6. Atmosphere Research on learning indicates that the learning environment has a significant effect on the success of learners.

Certainly an efficient, comfortable, well-lit space is important, but the learning atmosphere created by the instructor seems to have an equal or greater impact. According to studies in the USA and Canada, teachers who create a serious, but friendly and open study environment are seen as most effective by both students and administrators. Generally, an effective learning atmosphere is positive, free of stereotyping, and has an orderly yet varied structure.

Techniques Approaches common to all types of effective teaching include student involvement and interaction, clearly stating learning objectives at the start of the lesson, using questions effectively, and using a variety of instructional techniques, thereby varying the routine. Independent reading combined with presentations and/or demonstrations is an example of using a variety of techniques to handle one set of learning objectives. Another often-used, yet effective, combination is the lecture followed by laboratory work or small-group case studies. Personal Qualities There are numerous personal qualities universally recognized as characteristic of effective teachers. Mastery of the subject being taught and enthusiasm for sharing that knowledge tops the list. Approachability and accessibility are keys to effective teaching, as is respect for the students. While it is clear that teaching style is very individual and certainly an extension of personality, some sort of sense of humor seems to be an essential ingredient of teaching effectively. Willingness to seize the teachable moment--taking advantage of a student's question or observation, or some incident from the world at large, and spinning it into the lesson at hand--is arguably an effective teacher's greatest tool.

Instructional Formats Not all techniques are effective in all settings, nor with all groups. Since classes are collections of individuals, effective teachers are those who can assess the needs of a given group of students and adjust their instructional format if necessary. Formats that provide opportunities for interaction on three levels are the most effective: between the instructor and the class as a group, between the instructor and students as individuals, and among students.

6.2

) tapp1)

tapping a foot 2) chewing the inside of the cheek 3) biting fingernails 4) greeting everyone with a hug or handshake 5) a quick smile in greeting or nervousness 6) a toss of the head 7) lowering the eyes flirtatiously or timidly 8) running fingers through hair 9) snapping fingers or cracking knuckles 10) blowing breath out through the mouth ng a foot
2) chewing the inside of the cheek 6.4
The Teacher-Directed Models of Teaching Teacher does most of the talking. Teacher promulgates the classroom rules. Teacher transmits knowledge. Students receive knowledge. Teacher views students as empty vessels having little relevant prior knowledge. Teacher primarily uses visual and auditory means to deliver instruction. There is one teacher in the room, and many learners. Teacher poses the questions. Teacher primarily uses traditional assessment instruments. Teacher tells the major concepts in the curriculum. Teacher's lesson plan drives what is taught each day. Teacher believes students must be still in order to learn.

Teacher-Directed Classroom Assessment respects the autonomy, academic freedom, and professional judgement of college faculty. The individual teacher decides what to assess, how to assess, and how to respond to the information gained through the assessment. Also, the teacher is not obliged to share the result of Classroom Assessment with anyone outside the classroom. The teacher-dominated classroom ("teacher-fronted") is characterized by the teacher speaking most of the time, leading activities, and constantly passing ...

7. Motivation is typically defined as the forces that account for the arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of behavior. Nevertheless, many teachers have at least two major misconceptions about motivation that prevent them from using this concept with maximum effectiveness. One misconception is that some students are unmotivated. Strictly speaking, that is not an accurate statement. As long as a student chooses goals and expends a certain amount of effort to achieve them, he is, by definition, motivated. What teachers really mean is that students are not motivated to behave in the way teachers would like them to behave. The second misconception is that one person can directly motivate another. This view is inaccurate because motivation comes from within a person. What you can do, with the help of the various motivation theories discussed in this chapter, is create the circumstances that influence students to do what you want them to do.

Motivation is a psychological phenomenon: Motivation is an internal feeling which generates within an individual. Motivating factors are always unconscious but they are to be aroused by managerial action. Motivation is based on needs: Needs may be consciously or unconsciously felt. Needs may be (a) fundamental needs such as food, clothes, shelter, etc. and (b) ego-satisfaction needs such as selfdevelopment, self-actualization. These needs vary with individuals and with the same individual at different times. Goals are motivator: Motivation causes goal directed behavior, feeling of need by the person causes him to behave in such a way that he tries to satisfy himself. Motivation is different from satisfaction: Motivation implies a drive towards an outcome while satisfaction involves outcomes already experienced and achieved satisfaction is the contentment experienced when a desire is satisfied. Motivation is a continuous process: Motivation is an unending process. Wants are innumerable and cannot be satisfied at one time. As satisfaction of needs is an unending process, so the process of motivation is also unending. Motivation is related to a person in totality: Person in totality, not in part, is motivated.

1. Motivation is a psychological Concept :- Motivation should come from inside each individual. There are two desiring factors in motivation-(a) Fundamental needs, such as food, clothes and shelter and (b) Ego-satisfaction including self-esleem, recognition from others, opportunities for achievements, self-development and self actualization which act as powerful though unconscious, motivator of behaviour. Inner motivation can be more decisur for behaviour than any external influence.

2. The whole Individual is motivated, not part of Him:-A person's basic needs determine to a great extent what he will try to do at any given time. All these need are inter-related because each individual is an integrated organised whole.

3. Motivation is an unending Process:- Man is a social animal. As a social animal he has innumerable wants which induce him to work. If one basic need is adequately satisfied for a given individual it loses power as a motivator and does into determine his current behaviour but at the same time other s needs continue to emerge. Wants are innumerable and cannot be satisfied at on time. It is an unending process so the process of motivation is also unending to induce the person to satisfy is innumerable wants.

4. Frustration of Basic Needs Makes a Man Sick:- If anybody fails in trying to mt a need which the feels is essential for him, he becomes to some extent mentally ill and such frustrated man cannot be motivated any further until his essential need is satisfied.

5. Goals are Motivators:-Goals and motives are inseparable. Man works to achieve the goals. A soon as the goal is achieved he would be no longer interested in work. Therefore, it is very essential for the management to know his goal to push him to work.

