificial boundaries exist between such areas and the broader urban area and integration is enhanced by continuity of built fabric. Secondly, development responded to, and has been informed by, major metropolitan movement routes that have played a crucial role in achieving integration. 8.4 The routes fulfilling this integrative role have a number of characteristics in common. They are major through-routes carrying heavy traffic loads, allow stop-start movement along their length by the provision of kerbside parking and are more than mere movement channels because intensive activities locate along them. 8.5 The adaptability of the urban fabric in such areas to changes of use and physical reordering has played a critical role in terms of local economic rejuvenation. One of the major opportunities for planning will be the exploration of economic benefits of the movement economy in structuring urban activity networks. 8.6 Economic change separated wealth creation from employment creation. While wealth creation still comes from primary production (minerals and agricultural exports) and manufacturing, improvements in production efficiency in these activities has provided very few job opportunities (Kemp, 1997). 8.7 Within the service sector, which is providing most new jobs, job growth is polarising between high-income, knowledge-based producer service jobs and low-income consumer service jobs. Consequently, obtaining high employment levels will increasingly depend upon providing substantial numbers of lower skilled jobs in consumer services (Kemp, 1997). 8.8 In tracing the metropolitan impacts of globalisation we need to recognise that changes in the economic and technological environments over the next two decades are likely to bring about unprecedented change in the structure of households, with widening differences in income, wealth, skills, experience and expectations (Brain, 1999a). 8.9 The new geography of employment is generating commuting patterns that are further undermining the effectiveness of public transport. The critical role of the service sector in employment generation has uncoupled home location and job location. The greater mobility has facilitated urban sprawl. While increased costs in mobility may serve to make the most accessible locations - urban activity centres more desirable places to live and work, large increases in transport costs seem to have very little effect on travel behaviour. 8.10 The historical development of urban activity networks that are highly dependent on private vehicle use is likely to make the retrofitting of such car-based centres extremely difficult. This suggests the need to measure their likely potential for economic growth (projected on industrial mix and growth rates) and assess
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whether, given their potential patterns of accessibility, it is able to facilitate further expansion. Congestion Costs 8.11 The Perth Metropolitan Region still experiences relatively low levels of traffic congestion, especially by international standards. However, based on 1992 data the costs of congestion delay in Perth were estimated at $368 million (in 1992 prices). Compared with other Australian cities this was eight per cent less than Brisbane and 34 per cent more than Adelaide but less than 20 per cent of the congestion cost experienced in Sydney or Melbourne (Luk et al, 1995). The impact of congestion on priority vehicles such as freight transport, public transport and emergency services is of concern. Current trends indicate continuing growth of traffic volumes so congestion will also increase without further road construction or some method to reduce the demand for car travel. 8.12 Researchers have demonstrated that improvements to road infrastructure will offer only short-term relief from congestion and that improvements can lead to induced demand. This occurs where motorists perceive congestion relief and opt to take a trip they wouldnt otherwise make, a longer trip or change from another mode. In the UK, this research indicated that between 20- 50 per cent more traffic will be generated (Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment, 1994, and Goodwin, 1997). 8.13 While the major driver of new trips is population growth, travel activity (personkilometres) has increased faster than population growth and car travel (vehiclekilometres of travel) has increased even faster. These trends exist, in part, because of the high level of expenditure on roads in Greater Perth as opposed to other forms of transport infrastructure or alternative land use/activity patterns. It is the cumulative effect of continued road building, rather than individual road projects, which is important in the induced demand effects in the Greater Perth context. Fuel availability and cost 8.14 The cost of transport is very likely to increase significantly during the 30-year planning horizon. The question of the future availability and price of fuel for transport must be addressed in land use and transport planning for the Greater Perth region. 8.15 Campbell and Laherrere (1998) calculate that world oil production will peak by about 2010 and then begin to decline. Fleay (1998, p27) warns that by 2025 world conventional oil production could be about 60 per cent of current levels and Australia will be wholly dependent on oil imports in a fiercely competitive market. Campbell (2000) notes that forecast production of all hydrocarbons (including natural gas and non-conventional sources) is likely to peak about 2010 then drop back to current levels by 2030 and perhaps only 70 per cent of current levels by 2050.
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8.16 Few commentators are willing to guess at future fuel prices but the law of supply and demand suggests that prices will soar as oil production declines. Fleay points out that Australian agriculture is heavily dependent on oil for transport and for the production of fertilisers. He argues that agriculture must have first call on our remaining petroleum fuels Essential commercial traffic must have next priority. Car travel in Australian urban areas must therefore bear the brunt of declining oil. (Fleay, 1998, p44). 8.17 It is anticipated that rising fuel prices in the next few years will increase the viability and popularity of more environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient vehicles such as those fuelled by liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and hybrid vehicles which combine a more efficient internal combustion engine and an electric battery (Trans Scan, 2000). 8.18 Australias natural gas endowment is larger than oil but it may peak as early as 2020. Nonetheless, natural gas does offer an alternative to oil for a brief but critical period following the decline of oil production (Fleay, 1998, 1999, 2000). This will allow a transition period for the development and widespread adoption of alternatives, which may include electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cells. 8.19 The State Government is participating in an international trial of hydrogenpowered buses. Three of the 33 hydrogen fuel cell buses in the trial will be located in Perth (the only southern hemisphere site) for at least two years from late 2002. Importantly, this project involves testing fuel cell technology and looking at the options for producing and delivering hydrogen as a transport fuel. The local trial means that our own climatic, economic, social and environmental conditions will be taken into consideration and local industries will also gain knowledge of this vital new technology. 8.20 However, it is not known how quickly these alternative technologies (including natural gas) can or will be brought into widespread use in Western Australian transport. The changeover to unleaded petrol in the Australian motor vehicle fleet is still not complete, 15 years after the first sales of unleaded petrol. Unleaded fuel became available in Australia in 1986 and Australian Design Rule 41, which required vehicles to be manufactured to operate on unleaded petrol, was released in December 1989. Sixty per cent of the total motor vehicle fleet ran on unleaded petrol in 1999 (ABS, 2000). Leaded petrol was still used by 29 per cent of vehicles in 1999 with the remainder using mainly diesel or LPG. At this rate, the petrol-driven fleet would be practically fully unleaded by about 2006. It should be noted, of course, that all petrol is now lead-free due to the introduction of lead replacement petrol. 8.21 Scientists at the Energy Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology expect standard new passenger cars to be five per cent more expensive in 2020, despite being more efficient. They also predict hydrogen fuel cell hybrid vehicles will be 40 per cent more expensive (Trans Scan, 2001, pp6-7). The extra cost for fuel cell vehicles could delay the changeover of the
