Modern architecture is generally characterized by simplification of form and an absence of applied decoration.

It is a term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact definition and scope varying [1] widely. In a broader sense, early modern architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with efforts to reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid technological advancement and the modernization of society. It would take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and [1] architectural styles, some in tension with one another, and often equally defying such classification. The concept of modernism is a central theme in these efforts. Gaining popularity after the Second World War, architectural modernism was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators, and continues as a dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 21st century. Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably Postmodernism which sought to preserve premodern elements, while Neomodernism emerged as a reaction to Postmodernism. Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement include Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, Frank Lloyd Wright, Louis Sullivan, Gerrit Rietveld, Oscar Niemeyer and Alvar Aalto.
Contents
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1 Characteristics 2 Early modernism

o o o o

2.1 In the United States 2.2 In Italy: Futurism 2.3 In Russia: Constructivism 2.4 In Western Europe

o o

2.4.1 Arts and Crafts movement 2.4.2 Expressionism 2.4.3 Modernism reaches critical mass

2.5 Style Moderne: tradition and modernism 2.6 Wartime innovation

3 International Style

3.1 Urban design and mass housing

4 Later modern architecture

o o o o o

4.1 Mid-Century reactions 4.2 Brutalism and monumentality 4.3 New structures, new forms 4.4 Tube architecture 4.5 Postmodern architecture

4.6 Neomodern architecture

5 Examples of contemporary modern architecture 6 Preservation 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

Characteristics[edit]

The Salk Institute complex in La Jolla, California, by architect Louis Kahn.

Common themes of modern architecture include: the notion that "Form follows function", a dictum originally expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright's early mentor Louis Sullivan, meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of "unnecessary detail" visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of structural elements) the related concept of "Truth to materials", meaning that the true nature or natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather than concealed or altered to represent something else use of industrially-produced materials; adoption of the machine aesthetic particularly in International Style modernism, a visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines

Early modernism[edit]

The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the first buildings to have vast amounts of glass supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in Modernist architecture.

There are multiple lenses through which the evolution of modern architecture may be viewed. Some historians see it as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. [2] Modern architecture developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments. Still other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardian architecture. With the Industrial Revolution, the availability of newly-available building materials such as iron, steel, and sheet glass drove the invention of new building techniques. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his 'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction. This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as "Dark satanic mills". The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at theGreat Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass and metal curtain wall. A further development was that of the steel-framed skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Around 1900 a number of architects and designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents (classicism orGothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner and the Vienna Secession in Austria, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. The work of some of these were a part of what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau ("New Art"). Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, "", and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau, "Modernismo" are cognates of the English word "Modern" though they carry different meanings. An early use of the term in [3][4] print around this time, approaching its later meaning, was in the title of a book by Otto Wagner. The fallout of the First World War resulted in additional experimentation and ideas. Following out of the experiments in Art Nouveau and its related movements around the world, modernism in architecture and design grew out of stylistic threads originating throughout world.

In the United States[edit]

The Robie House, 1910, in Chicago, Illinois.

Main article: Frank Lloyd Wright Wright's Larkin Building (1904) in Buffalo, New York, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago, Illinois were some of the first examples of modern architecture in the United States. Frank Lloyd Wright was a major influence on European architects, including both Walter Gropius (founder of the Bauhaus) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. Gropius claimed that his "bible" for forming the Bauhaus was 100 Frank Lloyd Wright drawings that the architect shared with Germany over a decade prior to this point, theWasmuth Portfolio. While Wright's career would parallel that of European architects, he refused to be categorized with them, [citation needed] [who?] claiming that they copied his ideas. Many architects in Germany believed that Wright's life [citation would be wasted in the United States, since the US was not ready for his newer architecture. needed] During the 1930s, Wright would experiment with his Usonian ideas for a uniquely U.S. American (i.e. "US-onian") take on modernism. It would be several decades before European architects would in turn bring their version of modern architecture to the United States.