6. The self-concept as a Unifyings Force :- According to Geller-man unifying forces run through each individual's history. Unifying force means the drive to actuals his our image of himself. The outline of a person's self image are fairly well checked in early childhood and there after do not act inarily change for example, a child who easily seems himself as a leader, will if possible try to behave tt way in later life. Thus, two things that individual is always trying to do are (a) to act like the person, he things he is , and (b) to get what he things, he can. 1. Praise students often. Don't wait until a student has accomplished something major to give him a pat on the back. Always couple constructive criticism with a praise. You must realize that no matter how nice you make it sound criticism is criticism and many students view it as negative. Don't deliver correction for something done wrong without praising your student for something he has done right.

2 Make learning a collaborative effort. Allow students to work on a project with a partner or a team. As long as students are closely monitored and realize that the teacher is walking around the room, they will usually stay on task. There is strength in numbers, and students sometimes have more confidence in themselves when working with a partner.

3 Allow students to use technology in the classroom whenever possible. Even if your school district doesn't have the money to equip classrooms with computers, you can sometimes purchase discarded equipment from other school districts that is still in good working order.

4 Create excitement when introducing new ideas and concepts. Allow students to see how the new lesson relates to their lives. Provide real world examples when possible.

5 Involve students in teaching whenever you can. When introducing a new unit, give each student a partner to work with. Make copies of the reading assignment or lesson introduction and give a small section of the passage to each pair. Allow time for pairs to digest and summarize their section. When everyone is finished, go around the room and have each pair briefly summarize what their section of the passage was about. Some pairs will do a much better job of summarizing than others, but make sure you reward each pair with praise.

6 Check for understanding and review previously covered concepts often. To a student, the only thing worse than not understanding is feeling like everyone else understands everything when she is totally lost.

Realize that each student is an individual and, as such, no two students will be motivated in exactly the same way. Some need more encouragement and different techniques than others. The demographics of a classroom are sometimes extremely varied, and you will have a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds to work with. Something that can mean the world to one student may be totally meaningless to another.

8 Let students know that you have high expectations of them and that you feel each student is important and has the ability to learn something from being in your classroom. 8 Instructional aids are devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process.Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they are supplementary training devices. The keyfactor is that instructional aids support, supplement, or reinforce.While instructors may become involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids,usually they are already in place. Instructors simply need to learn how to effectively usethem. Instructional Aid Theory For many years, educators have theorized about how the human brain and the memoryfunction during the communicative process. There is general agreement about certaintheoretical factors that seem pertinent to understanding the use of instructional aids. 1. During the communicative process, the sensory register of the memoryacts as a filter. As stimuli are received, the individual's sensory register worksto sort out the important bits of information from the routine or less significantbits. Within seconds, what is perceived as the most important information ispassed to the working or short-term memory where it is processed for possiblestorage in the long-term memory. This complex process is enhanced by the useof appropriate instructional aids that highlight and emphasize the main points orconcepts. 2. The working or short-term memory functions are limited by both timeand capacity.

Therefore, it is essential that the information be arranged inuseful bits or chunks for effective coding, rehearsal, or recording. Theeffectiveness of the instructional aid is critical for this process. Carefully selectedcharts, graphs, pictures, or other wellorganized visual aids are examples of items that help the student understand, as well as retain, essential information. 3. Ideally, instructional aids should be designed to cover the key pointsand concepts. In addition, the coverage should be straightforward and factualso it is easy for students to remember and recall. Generally, instructional aidsthat are relatively simple are best suited for this purpose. Reasons for Use of Instructional Aids 1. It helps the students remember important information.2.When properly used, they help gain and hold the attention of students. 3. Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a topic, and the combination of both audio and visual stimuli is particularly effective since the two most important senses are involved. Instructors should keep in mind that they often are salesmen of ideas, and many of the best sales techniques that attract the attention of potentialclients are well worth considering. One caution-the instructional aid should keepstudent attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting gimmick. 4. Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems. Consider the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This,coupled with culturally diverse backgrounds of today's students, makes it necessaryfor instructors to be precise in their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in aninstructional aid should be carefully selected to convey the same meaning for thestudent as they do for the instructor. They should provide an accurate visual imageand make learning easier for the student. 5. Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts.

When relationships are presented visually, they often are mucheasier to understand. For example, the subsystems within a physical unit are Types of Instructional Aids Some of the most common and economical aids are chalk or marker boards, andsupplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and graphs. Other aids, whichusually are more expensive, are projected materials, video, computerbased programs, andmodels, mock-ups, or cut-aways. Non-Projected Displays As its name suggests, this category includes all visual displays that can be shown to a class,small group or individual student without the use of an optical or electronic projector of any sort.It includes a number of the most basic - and most useful visual aids that are available toteachers and trainers, some of the more important of which are listed below. Chalkboards These are dark-colored surfaces on which material can be written, printed or drawn using chalk. They are still one of the most widely used of all visualaids, despite the fact that practically everything that can be done using achalkboard can be done more easily, less messily, and (in most cases) moreeffectively using an overhead projector or data projector. They are probablymost useful for displaying impromptu 'signposts' and 'links', notes anddiagrams during a taught lesson and for working through calculations andsimilar exercises in front of a class. Markerboards These are light-coloured surfaces on which material can be written, printedor drawn using felt pens, crayons or other markers of some sort. They can beused in the same ways as chalkboards, and have the advantage of being lessmessy and offering a wider range of colours. A markerboard can also doubleup as a projection screen if necessary. Feltboards These are sheets of felt (or boards covered with felt) on which moveabledisplays can be produced by sticking shapes cut out of or backed with feltonto them. They constitute a comparatively cheap, highly portable andextremely useful display technique, especially in situations that require themovement or re-arrangement of pieces (demonstrating table settings,carrying out sports coaching, etc.). Hook-and-loopboards