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motor vehicle fleet, even if it is made mandatory, by encouraging motorists to keep older cars on the road even longer (Trans Scan, 2001, p5). 8.22 Another issue in the changeover to an alternative type of fuel that should not be underestimated is the need for new fuel distribution infrastructure to be developed and installed. Existing petrol stations are not equipped to deliver compressed natural gas or hydrogen in large enough quantities to fuel the motor vehicle fleet and the changes will be far more complicated and expensive than the introduction of unleaded petrol and LPG. 8.23 For hydrogen fuel cell vehicles the source of the hydrogen gas is an issue. The hydrogen economy dream of the 1970s was based on hydrogen produced from water by electrolysis using cheap nuclear-generated power. Today, that option is somewhat less palatable to most communities. 8.24 Most hydrogen is currently produced from natural gas, with CO2 as a byproduct. This means that the changeover to hydrogen fuel cells may not produce the hoped-for solution to greenhouse gas emissions from transport, although it may help to overcome local air quality problems (Wiens, 2001). 8.25 Increased travel costs will affect travel patterns. Fewer people will be able to afford to commute to work by car, particularly from outer suburbs. Some people may respond by sacrificing discretionary travel (trips for social and recreational purposes), others may switch to more economical transport modes (public transport, cycling and walking) or tele-access (the use of telecommunications instead of physical travel) and some may move to another house or job to reduce travel distance. This would also be likely to increase the desirability of more centrally located residential areas at the expense of outer suburbs. This increasing cost of travel will also add to the need for local employment and other facilities to be easily accessible for each residential area, preferably by walking, cycling or public transport. Growth Driving the Need for Additional Infrastructure 8.26 As Perth grows, so will the need for additional transport infrastructure. The community has expectations of a quality transport service but this has to be considered against the financial cost. An issue to be considered in the lifetime of the Future Perth plan will be the availability of funding to build infrastructure to cater for the increasing proportion of older people in the population. 8.27 Funding sources include general taxation and public sector borrowing. The community expects lower taxes and there is increasing pressure to limit public sector borrowing. Historically, funds for road construction and maintenance have been collected from fuel excise and vehicle licence fees. Funding for major public transport infrastructure and rolling stock has been derived from public sector borrowings with loan repayments made from general taxation. This current approach has its supporters and detractors.
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8.28 Until 1997, successive State Governments had essentially guaranteed funding for roads from motor vehicle licence fees and fuel franchise fees. This provided a significant revenue stream to support long-term planning and development of the road network. However, the collection of fuel franchise fees by the States was deemed unconstitutional by the High Court of Australia in 1997. 8.29 The restructuring of Commonwealth-State financial arrangements, linked with the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax, resulted in funds being allocated from the State Consolidated Fund to effectively guarantee Main Roads Western Australia the same level of funding that had been collected by Western Australia under the Fuel Franchise Fees arrangement and allocated to roads. 8.30 However, the key issue is that there is no longer a direct guarantee of funds from road user charges to roads other than motor vehicle licence fees. The transport construction agencies therefore need to compete with other government programs for funding allocations from the Consolidated Fund and for loan borrowings. There is already, and likely to be increasing, pressure from education, health and law enforcement for funds to meet community expectations. 8.31 A key issue for the future is the source of funds. In considering this issue some may question the extent to which this infrastructure is needed and whether there are more cost-effective travel demand management options available. Several alternative funding options could provide funds for infrastructure in different locations. Road user charges are applied in different ways, ranging from road pricing for areas of road networks to tolls for specific roads. Such charging regimes tend not to be politically popular and have not been embraced widely throughout Australia, although there are a number of examples from various time periods and, more recently, other States have funded new road construction this way (for example Melbournes Tullamarine Freeway). These regimes have the potential to reduce the debt burden for State Governments and use private sector funding for both road and rail infrastructure. They also have the potential to link the cost of using the transport networks to peak and off-peak demand and therefore use pricing signals to spread the peak period. However, as a way to minimise the risk for the private sector, governments often have to sign away their policy options to provide alternative travel choices to the public, such as public transport. 8.32 Developer contribution is another means of funding transport infrastructure. New developments on greenfield and brownfield infill sites generate new demand for transport infrastructure. An option to fund new or enhanced infrastructure and services to meet this new demand is to apply a headworks charge. This means that the developers and, in turn, the purchasers of the land and/or buildings, pay for the appropriate share of the infrastructure that benefits their developments.