In Italy: Futurism[edit]
Main article: Futurist architecture Futurist architecture began in the early-20th century, characterized by anti-historicism and long horizontal lines suggesting speed, motion and urgency. Technology and even violence were among the themes of the Futurists. The movement was founded by the poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, who produced its first manifesto, the Manifesto of Futurism in 1909. The movement attracted not only poets, musicians, artist (such as Umberto Boccioni, Giacomo Balla, Fortunato Depero, and Enrico Prampolini) but also a number of architects. Among the latter there was Antonio Sant'Elia, who, though he built little (being killed in WWI), translated the Futurist vision into bold urban form. The unbuilt designs and theories of Futurists went on to influence both the Constructivists and a branch of Italian Fascist architecture.

In Russia: Constructivism[edit]
Main article: Constructivist architecture Following the 1917 revolutions in Russia, the societal upheaval and change was coupled with a desire for a new aesthetic, one more in keeping with the Communist philosophy and societal goals of the new state, in contrast to the ornate Neoclassicism that had prevailed prior. This resulted in a new style, Constructivism.Konstantin Melnikov, a Russian Constructivist architect, designed theMelnikov House (1927-29) near Arbat Street in Moscow. The style prospered, but fell markedly out of favor during the design competition for the Palace of the Soviets from 1931 to 1933, losing to a more traditional revivalism of Russian architecture with nationalistic overtones, afterwards termed Postconstructivism. This resulted in the ultimate demise of the Russian branch of early architectural modernism, though not before it had a chance to influence architects elsewhere, such as Le Corbusier.

In Western Europe[edit]
Arts and Crafts movement[edit]

The AEG Turbinenfabrik ("turbine factory"), 1909, designed by Peter Behrens, illustrating the combination of industry and design.

Spanning the gap between the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement, and the Modernism of the 1920s, was the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a German association of architects, designers and industrialists. It was founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius was the author of a three-volume "The English House" of 1905, a survey of the practical lessons of the [5] English Arts and Crafts movement and a leading political and cultural commentator. The purpose of the Werkbund was to sponsor the attempt to integrate traditional crafts with the techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originally included twelve architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include Peter Behrens, Theodor Fischer (who served as its first president), Josef Hoffmann and Richard Riemerschmid. Joseph August Lux, an Austrian-born critic, [6] helped formulate its agenda. As a result of isolation during World War I, an art and design movement developed unique to the Netherlands, known as De Stijl (literally "the style"), characterized by its use of line and primary colors. While producing little architectural design overall (with notable exception of the Rietveld Schrder House of 1924), its ideas went on to influence the architects and designers of the 1920s.

Expressionism[edit]

The Second Goetheanum, 1924-1928, in Basel, Switzerland, is an example of architectural Expressionism.

Main article: Expressionist architecture Expressionism was an architectural movement that developed in Northern Europe during the first decades of the 20th century in parallel with theexpressionist visual and performing arts. Making notable use of sculptural forms and the novel use of concrete as artistic elements, examples includeRudolf

Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland and the Einsteinturm in Potsdam, Germany. The style was characterised by an early-modernist adoption of novel materials, formal innovation, and very unusual massing, sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms, sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick, steel and especially glass. Many expressionist architects fought in World War I and their experiences, combined with the political turmoil and social upheaval that followed the German Revolution of 1919, resulted in a utopian outlook and a romantic [7] socialist agenda. Economic conditions severely limited the number of built commissions between 1914 [8] and the mid-1920s, resulting in many of the most important expressionist works remaining as projects on paper, such asBruno Taut's Alpine Architecture and Hermann Finsterlin's Formspiels. Ephemeral exhibition buildings were numerous and highly significant during this period. Scenography for theatre and [9] films provided another outlet for the expressionist imagination, and provided supplemental incomes for designers attempting to challenge conventions in a harsh economic climate. A particular type, using bricks to create its forms (rather than concrete) is known asBrick Expressionism.

Modernism reaches critical mass[edit]

The Bauhaus building at Dessau, Germany, designed by Walter Gropius

Main articles: New Objectivity (architecture) and Bauhaus It was at this time, during the 1920s, that the most important figures in Modern architecture established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in Germany, all of whom trained under Peter Behrens. Gropius and Mies van der Rohe both served as directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology. Mies van der Rohe designed the German pavilion (known afterward as the Barcelona Pavilion) at the1929 Barcelona International Exposition. Villa Savoye, by Le Corbusier and his cousin, was built from 1928 to 1931. As in Russia, political pressures turned against the modernists. With the rise of Nazism in 1933, the German experiments in modernism were replaced by more traditionalist architectural forms.