These are similar to feltboards, except that the backing material on thedisplay items has large numbers of tiny hooks that engage loops on thesurface of the display board. They are suitable for displaying heavier items. Magneticboards These are ferromagnetic display boards on which moveable displays can be produced using materials that are made of (or backed with) magneticmaterials, or are fitted with small magnets. They can be used in much thesame way as feltboards and hook-and-loop boards. Flipcharts These are large sheets of paper that are generally hung from an easel of somesort so that they can be flipped forwards or backwards in order to reveal theinformation on a particular sheet, or to produce a fresh blank sheet on whichimpromptu information can be written or drawn. The most recent flipchartsno longer require easels, working instead on the same 'lift and stick' principleas post-its and thus having greater portability. Charts andwallcharts These are large sheets of paper, carrying pre-prepared textual and/or graphical and/or pictorial information. Such charts can either be used todisplay information during the course of a lesson, or can be pinned to thewall of a classroom in order to be studied by the students in their own time.Wallcharts, in particular, can be extremely useful for providingsupplementary material, or acting as a permanent aide- mmoire or referencesystem for learners (eg the periodic tables of the elements that are prominently displayed in practically all chemistry classrooms). Posters These are similar to wallcharts, but generally contain less information - oftensimply a single dramatic image. They are useful for creating atmosphere in aclassroom. Photographicprints Enlarged prints made from photographic negatives may be incorporated intotextual materials, wallcharts, etc, and, in linked sequences with suitablecaptions, can form a useful instructional medium in their own right. Suchsequences are particularly suitable for use in programmes designed for individual study. Mobiles These are systems of two- or three-dimensional objects that are hung fromthe roof of a class by thread, thus producing a visually-attractive displaywhose shape is constantly changing due to air currents. They are particularlyuseful for creating

interest among younger children and demonstrating principles in subjects like aeronautics and for architecture. Models These are useful in cases where three-dimensional representation is necessary(eg crystal structures, animal skeletons, etc) or where movement has to bedemonstrated, (eg flow of sediment, kinetic sculpture, etc). Dioramas These are static displays that combine a three-dimensional foreground (eg amodel landscape of some sort) with a two-dimensional background, thuscreating an aura of solidity and realism.

Realia: These are real items (eg geological or biological specimens or maquettes) asopposed to models or representations thereof. They are extremely useful if such materials are readily available, are easily displayed or are an integral part of the development and marketing process. Chalk or Marker Board The chalk or marker board is one of the most widely used tools for instructors. Its versatilityand effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of instruction. First, thematerial presented can be erased, allowing the surface to be used again and again; andsecond, the boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student- instructor activity in theclassroom. The following practices are fundamental in the use of the chalk or marker board Supplemental Print Material ( Printed and Duplicated Materials) These comprise all textual and handout materials to be used by students or trainees which can berun off in large numbers by printing machines, photocopiers and duplicators. Facilities for the production of such materials are now available in practically every school, college and trainingestablishment, and they have become the most basic and widely used of all educational tools.Some of the more important types are listed below. Handouts: These comprise all the different types of information-providing materialsthat are given out to students or trainees, usually in connection with ataught lesson or

instructional programme of some sort. They include setsof notes (either complete, or in skeleton or interactive form), tables,diagrams, maps and illustrative or extension material. Assignmentsheets: These include problem sheets, reading lists, lab. sheets, briefing sheets for projects and seminars, worksheets, etc. They can be used in practically alltypes of instructional situations. Individualisedstudy materials: These comprise all the different types of textual materials that are used inconnection with individualised learning. They include open- learningmaterials, study guides, placement guides, structured notes, textual programmed materials and textual support materials for mediated-learningsystems. Resourcematerials forgroup exercises: These comprise all the various printed and duplicated materials that areused in connection with group-learning exercises. They include background-reading material, briefing material, role sheets, instructionsheets, data sheets, openlearning materials and so on. Print media, including photographs, reproductions of pictures, drawings, murals, cartoons,and other print materials are valuable supplemental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs arealso in this category. Many of these items are suitable for long-term use on bulletin boardsand in briefing areas. Pictures, drawings, and photographs are especially effective becausethey provide common visual imagery for both instructors and students. In addition, theyalso provide realistic details necessary for visual recognition of important subject material.In many cases, this type of supplemental training media may be reproduced in a format forprojection on a screen or other clear surface.Charts, diagrams, and graphs include any printed material which gives information intabular form. There are several types of charts which can be used in presenting data suchas the pie chart, the flow chart, and the organizational chart, among others. The type of chart selected for use depends largely on the type of information the instructor wants toconvey. An important factor is the chart's format. Since charts may consist of a series of single sheets or be tied together in a flip-chart format with several pages, the location andhandling of them should be planned in advance.

A graph is a symbolic drawing which shows relationships or makes comparisons. The mostcommon types are the line graph and the bar graph. The selection of a

graph for use in anygiven situation depends upon the type of information the instructor wants to convey.Charts, diagrams, and graphs can be used effectively to show relationships, chronologicalchanges, distributions, components, and flow. They are easy to construct and can beproduced in the same manner as pictures. In addition, they can be drawn on a chalk ormarker board and can be duplicated. Care must be taken to display only a small amount of material and to make the material as simple but meaningful as possible.Numerous other useful print items may be considered as supplemental training aids. Someof these include study guides, exercise books, course outlines, and syllabi. Well-designedcourse outlines are especially useful to students because they list the key points and helpstudents organize note taking during a lecture. Projected Material ( Still Projected Displays) Traditional aids in this group include motion pictures, filmstrips, slides of various sizes,transparencies for overhead projection, and specialized equipment such as rear screenprojection or an opaque projector. However, the use of motion pictures and filmstrips fortraining has declined, mostly because of availability of more userfriendly media such asvideo. The essential factor governing continued use is that the content must be current andsupport the lesson.Use of projected materials requires planning and practice. The instructor should set up andadjust the equipment and lighting beforehand and then preview the presentation. During aclassroom session, the instructor should provide students with an overview of thepresentation before showing it. After the presentation, the instructor should allow time forquestions and a summary of key points.Aside from a chalk or marker board, the overhead transparency and projector is still one of the more convenient and cost effective instructional aids. With acetate or plastic, instructorscan easily create their own overhead transparencies, or they may purchase commerciallyproduced ones.The equipment can be placed at the front of the room, allowing the instructor to maintaineye contact with Students. The brilliant light source concentrated at a short distance makesit possible to use the projector in lighted areas. The instructor also can write on a blanktransparency as the lesson progresses, much like a chalk or marker board. Additionaltransparencies can be overlaid onto the original to show development or buildup of an eventor display. Overlays can also be cut into various shapes and moved about in relation to thebase transparency. This is a useful technique for displaying dial indications or fitting severalparts of a component together so relative motion can be simulated