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8.33 Comparable arrangements are used for water and sewerage infrastructure projects. Examples of this approach in Western Australia, although not applied consistently in every case, include a new residential subdivision south of Bunbury called Dallyup, where the developer provided (at the commencement of construction) 20km of cyclepaths and a subsidised bus service connecting the estate to the city centre. The developers of Ellenbrook, in the north-eastern corridor of Perth, provided a subsidised bus service connecting the estate to nearby centres at the commencement of the development. 8.34 A funding mechanism that historically is available to local government is parking taxation. Local government gains this funding either through on-street parking meters and/or as an operator of off-street parking stations. 8.35 The State Government has developed a parking tax for the Perth Central Area that is funding transport infrastructure and services (i.e. the Central Area Transit system). 8.36 The City of Fremantle is using parking fees to partially fund the contribution to its CAT system. This model has the potential to be extended to other regional centres in the Perth metropolitan area but it is likely to attract opposition by not being equitable if applied to some centres and not others. 8.37 There are also opportunities to use a cash-in-lieu of parking provision scheme to fund the provision of infrastructure for public transport, cycling or walking. 8.38 The concept of a betterment tax would enable the Government to gain a share in the increase in property values attributed to new and improved transport infrastructure and services, e.g. where new residential developments become more accessible with the extension of a freeway. This concept has been applied to an extent in a number of instances through new land developers contributing to new main roads and bus services. Application on a wide scale is difficult due to problems identifying the value of this betterment. 8.39 The State Government has played a role in developing under-used transport land within its control, including East Perth, Subiaco and Midland. In the case of Subiaco, the State Government combined underdeveloped land it owned with similar land endowed to the City of Subiaco. In each case a redevelopment authority was established that managed planning control and development (i.e. subdivision of land and sale of land with conditions on type of development). 8.40 Transport is underpriced. The costs of transport include not only the infrastructure and direct vehicle operating costs but also the so-called externalities of congestion, road trauma, greenhouse, air quality (pollution), noise, severance and water quality (from road run-off) among others. Many of these vary according to time and place and are particularly high at peak periods on arterial roads and in centres of activity.
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8.41 With the exception of travel time, the user of transport does not pay significantly more at peak periods or when using infrastructure that is only required for peak demand. There is a relative cross-subsidy from off-peak users to peak users. Estimates of the monetary value of the externalities of car use indicate that, overall, car users do not meet the full cost of car use in cities through taxes on fuel (Litman, 1995, and Ker, 2000). For peak-period car travel, the underpayment is even more substantial. 8.42 Underpricing car use is a critical driver for the need to subsidise public transport in the broader community interest. Economists refer to this as second-best pricing to achieve the best possible demand share between modes given the mis-pricing of one mode. Underpricing of transport by any mode, however, results in over-use and adds to the pressures for low-density urban development by subsidising the longer travel distances associated with it. Public Transport Investment Funding 8.43 The most significant issue within the current funding mechanism is that, until recently, funding for major transport projects other than roads could be derived only from the sale of assets or borrowings. This has changed with the Commonwealth-State agreement on the Goods and Services Tax but the mechanisms have not yet been developed to ensure contestability across modes in practice. 8.44 An integrated assessment framework is needed, involving the approval of agency programs and the allocation of funds across all modes, to ensure that strategic and sustainable outcomes are achieved. The current State Government has indicated that it intends to pursue this policy direction. 8.45 An integrated funding framework also needs to include capital funding for infrastructure and recurrent funding for services. This would help shift the focus of road asset managers towards more commercially orientated and innovative solutions as a way of maximising asset capacity. 8.46 Investment decisions need to consider developing new infrastructure and providing alternative solutions. A similar concept has been vigorously pursued by the electricity, gas and water sectors as they have been commercialised or privatised. 8.47 There are also other important policy issues, especially taxation, which should be re-examined to complement any integrated proposal for the allocation of funds to land transport projects. The outcomes achieved from a shift in funding to public transport would be significantly enhanced if the Fringe Benefits Tax regime on motor vehicle activity was changed and buses were exempt from the GST or subject to a reduced tax rate.. However, such decisions rest with the Commonwealth not State Government.
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9.
EFFECTIVENESS OF LAND USE PLANNING INTERVENTION
9.1 For more than ten years, successive State Governments have had clearly stated objectives to achieve a balanced approach to transport provision and use and move away from car dependence towards transport choice with provision for all modes. 9.2 How far these strategies have been implemented raises questions about the effectiveness of planning intervention. While systematic research has not been conducted, the following examples of apparent implementation failure reflect lost opportunities for balanced transport outcomes which provide for transport choice. There may be other planning considerations or factors outside the remit of land use planning that warranted greater weight in the final decision to proceed with development. Examples include: The aim of 60 per cent self-containment (i.e. for 60 per cent of the workforce living in the area to work locally) in the North-West Corridor has not been met; the figure was 29 per cent in 1996 (WAPC, 1999, p19). Other corridors ranged from 31- 47 per cent self-containment. Instead, employment development has spread from the CBD into inner-city suburbs. Achieving urban containment through the provision of 20 per cent new housing through suburban renewal and infill has been problematic. A survey of 15 inner and middle ring local governments showed that six were looking to down code large areas to lower densities thereby undermining the opportunity for providing residential development close to facilities with potential for travel choice and reduced trip length (McClure, 1998 cited in Curtis, 1999). WAPC Policy DC 1.6 Planning to Enhance Public Transport Use (originally adopted in 1990 as Development Near Metropolitan Railway Stations) promotes high-density residential and commercial development in railway station precincts. Subiaco is one of the few good examples of this development form but this was achieved through the creation of a development authority rather than through the conventional development process. The location of high trip-generating development in places where access by means other than the car is difficult or impossible continues to be permitted: An office park developed outside the Perth CBD and distant from rail access lead to the relocation of a major employer from a CBD location highly accessible by public transport. A food court restaurant with seating for 300 people and ten karaoke rooms located in an industrial area was deemed to comply with the planning scheme provision for lunch bars on industrial estates. Located on a major six-lane highway, access to this development will