Style Moderne: tradition and modernism[edit]

Greyhound Bus Station in Cleveland, Ohio, showing the Streamline Moderneaesthetic.

Main articles: Art Deco and Streamline Moderne Following World War I, a stylistic movement developed that embraced ideas of both modernism (or at least modernization) and traditionalism. It is characterized by the adoption of the machine aesthetic, glorification of technological advancement and new materials, while at the same time adopting or loosely retaining revivalist forms and motifs, and the continued use of ornament. In the case of the Art deco, decorative motifs included both those evocative of technology (such as the lightning bolt (electricity) or the tire (the automobile)), and those of the exotic (such as drawing elements from Mesoamerican, African, and Ancient Egyptian designs). Frank Lloyd Wright himself experimented with Mayan Revival, culminating in the concrete cube-based Ennis House of 1924 in Los Angeles. A later variant, Streamline Moderne, simultaneously both played a role in industrial design and borrowed forms from machines themselves. More restrained forms with national imagery were adopted. In the United States, it took the form of "Stripped Classicism" (alternatively, "PWA Moderne" or "WPA Moderne") a stark version of [10] the Neoclassicism of Federal buildings earlier in the century. It application ranged in scale from local post-offices to the Pentagon). At the same time (as noted above), the rise in nationalism was reflected in the Stalinist architecture of the Soviet Union,Fascist architecture of Italy, and Nazi architecture of [11] Germany, what historian Kenneth Frampton termed the "New Tradition". To a less political extent, such an idea of modernized tradition could also be seen in contemporaneous Mycenaean Revival architecture. During and following World War II, this broad branch of modern architecture declined, with the rise of the International Style and other mid-century architecture.

Wartime innovation[edit]

Quonset hut en route to Japan

World War II (19391945) and its aftermath was a major factor in driving innovation in building [10][12] technology, and in turn, architectural possibilities. The wartime industrial demands resulting in a supply shortage (of such things as steel and other metals), in turn leading to the adoption of new materials, and advancement or novel use of old ones. Similarly, surplus postwar industrial capacity accelerated the use of new materials and techniques, particular architectural aluminium (as a result of [12] advances made in its use in aircraft, etc., during the war). At the same time, there was a rapid demand for structures during the war (such as military and governmental facilities) as well as for housing after the war. These factors encouraged experiments with prefabricated building. Though examples of prefabrication have existed since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, with notable examples during the Interwar period such as the diner, the semi-circular metal Nissen hut of World War I revived as theQuonset hut, the post-war enameled-steel Lustron house (19471950), and Buckminster Fuller's experimental [13] aluminum Dymaxion House.

International Style[edit]

The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, is regarded as one of the finest examples of the functionalist aesthetic and a masterpiece of corporate modernism.

Main article: International Style (architecture) In 1932 (prior to World War II), the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. Philip Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends in architecture, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International style. This was a turning point. However, for the remainder of the Interwar period, the Moderne styles overshadowed this movement.