As with any projection equipment, instructors should ensure that the projector does notobstruct the students' line of sight. The projector usually works better on a low stand, chair,or table. The projection angle should be adjusted to eliminate image

distortion. Finally,although the overhead projector is simple to operate and requires little maintenance, it hasdisadvantages. Most projectors are bulky to handle and store, and the fan used for coolingthe projector may be noisy.Although vastly different from other projection equipment, the opaque projector reflectslight from the surface of the picture or three-dimensional object onto a regular projectionscreen. The height of usable objects is limited to the space between the top of the loweredprojection plate and the body of the projector, usually about two or three inches. The areaof the picture or object is limited to approximately 10 inches by 10 inches.Items which may be projected are practically limitless. A postage stamp, typed material,textbook illustrations, or a defective spark plug are representative of the items that may beprojected. This equipment is especially adapted to enlarging diagrams and small charts fordisplay purposes. Since the material projected requires no special preparation, the cost isvery low. Many of the limitations of the overhead projector are also true of the opaqueprojector. Overhead projectortransparencies andsimilar materials These are textual or graphical images on large acetate sheets that caneither be displayed to a class or group using an overhead projector or viewed by individuals or small groups using a light box of some sort.They are probably still the most useful and versatile visual aid that can be used to support mass-instruction methods. Slides These are single frames of 35mm photographic film mounted incardboard, plastic or metal binders, often between twin sheets of glass.

They are one of the most useful methods of displaying photographic or graphic images to a class, small group or individual student using asuitable front- or backprojector or viewer - either singly or in linkedsequences. Filmstrips These are simply strips of 35mm film carrying linked sequences of photographic images, each usually half the size of a standard 35mmframe (half-frame or singleframe filmstrips) but sometimes the fullsize (full-frame or double-frame filmstrips). They are a convenient and,when purchased commercially, comparatively cheap alternative to slidesequences, and can be used in much the same ways, using suitablefilmstrip projectors or viewers for display or study. Microforms

Microform is a generic term for any medium that is used to carrymicro-images, ie photographically-reduced images of pages of text,graphic material, etc. The most common types are microfilms (rolls or strips of photographic film carrying a linear sequence of such images),microfiches (transparent sheets of photographic film carrying a matrixof such images) and microcards (opaque sheets carrying similar matrices of micro-images). All such microforms can be used to carrythe frames of instructional programmes (eg programmed- learningsequences), to act as highly compact data-banks, etc, and can bestudied using special magnifying viewers or projectors. Audio Materials This category includes all the various systems whereby straightforward audio material can be played to a class, group or individual. It includes a number of extremely useful - albeit oftenneglected - instructional aids, some of the most important of which are described below. Radiobroadcasts Educational radio broadcasts constitute an extremely useful resource for teachersand trainers. Although they are often difficult to incorporate into the timetable if listened to at the time they are actually transmitted, this problem can easily beovercome by recording them for later playback. Audio discs Recordings of music, plays, etc. on compact discs or (if you can still obtainthem!) vinyl discs constitute a relatively inexpensive and readily-availableinstructional resource in certain subject areas. They are suitable both for playingto a class or group and for private listening by individuals. Increasing amounts of material are available on CD-ROM (see section on 'Computer-MediatedMaterials'), enabling sound to be used interactively by individual students. Audiotapes Audio material recorded on open-reel tape or tape cassette constitutes one of themost useful resources at the disposal of the modern teacher or trainer, and can beused in a wide range of instructional situations, either on its own or inconjunction with visual materials of some sort (see next section)

This class includes media that enable audio signals to be combined with moving visualsequences, thus enabling a further dimension to be added to integrated

audiovisual presentations.The main systems that are currently available are as follows. Cine films Such films (mainly in 16mm format) were once the main way of showing moving images in a class. They have now been almostentirely replaced by the use of video, however. Televisionbroadcasts As in the case of educational radio broadcasts, educational television broadcasts constitute an extremely useful free resource for teachersand trainers. Like the former, they are not usually transmitted atconvenient times, but, thanks to the development of relatively cheapvideorecorders, this limitation can now be easily overcome. Suchrecording may require the payment of a licence fee, however. Videotape recordings('videos') Television sequences or tailored programmes recorded onvideocassette now contribute one of the most useful and powerfulinstructional media at the disposal of teachers and trainers, and can beused in a wide range of teaching/learning situations. Videodisc recordings Television sequences or tailored programmes can also be recorded onvideodiscs, although this is much more expensive than recording onvideocassette. Such videodiscs are now mainly used in interactivevideo presentations (see next section). Video As indicated previously, video has become one of the most popular of all instructional aids.The initial discussion of video, which follows, is limited to passive video. Interactive video iscovered separately. Passive Video Passive video cassettes provide motion, color, sound, and in many cases, special effects withadvanced graphic and animation techniques. High-quality, commercially produced videocassettes are available for almost every subject pertaining to aviation training.Consequently, video has replaced many of the projection-type instructional aids.Advantages of video are well documented. The current generation of students is sometimesreferred to as the video generation. Some educators have theorized that TV has produced avisual culture that has actually changed the way people learn. In any case, it is apparentthat most, if not all, students are familiar with and receptive to video.For instructors, the convenience of video is certainly an advantage. The capability to easilystop, freeze, rewind, and replay is particularly