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be predominantly by car. While a bus stop is within 400m of the site on one side of the highway there was no pedestrian path either from the bus stop or into the site. The limited bus service at weekends and evenings to such a location should also be considered. The relocation of tertiary institutions (TAFE) from CBD locations to sites inaccessible by public transport. At one site, now 10km from the CBD, the nearest public transport is 5km away. While a school bus serving a high school co-located on the new site provides some public transport it is not compatible with the hours of TAFE students (200 full-time and 1,000 part-time students). Providing public transport to this decentralised site is not cost effective given the catchment of the TAFE and the opportunity to provide any service was not considered at the time of relocation. The existing site in the CBD provided the best opportunity for accessible public transport. centres policies implemented
9.3 The elements common to successful internationally and nationally include: Land Use
Establishing a sufficient density of development to justify rapid transit systems Strategically clustering and mixing land-uses and activities to promote economic activity, viability and innovation Mixing land uses to promote multi-purpose journeys, pedestrian traffic and a vibrant sense of place and community within a centre Locating Government services and facilities within activity centres. Planning pedestrian-scaled centres that have a number of land-uses and activities in a compact layout Encouraging social interaction to create safe and attractive places Developing centres with multiple access points. Defining a few major mixed-used centres and targeting them with high levels of public transport Providing for multi-modal access to centres by pedestrians, bicycles, buses, trains (heavy and/or light) and cars. These transit-oriented centres also facilitate transfers from one mode to another to allow people a range of transport options
Centre Design and Layout
Transport and Accessibility
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Implementing supportive transport policies that provide highquality, high-frequency, integrated public transport services connecting centres to their regional catchments Implementing road design policies which emphasise reducing private car use and providing multi-use car parking spaces which can be used day (work/shopping) and night (entertainment) Promoting public transport for work, shopping, business and entertainment trip purposes. Integration of the larger transit-oriented centres with networks of viable, smaller centres for convenience shopping and local activities. These smaller centres encourage access by walking and cycling as the preferred modes. Implementing regulatory policies that restrain developments from locating outside of activity centres when they should be occurring within them Setting maximum limits for car-parking spaces, rather than just minimum limits Ensuring policies are consistent at all levels of government and are maintained over a significant period of time Direct the location of commercial, industrial and public purpose (including civic, cultural, entertainment, recreational educational and health) activities to appropriate locations Regular monitoring and review to ensure polices are meeting the designated objectives.
Activity Networks
Regulation
9.4 An assessment of policies governing activity centres around the world indicates that there are a few key success factors that should influence policy development:
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Integrate land-use and transport policies with unified objectives and implementation/control mechanisms Consider activities in terms of inter-related networks rather than just as centres Include and integrate all major activities including commercial, industrial, public purpose (education, health, cultural and civic services) and recreation activities Use both carrots and sticks in development controls to direct activities to the most appropriate locations and prevent or restrict the dispersal of activities, particularly to industrial areas Assess existing and approve new developments on rigorous sustainability criteria Ensure policies are consistent at all levels of government and are maintained over a significant period of time Regular monitoring and review to ensure polices are meeting the designated objectives.
9.5 A number of changes are required to overcome these types of issues and improve the effectiveness of land use planning: Strong Policy Guidance on Development Location The development of a statutory policy is needed to give clear, specific direction on location of different development types, protection of existing infrastructure and provision of new infrastructure. At a strategic level this includes siting developments that attract a high number of employees or visitors in locations well served by public transport. The Dutch ABC location policy provides a useful model (section 3). At the local level this involves designing and orientating development to give priority to pedestrian and cycle access. Another challenge will be to prevent high trip generating development in locations that are not accessible by a choice of modes. Strengthening Town Planning Schemes There are weaknesses with the current system of local planning. Town planning schemes (TPS) with their zoning and land use tables provide a very blunt instrument for directing appropriate development. Densities expressed as maxima reduce the opportunity to achieve good, balanced transport outcomes. The long timescale for preparation and adoption of each TPS further compounds implementation problems.
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The TPS fails to deliver proactive planning. Some local governments in Western Australia have the capability to prepare such proactive development briefs and some already do although not usually within the statutory framework of a TPS. This would be a far more effective system than the current one of dealing with a number of fragmented and disjointed development proposals for which the broad zoning plan offers little in the way of a clear framework of guidance. One means currently available to achieve proactive planning is through the setting-up of development corporations such as at East Perth, Subiaco and now Midland. Development Assessment The method of development proposals assessment is an important dimension of action for effective implementation. Appropriate assessment tools are needed. The use of Transport Impact Assessment (TIA) is suggested in order that the transport impacts and needs of development are duly assessed in the context of a balanced transport strategy. In Western Australia, at present, there is no such system. Instead, local governments request such information on an ad hoc basis and what information is required depends upon the skill and perspective of the assessor. 9.6 One of the key lessons from activity centres in other cities is that they work best when arranged into networks, rather than treated as a series of stand-alone activities. This requires a coordinated approach to activities that cannot be met by simply having commercial centres policies.
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PART III IDEAS FOR A CHANGE OF COURSE 10. IDEAS FOR WHAT TO DO 10.1 A range of ideas for what might be done is included in Figure 12, which builds on the basic concepts shown in Figure 1. Again there is a continuum of activities with a land use, transport and integration focus. Figure 12: Ideas for Integrating Land Use and Balanced Transport Integrating Integrated Land Use with Balanced Transport
Support interaction and exchange whilst minimising the travel necessary to do it Transit oriented development: focus mixed-use activity centres around the rail transport system Supportive regional structure with transit-oriented development activity central to clustered neighbourhoods Acknowledge the movement economy and use major roads to support activity centres Strengthen the CBD as the hub of the regional transport system Ensure the key locations and activity centres are served by a genuine choice of modes, including walking and cycling Transport Impact Assessment: Match place accessibility characteristics with major land use mobility profiles
Integrated Land Use