With the labeling of modernist art and architecture in Germany as degenerate, followed by World War II, important figures of the Bauhaus and New Objectivity fled to the United States: Marcel Breuer and Walter Gropius went to the Harvard Graduate School of Design (the former becoming part of a group known as the "Harvard Five"), Ludwig Mies van der Rohe to Chicago, with others going to Black Mountain College. Still others fled to British Palestine, contributing to the design of the White City of Tel Aviv. While high-style modernist architectural design never became dominant in single-dwelling residential buildings in the United States, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the preeminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the architectural profession) the only acceptable, design [citation needed] solution from about 1932 to about 1984. Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade (usually a curtain wall), steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building and the Toronto-Dominion Centre(Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill). In the United States, a prominent early residential example was the Lovell House in Los Angeles, designed by Austrian expatriate Richard Neutra in the 1920s. Other examples include the Case Study Houses. Commissioned between 1945 and 1966, the twenty or so homes that were built primarily in and around Los Angeles, designed by architects such as Neutra and Americans Charles and Ray Eames (the Eames House) have attracted hundreds of thousands of visitors since their completion, and have influenced many architects over the years, notably the British architect, Michael Manser, whose domestic work is best exemplified by Capel Manor House in Kent. These and other Modern residences tend to focus on humanizing the otherwise harsh ideal, making them more livable and ultimately more appealing to real people. Many of these designs use a similar tactic: blurring the line between indoor and [14] outdoor spaces. This is achieved by embracing "the box" while at the same time dissolving it into the background with minimal structure and large glass walls, as was particularly the case with the Farnsworth House by Mies van der Rohe and the Glass House by Philip Johnson, the later part of a set of residences by the "Harvard Five" in New Canaan, Connecticut. Some critics claim that these spaces remain too cold and static for the average person to function, however. The materials utilized in a large number of Modern homes are not hidden behind a softening facade. While this may make them somewhat less desirable for the general public, most modernist architects see this as a necessary and pivotal tenet of Modernism: [citation needed] uncluttered and purely Minimal design.

Urban design and mass housing[edit]

National Congress of Brazil, by Oscar Niemeyer, in the modernist-designed city ofBrasilia.

This section requires expansion. (March 2011)

Main articles: Congrs International d'Architecture Moderne and Athens Charter See also: Urban renewal The Congrs Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) was a force in shaping modernist urban planning, and consequently the design of cities and the structures within, from 1928 to 1959. Its 1933 meeting resulted in the basis of what became the Athens Charter, which would drive urban planning practice for much of the mid-20th century. Following its principles, in the late 1950s the entirely-new city of Braslia was built as a new capital for Brazil, designed by Lucio Costa, with prominent works for it designed by Oscar Niemeyer. Le Corbusier applied CIAM's principles in his design for the city ofChandigarh in India. The devastation that WWII wrought in Europe, Asia, and the Pacific and subsequent post-war housing shortages resulted in a vast building and rebuilding of cities, with a variety of techniques employed for the creation of mass-housing. One attempt to solve this was by using the Tower block. In the Eastern Bloc, mass housing took the form of prefabricated panel buildings, such as the Plattenbau of East Germany, Khrushchyovka of Russia and the Panelk of Czechoslovakia.

Later modern architecture[edit]

Mid-Century reactions [edit]

Saint John's Abbey Church, Collegeville, Minnesota, United States, by Marcel Breuer, 1958-1961

Main article: Mid-Century modern As the International Style took hold, others architects reacted to or strayed from its purely functionalist forms, while at the same time retaining highly modernist characteristics. Eero Saarinen, Alvar Aalto and Oscar Niemeyer were three of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.

TWA Terminal, John F. Kennedy Airport, New York, 1962, by Eero Saarinen

Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York City, illustrating an example of "New Formalism"

Central Library of UNAM, in Mexico City, 1950-1956, showing the detailed artwork of plastic integration.

Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was [citation needed] suggested that they do not want to live in machines. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Midcentury modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Expressionist exploration of form was revived, such as in the Sydney Opera House in Australia by Jrn Utzon. Eero Saarinen invoked suggestions of flight in his designs for the terminal at Dulles International Airport outside of Washington, D.C, or the TWA Terminal in New York, both finished in [15] 1962. The Mission 66 project of the United States National Park Service was also built during this time. Contributing to these expressions were structural advances that enabled new forms to be possible or desirable. Flix Candela, a Spanish expatriate living in Mexico, and Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi,