helpful for both instructors and students. Thecost of a video cassette and the associated equipment, although higher than some of themore basic instructional aid equipment, is fairly economical. In addition, the video cassetterecorder and television can be used for other than instructional purposes.Instructors also should be aware of certain disadvantages with video. Students are oftenaccustomed to dramatic, action-packed film or video that is designed as entertainment. Atthe same time, they tend to watch film or TV in a passive way without attempting to absorbwhat they are seeing and hearing. Instructional video, in comparison, normally is perceived

as much less exciting and less stimulating visually. This, coupled with an inattentive viewingstyle, can diminish the instructional value of the video.As is true with any instructional aid, instructors need to follow some basic guidelines whenusing video. For example, the video presentation is not designed to replace the instructor.Prior planning and rehearsal will help determine the important points and concepts thatshould be stressed, either during the presentation or as part of a summary. Instructorsshould also try to prepare students for viewing video programs by telling them what towatch carefully, what is important, or possibly, what is incorrect. In addition, instructorsshould be available to summarize the presentation and answer any questions students mayhave regarding content. Interactive Video Interactive video refers broadly to software that responds quickly to certain choices andcommands by the user. A typical system consists of a combination of a compact disk,computer, and video technology. A compact disk (CD) is a format for storing informationdigitally. A major advantage of a CD is the capability to store enormous amounts of information. As an example, a single compact disk may contain all pertinent aviationregulations, plus the complete AIM. With search and find features incorporated, a CD is apowerful information source. The software may include additional features such as imagebanks with full color photos and graphics, as well as questions or directions which areprogrammed to create interactivity for students as they progress through the course.The questions or directions are programmed using a branching technique, which providesseveral possible courses of action for the user to choose in order to move from onesequence to another. For example, a program may indicate, "That was incorrect. Go back to... and try again."Interactive video solves one of the main problems of passive video in that it increasesinvolvement of the student in the learning process. Well-designed interactive video, whenproperly used, is highly effective as an

instructional aid. Each student essentially receives acustomized learning experience.Distance learning, or distance education, is another trend applicable to aviation. In generalterms, distance learning is the use of print or electronic media to deliver instruction whenthe instructor and student are separated. It also may be defined as a system and processthat connects students with resources for learning. As sources for access to informationexpand, the possibilities for distance learning increases. Computer-Based Multimedia Interactive video is one form of computer-based multimedia. However, in recent years, theterms computer based training (CBT), or multimedia training, have become very popular.The term multimedia is not new. Multimedia has been used for decades in some form orother. In a basic form, multimedia is a combination of more than one instructional media,but it could include several forms of media-audio, text, graphics, and video (or film).Multimedia in a more current context generally implies a computer-based media that isshown on personal computers (PCs). With computer based multimedia, information accessis simplified. Sophisticated databases can organize vast amounts of information which canbe quickly sorted, searched, found, and cross-indexed.Real interactivity with computerbased training means the student is fully engaged with theinstruction by doing something meaningful which makes the subject of study come alive. Forexample, the student frequently is able to control the pace of instruction, review previousmaterial, jump forward, and receive instant feedback. With advanced tracking features,computer-based training also can be used to test the student's achievement, compare theresults with past performance, and indicate the student's weak or strong areas.

active nature of CBT, the overall learning process is enhanced in several ways. Welldesigned programs allow students to feel like they are in control of what they are learningand how fast they learn it. They can explore areas that interest them and discover moreabout a subject on their own. In addition, learning often seems more enjoyable thanlearning from a regular classroom lecture. The main advantages are less time spent oninstruction compared to traditional classroom training, and higher levels of mastery andretention.Disadvantages include the lack of peer interaction and personal feedback. For the instructor,maintaining control of the learning situation may be difficult. It also may be difficult to findgood CBT programs for certain subject areas, and the expense associated with theequipment, software, and facilities must be considered. In addition, instructors and studentsmay lack

sufficient experience with personal computers to take full advantage of the CBTprograms that are available. Computer-Mediated Materials This final category includes all the various materials that require a computer of some sort toenable them to be displayed, studied or used. Arguably, the computer constitutes the mostimportant single resource ever to become available to teachers and trainers since the invention of the printing press, and may well have a similar revolutionary effect on the way education andtraining are carried out, bringing about the massive shift from conventional expository teachingto mediated individualised learning that many people are now predicting and facilitating. Someof the main types of computer-mediated materials are listed below. Conventional CBLmaterials: These are computer-based learning systems (substitute-tutor packages, simulatedlaboratory packages, computer-managed learning packages, etc) that incorporate alphanumerical and graphicalmaterials, not still or moving photographic images or sound. Suchsystems are usually produced on magnetic disk - normally the 3"'floppy disks' that are now used by virtually all PC's. They come invarious formats - "Read Only", "Read/Write" etc. Interactivevideomaterials: Until the development of multimedia, this was the main way of incorporating video material in computer-mediated educational or training packages. In such systems, the video and computer elementsof the package are stored on separate media (usually videodisc andmagnetic disk), and require two linked machines for their use - arandom-access video playback machine and a specially-adapted PCthat controls the former. Multimediamaterials: Until the early 1990's, the term 'multimedia' was used to describeeducational and training packages that were presented on two or moredifferent media (eg textual materials supported by tape cassettesand/or videos, or integrated systems such as tape-slide). Now, theterm is generally used to describe computer-mediated packages thatincorporate a wider range of materials than conventional CBL packages - typically still and/or moving photographic images andsound. Such packages are generally produced on CD-ROM.Throughout the UK, national 'Computers in Teaching Initiative' (CTI)Centres provide up-to-date information on such courseware in over