Provide better selfcontainment of activities through urban structure and land use arrangements Promote mixed-use developments Achieve a jobs/housing budget at least 30-40 persons per hectare Keep activities in welldefined nodes along transport lines to avoid further growth in suburbsuburb commuting Contain average travel time to within 30 minutes by providing growth boundaries Promote infill and brownfield development, particularly in close proximity to transport infrastructure Deliver Liveable Neighbourhoods urban form at regional and local levels
Balanced Transport
High levels of accessibility with genuine alternative mode choice Electric rail system: increase the coverage and speed of transit Increase the proportion of travel by walking, cycling, car pooling and public transit Re-allocate road space to favour buses, cyclists and pedestrians Ensure early provision of public transport in new residential areas Promote behavioural changes and provide for waling and cycling to local facilities Parking: Decrease CBD parking and balance parking in regional and district centres
Source: Adapted from Department for Planning and Infrastructure, Making the Connections, 2003, p16
What to do with Integrated Land Use Planning 10.2 In planning for particular land use types a number of key features are evident in any future vision for integrated land use as shown on the left side of Figure 12. These ideas can be summarised as four main issues:
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Mix or separation of activities - The extent to which land use development can be mixed, rather than located in separate areas, affects the potential to meet an individuals daily activity demands in one location. This can be effective in reducing the number of trips made, trip distance and mode of travel. Traditionally, planning has generally sought to separate different land uses. The logic of this approach was based on the recognition of the negative impacts of externalities, or spill-over effects, between different land uses. Technological change in the nature of work, transport impacts of land use separation, a better understanding of positive economic externalities and changing lifestyle choices have given impetus to a reevaluation of mixed use areas. Perth residents have indicated a preference for mixed-use activity centres in close proximity to both where they live and work. There are clear indications that these preferences are beginning to influence the market. It is therefore essential that planning actively addresses the challenge of mixed use centres (WAPC, 2000c).
Location of activities in relation to accessibility considerations rather than mobility considerations - Where employment uses are located in close proximity to public transport there is increased potential for access by public transport. At the home end of a work journey it is much easier to be dropped off at public transport or to cycle but this option is not practicable at the destination end (Cervero, 1997). Tackling the current retail structure presents a significant challenge to planners. Large single-use retail centres surrounded by large car parks with limited accessibility by walking and cycling are predicated on the assumption that they serve large car-based population catchments. The economies of scale and savings to the retail industry do not take into account the cost of private travel to the centres. There is increasing demand by customers at main street shopping strips which are more able to provide for a choice of transport modes. Planning at the neighbourhood level through new urbanist approaches requires a solution to enable an individuals daily shopping requirements to be met within their local area by walking or cycling for some journeys. The location of primary and secondary schools so they can be served by walking, cycling and public transport will make a significant impact on the reduction of car-based travel. The location of tertiary institutions in accessible central locations close to public transport is also necessary. Leisure journeys form the largest proportion of all journeys. Locating large trip attractors such as cinemas, nightclubs, restaurants and theatres in locations that are accessible by a choice of transport modes will be important.
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Density of development - The density of residential development, particularly around public transport stations and local and regional centres, will be an important consideration. Higher density development can better support public transport and also provide a bigger population catchment for local shops and services. Urban design of places to support a mix of transport - The appropriate design of public places in urban centres and neighbourhood centres can encourage walking and cycling. Providing for passive surveillance and pedestrian interest through building orientation, perimeter block development and shared streets are some of the key approaches needed.
Ideas for What to do with Balanced Transport Planning 10.3 The right side of Figure 12 shows ideas for achieving balanced transport. As with land use planning, the way we plan and provide for transport infrastructure and services can have a significant effect on any future vision for transport. There are several choices: Road Network Expansion - The extent to which the expansion of the road network is continued in order to meet the demand for private car travel is a key consideration. At some future point, it will not be possible to continue to provide for unlimited car travel at particular places within the metropolitan area. The allocation of road space to different modes may well be one solution to demand management, for example, to reserve lanes for high-occupancy vehicles or freight transport. The use of speed control may offer one solution to increasing capacity of arterial roads, for example, extra capacity has been achieved on Londons M25 motorway by reducing the speed limit from 70mph to 50mph during peak travel times. The configuration of the road network offers choices for linking travel with activity. Public Transport System - Transit choices include the extent to which the public transport system is upgraded, its focus on rail-based or busbased transit and the location of railway stations in relation to land use (employment and housing). Rail lines located along freeways continue to promote car ownership and use since most will only be able to access stations by using park and ride sites, whereas railway stations within walking and cycling distance of housing reduces car travel and may enable some people to forgo car purchase. Bus frequency, penetration and coverage, provision of facilities and information and legibility all affect peoples decision to use public transport; Infrastructure for Cycling and Walking - The approaches to the provision of infrastructure for cycling and walking (networks, end-of-trip facilities, traffic control in favour of non-car modes etc.) can promote or discourage this mode. An important choice in the future will be the extent
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to which a transit mode or a non-motorised mode for Perth is promoted. There are significant implications for urban form and structure. Use of travel demand management through parking controls - The careful consideration of car parking needs in relation to the availability of alternative transport options and the potential for shared parking solutions can help support the future vision for transport.
Scenarios for Integrating Land Use with Balanced Transport 10.4 There are a number of scenarios which may better cater for the community vision and which address concerns raised by the current and emerging transport issues and trends. In developing these scenarios the objective has been to ensure that they offer distinct choices to enable the testing of critical variables. These scenarios are: Dispersed City (status quo) - Figure 6 Central City - Figure 12 Polycentric City - Figure 13 Integrated Activity Network City (based on Local Urban Activity Corridors) - Figure 14
10.5 Each scenario portrays a broad picture of the future urban form and structure, integrating land use activity and a transport system to serve that activity. An indication of the changes in mode split that would result from urban form is shown by the degree of dominance of each mode. While the figures for these scenarios are based on the Perth Metropolitan Region, the concepts they represent are also applicable to the Peel, Greater Bunbury and Avon Arc areas. 10.6 The business as usual case for Greater Perth is alluded to in section 2 (Figure 6) with the dispersed urban form, which would encourage more car travel. The community has indicated an aversion to this trend case, which doesnt deliver the quality of life aspirations it seeks, particularly with regard to accessibility of key activities. Compact/Central City 10.7 Those who argue for a compact or centralised city (Figure 12) also promote urban intensification or consolidation as a means of achieving this. Assessed in transport terms, the benefits of a compact, centralised city are that more efficient use of existing transport infrastructure can be made because the higher density of population is better able to support a public transport service, which in turn can provide a high quality service. To be effective, this urban form requires the city to be contained by an urban growth boundary, which means growth can occur only inside the boundary thereby increasing the population in
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proximity to public transport, limiting trip lengths and avoiding the expansion of transport infrastructure (Brindle, 2001). 10.8 The Greater Perth Environment Discussion Paper also warns that the consolidated central city can mean a loss of green spaces, an increase in local congestion and a resulting affect on air quality. 10.9 Some of the potential sustainability implications of the compact/central city form are: Environmental smaller ecological footprint, less open/green space in close proximity, less regional pollution but more local pollution and congestion Economic - reduced cost of infrastructure, higher investment in public transport needed, greater costs for redevelopment Social - less open space/person, reduced private space (backyards), potentially higher house costs and lower affordability, lower cost of living from savings on transport, healthier population from easier access to work and services.
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Figure 13:

Compact/Central City
Central City - Characteristics

Facilitate commercial development within a compact central area Constrain development, particularly commercial, at existing regional centres (use an urban growth boundary) Increase housing densities around the central area utilise large tracts of vacant/under-used land Develop mixed uses (employment, commercial/housing) around the central area Major additions to bus services and extensions to CAT services Develop ferry services Car use will become constrained as a result of urban form and congestion minor parking management may be required Road funding constrained Cycling and walking increases
Source: Curtis, 2001
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Concentrated Dispersal 10.10 Gordon argues that low density growth per se does not lead to ubiquitous congestion, provided the spatial distribution of growth is conducive to work-trip economising behaviour by both firms and households (Gordon et al, 1991, cited in Austroads, 1998). 10.11 There are transport benefits from selectively concentrating key land use activity in relation to the transport network. This selective concentration may take several forms, either around particular centres (multi-centred or polycentred) or along particular transit routes (transit-orientated design rail or bus-based). Depending on the transit network this form may support a primary central area or help support several centres. 10.12 Two different variations of concentrated dispersal are the: Polycentric City or Transit Oriented Development (Figure 13) Integrated Activity Network City (Figure 14).
Polycentric City or Transit-Orientated Development 10.13 Peter Calthorpes regional plan directs development into nodes along light-rail and bus networks (Katz, 1994). Advocates of transit-orientated development suggest that such a form will ensure public transport patronage, reduce car use, reduce parking requirements and increase walking. The key characteristics of transit orientated development are: Each node comprises high-density mixed land use (employment, entertainment, shops, cultural facilities, services) placed closest to the transit station Mixed housing within walking distance of a transit station In terms of density, Calthorpes plan suggests 2,000 houses, one million square feet (92,900m2) of commercial space, parks, schools and day-care placed within 400m of the station on about 48ha. This compares to a standard American suburban development of just 270 family homes. The WA Liveable Neighbourhoods approach adopts similar principles, although it is envisaged only 600 houses be placed within the same radius of 400m.
10.14 Some of the potential sustainability implications of the polycentric city form are: Environmental allows for retention of native bushland throughout the city, reasonably large ecological footprint, high resource consumption Economic increased catchments for regional centers improves
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financial viability and encourages business investment, high cost of infrastructure, increased congestion Social - good level of open/green space, greater diversity of housing stock and lot sizes, reduced expenditure on travel.
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Figure 14:
Polycentric City
Polycentric City (transit-based) Characteristics