twenty subject areas. Models, Mock-ups, and Cut-Aways Models, mock-ups, and cut-aways are additional instructional aids. A model is a copy of areal object. It can be an enlargement, a reduction, or the same size as the original. Thescale model represents an exact reproduction of the original, while simplified models do notrepresent reality in all details. Some models are solid and show only the outline of theobject they portray, while others can be manipulated or operated. Still others, called cut-aways, are built in sections and can be taken apart to reveal the internal structure.Whenever possible, the various parts should be labeled or colored to clarify relationships.Although a model may notbe a realistic copy of anactual piece of equipment,it can be used effectivelyin explaining operatingprinciples of various typesof equipment. Models areespecially adaptable tosmall group discussions inwhich students areencouraged to askquestions. A model iseven more effective if itworks like the original,and if it can be takenapart and reassembled.With the display of anoperating model, thestudents can observe howeach part works inrelation to the otherparts. When the instructorpoints to each part of themodel while explainingthese relationships, thestudents can betterunderstand themechanical principlesinvolved. As instructionalaids, models are usuallymore practical thanoriginals because they arelightweight and easy tomanipulate.A mock-up is a three-dimensional or specializedtype of working modelmade from real or

synthetic materials. It isused for study, training,or testing in place of thereal object, which is toocostly or too dangerous,or which is impossible toobtain. The mock-up mayemphasize or highlightelements or componentsfor learning and eliminatenonessential elements.Production and equipment costs are limiting factors to consider in developing and usingmodels, mockups, and cut-aways. Depending on the nature of the representation, costs canvary from low to high. For instance, scale replicas are often very expensive. In general, if atwo-dimensional representation will satisfy the instructor's requirement, it should be used. 8.2 Selecting suitable media and materials for specific purposes Let us now consider some of the factors that should be taken into consideration by a practisingteacher or lecturer when choosing media or materials for some specific instructional purpose. Inall too many cases, such selection is made purely on a basis of personal preference andavailability, with little or no thought being given to the suitability of the media or materials for helping to achieve the desired instructional

objectives. Inevitably, this often leads to the use of inappropriate materials, with a resulting reduction in the effectiveness of the instructional process.A large amount of basic research has been carried out on the relative effectiveness of differenttypes of media and materials in different instructional situations. This shows that most media can perform most instructional functions to a certain extent, but that some are better at doing certainthings than others, with no single medium being best for all purposes. Thus, it is possible toadopt what is at least a 'semi-objective' approach to the selection of instructional materials, basedon consideration of the particular instructional strategy that is to be employed, the specifictactical methods to be used within that strategy, and the characteristics of the materials that can be used to support or implement these methods. The algorithm given in Figures 1(a) - 1(d) (which it is hoped readers will find helpful) has been developed using such an approach. Thisshould be used to identify possible media and materials for achieving specific objectives, withthe final selection being made after other factors such as availability or ease of production,availability of the necessary equipment, cost, convenience and personal preference have beentaken into account. The information given in Figure 2, which summarises the characteristics of all the various media and materials described in this booklet from the point of view of the user and would-be producer, should also be of help to readers in making such a final selection 9 Thorndikes Laws ofLearning: 1) Law of Readiness:-

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the Law of Readiness or the Law of Action Tendency, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.

2)

Law of Exercise:-

The second law of learning is the Law of Exercise, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndikes S-R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The law of exercise, therefore, is also understood as the law of use and disuse in which case

connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.

3)

Law of Effect:-

The third law is the Law of Effect, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the law of effect signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of law of effect.

Besides these three basic laws, Throndike also refer to five subordinate laws which further help to explain the learning process. These are-

4)

Law of Multiple Response-

According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically persisting in the same way. Throndikes cat in the puzzle box moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.

5)

The Law of Set or Attitude-

Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a century, he will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to get first position and has the attitude of being at the top, would while away the time and would not learn much. Hence, learning is affected more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.

6)

Pre- potency of Elements:-

According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential in the situation and neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to deal with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes analytical and insightful learning possible. In this law of prepotency of elements, Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning which was more emphasized by the Gestaltions.

7)

Law of Response by Analogy-

According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while learning a new situation. There is a tendency to utilise common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar past situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated by the earlier acquired skill of driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle because the perspective or maintaining a balance and controlling the handle helps in stearing the car.

8)

The Law of Associative Shifting-

According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said stand up. After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the command stand up, he later ousted the fish and the over all command of stand up was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her hind legs.

In brief implications of the Theory are-

1) According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children. 2) A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes. 3) In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before starting teaching in the classroom the students should be properly motivated. 4) Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept. 5) Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened. 6) The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child. Thus, the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and punishment in the class by the teacher. 7) The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the deliquent children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory. 8) With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as anger, jealousy etc. 9) The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory. He must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required. 10) The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher should conduct oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening the learning more.
Various Secondary Laws of Learning Secondary laws of learning are as follows: Law of Multiple Responses This law implies that when an individual is confronted with a new situation he responds in a variety of ways before arriving at correct response.

Law of Analogy An individual responds a new situation on the basis of the responses made by him in similar situations in the past. He makes responses by comparison or analogy. Law of Associative Shifting This law is also known as the conditioned response. A response may be shifted from one situation to another which is presented at the same time. In other words any response which is possible can be linked with any stimulus. Law of Partial Activity According to this law the learner has the capacity to select the important from the irrelevant element in order to determine appropriate responses. Law of Sets and Attitudes Learning is guided by a total attitude or 'set' of the organism. The learner performs the task properly if he has developed a healthy attitude towards the task. Law of Regency It means that whatever is recently learnt by the child is retained by him. The law may be defined as 'recent acts are lasting'. Hence students should revise their courses just before the examination. Law of Primacy Learning that takes place in the beginning is the best and lasting. It is a normal saying that 'First impression is the Last impression'. It implies that pupils should make the right start and should be serious from the first day. Teacher should impress his pupils from the first day of teaching. It seems the experiences that are acquired by the child at the primary stage have lasting effect. Law of Intensity of Stimulus To this law, if a stimulus is strong the response will be strong and vice a versa. Examinations present an intense stimulus to study and hence bear a positive effect on learning. Law of Belongingness This law shows that if a response belongs to a situation, the learning will be more effective. Connection between stimulus and response is natural. The teacher should create natural atmosphere in the class-room and appeal to the natural tendencies of the child.

10. 1. 2. The element of a good team in which the free exchange of ideas and objections is encouraged. 3. PREREQUISITE: When a course has a prerequisite, it means that a student must have certain knowledge to be successful in the course. The prior knowledge may be a skill (types 35wpm), an ability (speaks and writes Spanish fluently), a test score or a successful completion of a prior course (must have completed ENGL 060 C with a grade of "C" or better). Completion of the prerequisite is required prior to enrolling

in the course, and D, F or NC grades are not acceptable. It is the students obligation to know and meet course prerequisites. These are stated in the course descriptions section of the Schedule of Classes and the current College Catalog. Prerequisites will be checked at registration. The student may be required to file proof of meeting prerequisites. 4. Novelty means something new and unusual. 5. In the positive version of the model, a person who emits a desired behavior (e.g., raising her hand and waiting to be called on) receives something gooda positive consequence (referred to as positive reinforcement). This may be a smile or praise or a piece of candy. The result of the reinforcement is that the behavior is strengthened, that is, its likelihood of subsequent occurrence increases. This represents a positive form of control.

In the negative version of the model there are three possible consequences. One is to avoid something bad negative reinforcement. If a student raises her hand and waits to be called on, rather than speaking out, there is no positive consequence, only the avoidance of a negative one. A second is to receive something bad punishment with aversiveswhich may take the form of being yelled at or ridiculed, hence reducing the tendency to speak out (or, perhaps, just suppressing it temporarily). The last negative approach, response-cost punishment, represents being deprived of something good, that is, a previously earned reinforcer being removed because of an undesirable behavior such as talking out in class, rather than raising one's hand and waiting to be called on (Walker, Shea, & Bauer, 2004). The punishment might be being placed in time-out or sent to the principal's office. These three approaches all represent aversive control, which may be associated with anxiety and fear (Skinner, 1953), and they may not result in a diminution of the strength of the undesirable response. 6. Developmentally appropriate practice is teaching that is attuned to childrens ages, experience, abilities, and interests, and that helps them attain challenging and achievable goals. The foundations of developmentally appropriate practice, as it is defined today, lie in the history of early childhood education. Most fundamental is the premise that teaching young children should be based on what is known about how they develop and learn optimally. Developmentally appropriate practice is used by some as a short-hand term for the value of play or letting children be children, not pushing them to grow up too soon. In fact, these views of developmentally

appropriate practice are only partial truths. Developmentally appropriate practice (sometimes abbreviated as D.A.P.) is a term that is used within the early childhood profession to describe the complex work of the early childhood teacher 7. Distributed practice is a technique whereby the student distributes his/her study effort in a given course over many study sessions that are relatively short in duration. 8. Fading is a technique applied in behavior therapy, particularly behavior modification, as well as skill training settings, where an initial prompting to perform an action is gradually withdrawn until the need for it fades away. The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behaviour or skill.

This approach built on studies in operant conditioning in which a new stimulus was presented alongside an existing one to which a response had been learnt. The old stimulus was gradually faded out, by a process of stimulus attenuation, its frequency or intensity reduced, and it was shown that this allowed the new stimulus to gain control of the response. 9. Modeling is a way to teach our rules. It involves demonstrating the specific behaviors and language patterns of an expectation in a way that grounds the rules in day-to-day experiences. When we model expectations, we translate and enliven more general expectations, such as respectful listening or orderly lines into accessible behaviors. We act out the desired behaviors, showing what it looks and sounds like to stop and freeze, listen to a classmate, or raise your hand and wait to be called on.

11. 1. assessing cognition, verification, creative thinking, evaluationg, productive thinking, motivationg, instructing. 5. low, high, convergent, divergent

4. Questions to avoid Developing your tactical awareness of which questions to use and when, is of course an incomplete picture. You also need to be equally aware of which questions to avoid. Questions that are best avoided fall into three categories:

Leading questions where you suggest the answer in the question Do you think thatDont you think that Multiple questions asking several questions at once. Why questions use the word why sparingly because it can often be associated with sounding critical or can be a very challenging word. You can still get similar answers by choosing a different way of asking a question. For example: tell me about, what do you think are the reason for

2/3 ypes [edit]

By purpose [edit] Various categorizations of questions have been proposed. With regard to research projects, one system distinguishes descriptive questions, used primarily with the aim of describing the existence of some thing or process; relational questions, designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables; and causal questions, designed to determine whether certain variables affect one or more outcome variables.[2] For the purpose of surveys, one type of question asked is the closed-ended (also closed or dichotomous) question, usually requiring a yes/no answer or the choice of an option(s) from a list (see also multiple choice). There are also nominal questions, designed to inquire about a level of quantitative measure, usually making connections between a number and a concept (as in "1 = Moderate; 2 = Severe; 3 = ...").[3] Open-ended or open questions give the respondent greater freedom to provide information or opinions on a topic. (The distinction between closed and open questions is applied in a variety of other contexts too, such as job interviewing.) Surveys also often contain qualifying questions (also called filter questions or contingency questions), which serve to determine whether the respondent needs to continue on to answer subsequent questions. Some types of questions that may be used in an educational context are listed in Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives. These include questions designed to test and promote: Knowledge: Who, what, when, where, why, how . . . ? Describe . . . ? Comprehension: Retell . . . Application: How is . . . an example of . . . ?; How is . . . related to . . . ?; Why is . . . significant? Analysis: What are the parts or features of . . . ? Classify . . . according to . . . ;