Limit central area growth (particularly commercial) and employment dispersal to inner suburbs Facilitate growth at a limited set of regional centres on rail lines Increase population catchments and densities around regional centres Limit peripheral expansion of urban area Cap road infrastructure to existing system Rail transit operates with equal patronage in both directions Integrate bus system with rail-based transit Reduce scale of park n ride operation in favour of bus patronage Manage parking demand through price mechanism and limits on provision Limit car use through pricing mechanism (tolls, parking etc.)
Integrated Activity Network City 10.15 A sophisticated model is put forward in the development of local urban activity corridors (Figure 14). These corridors are distinctly different to the Corridor Plans of the Perth Metropolitan Region and to avoid confusion may be better termed integrated activity networks. This concept is examined in detail in a paper sponsored by the Ministry for Planning (Curtis, 2000). This model means that more efficient use is made of accessible sites and locations and that land use and transport are directly integrated through planning. In essence, the key characteristics of the local urban activity corridor include: An activity spine a main road capable of accommodating a balance of transport modes. Private car access is an important component of the concept but its place is in a low-speed environment in balance with other modes, including public transport, walking and cycling. The road is capable of handling relatively large amounts of traffic but in a way that provides for connectivity with land use activity.
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A mobility corridor(s) runs parallel to the activity spine. Its main purpose is to provide a fast-moving transport route for inter-urban travel. It has frequent connections with the activity spine. The mobility corridor could be a freeway for private transport and/or a railway/bus-way for high-speed public transport. Activity nodes feature along the length of the activity spine. These contain a number of major traffic generators such as shops, medical centres, hospitals, stadiums. At the ends of the corridor the activity nodes include major commercial/employment nodes of metropolitan significance. The activity corridor running either side of the activity spine contains a large population within walking distance of the spine and the public transport running along the spine. Activity corridors are continuous over long distances (10-20km) and are only one kilometre wide. In this way, they provide for housing in close proximity to other activities and within walking distance. There should be realistic spacing and strong interconnection between corridors so that they become part of a logical network of corridors.
10.16 Some of the potential sustainability implications of the integrated activity network city are: Environmental retention of bushland throughout the city, reasonably large ecological footprint, high resource consumption Economic improves access to and viability of employment centres, high cost of infrastructure but less than polycentric or dispersed Social better access to services locally, opportunity to create "urban villages" that can promote community, increases population densities with potential social impacts.
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Figure 15:
Integrated Activity Network City
Integrated Activity Network City Characteristics