Synthesis: What would you infer from . . . ? What ideas can you add to . . . ? How would you design a new . . . ? What would happen if you combined . . . ? What solutions would you suggest for . . . ? Evaluation: Do you agree that . . . ? What do you think about . . . ? What is the most important . . . ? Place the following in order of priority . . . ? How would you decide about . . . ? What criteria would you use to assess . . . ? [4] McKenzie's "Questioning Toolkit"[5] lists 17 types of questions, and it is suggested that thinkers need to orchestrate and combine these types.[6] Examples of these question types include the irreverent question, the apparently irrelevant question, the hypothetical question and the unanswerable question. Questions can also be infelicitous, being based on incorrect and illogical premises (e.g. "Why do cats have green wings?"). By grammatical form [edit] Questions that ask whether or not some statement is true are called yesno questions (or polar questions), since they can in principle be answered by a "yes" or "no" (or similar words or expressions in other languages). Examples include "Do you take sugar?", "Should they be believed?" and "Am I the loneliest person in the world?" A type of question that is similar in form to a yesno question, but is not intended to be answered with a "yes" or "no", is the alternative question[7] (or choice question). This presents two or more alternative answers, as in "Do you want fish or lamb?", or "Are you supporting England, Ireland or Wales?". The expected response is one of the alternatives, or some other indication such as "both" or "neither" (questionnaire forms sometimes contain an option "none of the above" or similar for such questions). Because of their similarity in form to yesno questions, they may sometimes be answered "yes" or "no", possibly humorously or as a result of misunderstanding. The other main type of question (other than yesno questions) is those called whquestions (or non-polar questions). These use interrogative words (wh-words) such as when, which, who, how, etc. to specify the information that is desired. (In some languages the formation of such questions may involve wh-movement see the section below for grammatical description.) The name derives from the fact that most of the English interrogative words (with the exception of how) begin with the letters wh. These are the types of question sometimes referred to in journalism and other investigative contexts as the Five Ws. Tag questions are a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the "tag"), such as right in "You remembered the eggs, right?", or isn't it in "It's cold today, isn't it?" Tag questions can be answered with a yes or no.

As well as direct questions (such as Where are my keys?), there also exist indirect questions (also called interrogative content clauses), such as where my keys are. These are used as subordinate clauses in sentences such as "I wonder where my keys are" and "Ask him where my keys are." Indirect questions do not necessarily follow the same rules of grammar as direct questions. For example, in English and some other languages, indirect questions are formed without inversion of subject and verb (compare the word order in "where are they?" and "(I wonder) where they are"). Indirect questions may also be subject to the changes of tense and other changes that apply generally to indirect speech. Factual - Soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers based on obvious facts or awareness. These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive or affective processes and answers are frequently either right or wrong.

Example: What is the name the Shakespeare play about the Prince of Denmark?

2. Convergent - Answers to these types of questions are usually within a very finite range of acceptable accuracy. These may be at several different levels of cognition -- comprehension, application, analysis, or ones where the answerer makes inferences or conjectures based on personal awareness, or on material read, presented or known.

Example: On reflecting over the entirety of the play Hamlet, what were the main reasons why Ophelia went mad? (This is not specifically stated in one direct statement in the text of Hamlet. Here the reader must make simple inferences as to why she committed suicide.)

3. Divergent - These questions allow students to explore different avenues and create many different variations and alternative answers or scenarios. Correctness may be based on logical projections, may be contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge, conjecture, inference, projection, creation, intuition, or imagination. These types of questions often require students to analyze, synthesize, or evaluate a knowledge base and then project or predict different outcomes.

Answering divergent questions may be aided by higher levels of affective functions. Answers to these types of questions generally fall into a wide range of acceptability. Often correctness is determined subjectively based on the possibility or probability.

Frequently the intention of these types of divergent questions is to stimulate imaginative and creative thought, or investigate cause and effect relationships, or provoke deeper thought or extensive investigations. And, one needs to be prepared for the fact that there may not be right or definitely correct answers to these questions.

Divergent questions may also serve as larger contexts for directing inquiries, and as such may become what are know as "essential" questions that frame the content of an entire course.

Example: In the love relationship of Hamlet and Ophelia, what might have happened to their relationship and their lives if Hamlet had not been so obsessed with the revenge of his father's death?

Example of divergent questions that are both essential and divergent: Like many authors throughout time, Shakespeare dwells partly on the pain of love in Hamlet. Why is painful love so often intertwined with good literature. What is its never ending appeal to readers?

4. Evaluative - These types of questions usually require sophisticated levels of cognitive and/or emotional judgment. In attempting to answer evaluative questions, students may be combining multiple logical and/or affective thinking process, or comparative frameworks. Often an answer is analyzed at multiple levels and from different perspectives before the answerer arrives at newly synthesized information or conclusions.

Examples:

a. What are the similarities and differences between the deaths of Ophelia when compared to that of Juliet?

b. What are the similarities and differences between Roman gladiatorial games and modern football?

c. Why and how might the concept of Piagetian schema be related to the concepts presented in Jungian personality theory, and why might this be important to consider in teaching and learning?

5. Combinations - These are questions that blend any combination of the above.

More details and suggestions on this topic see - This rough magic

Lindley, D. (1993) This rough magic. Westport, CN. Bergin & Garvey.

There are other authors who talk about the art of asking questions. One is H. Lynn Erickson and he talks about 3 types of questions as being factual, conceptual, and provocative.

If you look at the listing above, it should become apparent that these are the same types of categories. Erickson's factual are still the ones that are easily answered with definitive, and comparatively simple answers. These are the questions you find on the show Jeopardy. Unfortunately they are also too common in schools and on tests.

His conceptual questions might be ones that are convergent, divergent, or evaluative in construction -- ones that delve deeper and require more sophisticated levels of cognitive processing and thinking.

His provocative ones are ones that entice and ones cannot be answered with easy answers. They are questions can be used to motivate and frame content or are essential questions. In the initial categorization above they would be either complex

divergent questions or more sophisticated combination questions like divergent/evaluative ones. Erickson, H. L.. (2007) Concept-based curriculum and instruction for the thinking classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA. Corwin Press.