Selective urban intensification along activity corridors Mixed-use development (employment, commercial, housing, leisure) at activity nodes. Major activity centres focus on rail Major activity node at each end of corridor to support equal patronage in both directions Urban form capable of meeting complexity of individuals journey purposes Limit peripheral expansion of urban area Mobility corridors cater for strategic freight routes, high-speed bus and intersuburban car travel Activity corridors cater for walking, cycling, local buses, and local car traffic Robust - capable of evolving to mode switching over time
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11. IDEAS FOR HOW TO DO IT 11.1 Ideas about how to integrate land use and balanced transport include strategies, policies and legislation, planning practice, individual behaviour and funding (see Table7). Table 7: Tools for Integrating Land Use and Transport Land Use Planning Transport Strategies Greater Perth Metropolitan Transport Local planning strategies Strategy Policies and Metropolitan Region Scheme A-B-C location policy Legislation Metropolitan Region Engineering standards Improvement Fund Liveable Neighbourhoods Town Planning Schemes Planning Demonstration projects Ped-sheds, SAFE Practice assessments, Patronage analysis Modelling Parking demand management Freight movement plans Pedestrian/cycle plans Individual Community development TravelSmart Behaviour programs Health/physical activity programs Safe routes to schools Funding Land value capture Parking levies Differential rates and taxes Developer contributions Source: Adapted from Department for Planning and Infrastructure, Making the Connections, 2003, p17 11.2 There are a number of transport policy options that could be considered, including road pricing (tolls), parking fee levels, public transport fares, fuel pricing and taxes. However, these issues are not directly facilitated through land use planning and would be better dealt with in a future review of the Metropolitan Transport Strategy (1995). 11.3 Policy directions aiming for a better balance of transport utilisation include: Implement supportive transport policies that provide highquality, high-frequency, integrated public transport services connecting centres to their regional catchments Implement road design policies which emphasise reducing private car use and provide multi-use car parking spaces
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which can be (entertainment)
used
day
(work/shopping)
and
night
11.4 An assessment of policies governing activity centres around the world indicates that there are a few key success factors that should influence policy development: Integrate land-use and transport policies with unified objectives and implementation/control mechanisms Consider activities in terms of inter-related networks rather than just as centres Include and integrate all major activities to direct the location of commercial, industrial, public purpose (education, health, cultural and civic services) and recreation activities. Implement regulatory policies that restrain developments from locating outside activity centres when they should be occurring within them Use both carrots and sticks in development controls to direct activities to the most appropriate locations and prevent or restrict the dispersal of activities, particularly to industrial areas. Traffic demand management including parking controls Assess existing and approve new developments on rigorous sustainability criteria Ensure policies are consistent at all levels of government and are maintained over a significant period of time Regular monitoring and review to ensure polices are meeting the designated objectives.
Transit-corridors as a structural element in regional planning 11.5 Transit corridors tend to be stable over time as they are often constrained to a limited choice of routes (particularly for mass transit i.e. train). These routes form transit corridors that form a major structural element of the metropolitan area. 11.6 Regional planning should reflect a commitment to transit-orientation in order to achieve effective transit corridors. A-B-C location policy 11.7 The A-B-C location policy is discussed in section 3. A brief example of areas where this could be implemented in Perth is shown in Table 8.
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Table 8: Application of the A-B-C Policy in Greater Perth Land Use Transport Examples in Perth A Corporate offices, high Highly walkable and well Cnr Hay and King density residential, served by different Streets, Perth entertainment modes of public Rokeby Road, Subiaco transport. Fremantle B Retail, business and Moderately well served Beaufort Street Mt medical services by both public transport Lawley and the main road network, while still facilitating pedestrian access. C Industrial estates, Car-based environments, Canning Vale Industrial manufacturing, storage served by primary Area and distribution, bulk arterial roads, with little Kewdale Industrial Area retailing or no public transport provision.
Transit-oriented (or transit-supportive) development 11.8 Transit-oriented development involves creating an urban form that makes transit the primary mode of choice for residents. Its principal characteristics are designing an urban form around higher density land uses in appropriate locations, connected by a grid street network that maximises accessibility to activities and public transport. 11.9 Transit-oriented development means not only designing the area immediately surrounding the transit station but also designing the walkable catchment area to promote walking and cycling. Focussed growth 11.10 Focused Growth is the brownfield equivalent to transit-oriented development. It also encourages higher development densities in the most appropriate locations in high-use places such as existing centres, transit stations and arterial connections. In these places, development can capitalise on the proximity to existing transport infrastructure and high amenity levels. Mixed-use development 11.11 Mixed-use development is a key tool to facilitate the home-activity interface with a minimal need for transport. This often relies on layering land uses vertically (i.e. shops at street level with dwellings above), which allows for simultaneously increasing worker and resident densities.
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11.12 Mixed-use is most appropriately used in centres, particularly mixed transit connections. Balanced transport provision
with
11.13 Balanced transport provision is built on the concept that pedestrians are the common link to all public transport trips and to many car-based trips. By scaling development to the pedestrian and making walking more attractive, safer, comfortable and efficient people have greater choice when moving within the urban environment. 11.14 Public transport can also be made more attractive by improving the efficiency of the service by giving priority over cars. For example, buses can be given priority at intersections and with dedicated lanes or transitways. Individual Behaviour 11.15 Changes to the way urban environments are planned can have a direct impact on the way people behave and utilise different activities and transport modes. This is probably most appropriate in Perths inner and middle sectors, which already have well-developed activity and transport networks and offer a wide range of travel choices. 11.16 The TravelSmart program is one example of a program designed to influence peoples behaviour. This approach helps to make public transport an easier transport choice by raising awareness of existing services. As well as promoting public transport for work, shopping, business and entertainment trip purposes, it also encourages walking and cycling as alternatives to motorised transport. 11.17 This leads to the fundamental aspect of integrating land use and transport facilitating increased choice and empowering people to access activities more easily. 12. A WAY FORWARD - FROM HERE TO SUSTAINABILITY 12.1 Sustainable development is about setting a new direction, rather than about arriving at a destination. One of the ways to move towards sustainability within urban settlements is to integrate land use and transport, which aims to deliver better overall social, environmental and economic outcomes. 12.2 This paper aims to present some of the issues relating to better integrating Greater Perths land use and transport systems. Achieving these outcomes will require a common push from the community and industry but it is principally up to Government to establish the ground rules that facilitate these aims. A critical mechanism to achieve this is for State and local governments to work together to implement regional and local actions.
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12.3 The role of the community will be fundamental in setting a more sustainable direction for the growth of Greater Perth. Too often, land use and transport plans agreed to and supported at the regional level are opposed at the local level. One example is the encouragement of increased densities at transport nodes and mixed-use development. At the same time local, governments in the Inner and Middle sectors of Perth are leaning towards down-coding their residential densities (R-codes) in their planning schemes. 12.4 Two essential elements for progressing a more sustainable land use and transport system are to clearly articulate what the sustainability vision means in terms of specific actions and to have assessment tools to monitor the progress towards implementing those actions. Existing tools such as Land Release Plans (prepared for the Commission as part of its Metropolitan and Country Land Development Programs) will provide part of the answer. These programs will be reviewed and re-focused as part of Greater Perth. 12.5 One of the clear outcomes of this paper is that to integrate land use and transport, a clear understanding of the future location and growth of both housing and activity centres is required. At present there is no programme that monitors these elements together but the Land Release Plans are closest to this outcome. These programmes should continue to monitor projected development and identify areas where potential specific intervention is required. 12.6 While the success of Government intervention has been mixed, the redevelopment authority model has been very successful in both East Perth and Subiaco. The challenge will be to introduce ways to develop funding mechanisms to translate this success to areas with lower land values.
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PART IV ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 13. GLOSSARY
DC DPI SPS SSS TOD WAPC
Development Control Policy of the Western Australian Planning Commission Department for Planning and Infrastructure State Planning Strategy State Sustainability Strategy Transit-Oriented Development Western Australian Planning Commission
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Greater Perth

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Prepared for: WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PLANNING COMMISSION August 2003

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT CONTENTS Page

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Figures Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7:

Tables Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8:

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Preferred Activities Close to Home and Work Not Near Me,

Monthly Zone Within 20 Minutes

Cinemas Hospitals Large Parks Schools

Weekly Zone Within 10 Minutes

Beach Larger Shops Rubbish Tips

Basic Medical (GP/Pharmacy) Library/ Community Centres

Family & Friends

Small Public ShopsTransportPark

Caf/Rest./Bar Recreation Mobile Phone Towers

Childcare Bank/ Post Office Airport

Daily Work Zone Within 5 Minutes

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

A CONTEXT FOR INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Balanced Transport &RQWH[W

Land Use Focus

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Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Dispersed activities and long travel distances encourage car travel.

Figure 3: Higher Density Model

Figure 4: Mixed-Use Model

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Not Near Me, Please! Monthly Zone Within 20 Minutes

Weekly Zone Within 10 Minutes Daily Zone Within 5 Minutes

Police Hospitals Large Parks Schools

Figure 5: Preferred Activities Close to Home and Work

Family & Friends

Mobile Phone Towers

Heavy Industry CBD

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Daily Work Zone Within 5 Minutes

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Figure 6: Dispersed City (Status Quo) Dispersed City - Characteristics

Source: Curtis (2001)

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

Figure 7: Employment Centres (Commercial, Industrial and Public Purposes Employment)

Integrating Land Use and Transport Discussion Paper No. 5

POLICIES AND STRATEGIES FOR INTEGRATING LAND USE AND TRANSPORT

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