made particular strides in the use of reinforced concrete and concrete shell construction. In 1954, Buckminster Fuller patented the geodesic dome. Another stylistic reaction was "New Formalism" (or "Neo-Formalism", sometimes shortened to [15][16] "Formalism"). Like the pre-war "Stripped Classicism", "New Formalism" blended elements [17] ofclassicism (at their most abstracted levels) with modernist designs. Characteristics drawing on classicism include rigid symmetry, use of columns and colonnades or arcades, and use of high-end materials (such as marble or granite), yet works in this vein also characteristically use the flat roofs [15][17] common with the International Style. Architects working in this mode included Edward Durrell Stone, Minoru Yamasaki, and some of the middle-period work of Philip Johnson, with examples in the United States including the Kennedy Center (1971) and the National Museum of American History (1964) [15][17] in Washington, D.C., and the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (mid-1960s) in New York. Arising shortly after the end of World War II, a particular set of stylistic tendencies in the United States during this time is known as Googie (or "populuxe"), derived from futuristic visions inspired by the imagery of the Atomic Age and Space Age, with motifs such as atomic orbital patterns and "flying saucers", respectively, such as in the Space Needle in Seattle. Though the style was unique to the United States, similar iconography can be seen in the Atomium in Brussels. A distinctly Mexican take on modernism, "plastic integration", was a syncretization of Mexican artistic [18] traditions (such as muralism) with International Style forms, and can be seen in the later works of Luis [19] Barragn and Juan O'Gorman, epitomized by the Ciudad Universitaria of UNAM in Mexico City.

Brutalism and monumentality[edit]

The National Assembly Building of Bangladesh by Louis Kahn; compare its "weightiness" with works above.

Main article: Brutalist architecture Architects such as Louis Kahn, Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, I.M. Pei and others responded to the "light" glass curtain walls advocated by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, by creating architecture with an emphasis on more substantial materials, such as concrete and brick, and creating works with a "monumental" quality. "Brutalism" is a term derived from the use of "Bton brut" ("raw concrete"), unadorned, often with the mold marks remaining, though as a stylistic tendency, Brutalism would ultimately be applied more broadly to include the use of other materials such as brickwork in a similar fashion. The term was first used in architecture by Le Corbusier.

New structures, new forms[edit]

This section requires expansion. (March 2011)

Main articles: Structuralism (architecture) and Metabolist Movement See also: Arcology

Tube architecture[edit]
Main article: Tube (structure) In 1963, a new structural system of framed tubes appeared in skyscraper design and construction. The Bangladeshi architect and structure engineer Fazlur Khan defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting [20] lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation." Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building which [21] Khan designed and was completed in Chicago by 1963. This laid the foundations for the tube structures of many other later skyscrapers, including his own John Hancock Center and Sears Tower, and can been seen in the construction of the World Trade Center and most othersupertall skyscrapers since [22] the 1960s, such as the Petronas Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The architecture of [23] Chicago employing the ideas developed by Khan is often known as the "Second Chicago School".

Postmodern architecture[edit]
Main article: Postmodern architecture

The Sony Building (formerly AT&T building) in New York City, 1984, by Philip Johnson, illustrating a Postmodern spin on the boxy office towers that preceded it with the inclusion of a classical broken pedimenton the top.

Modern architecture met with some criticism, which began in the 1960s on the grounds that it seemed universal, elitist, and lacked meaning. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), began "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?"

The Kaleida Health Gates Vascular Institute in Buffalo, New York, illustrates a cube like design wrapped with modern accents.

The loss of traditionalist structures to make way for new modernist construction, especially via the Urban Renewal movement, led to further criticism, particularly the demolition of Penn Station in New York in 1963. That same year, controversy materialized around the Pan Am Building that loomed overGrand [24] Central Terminal, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights", In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglass Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The proposal for a tower over the terminal itself resulted in the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City, upholding the city's landmark laws. Alongside these preservation efforts came the increasing respectability and fashionability of more traditional styles. Architects explored Postmodern architecture which offered a blend of some pre-modern elements, and deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. Even Philip Johnson came to admit that he was "bored with the box." By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared to trend over modernism. High Postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a new surge of modern architecture once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists was re-evaluated; and a modernistic style once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice. Although modern and postmodern design compete with a revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.

Neomodern architecture[edit]
Further information: Neomodern Neomodernism is a reaction to Postmodernism and its embrace of pre-modern elements of design. Examples of modern architecture in the 21st century include One World Trade Center (2013) in New York City and Tour First (2011), the tallest office building in the Paris metropolitan area. Emporis named [25] Chicago's Modern Aqua Tower (2009) its skyscraper of the year.

Antoni Gaud i Cornet (Catalan pronunciation: [ntni wi]; 25 June 1852 10 June 1926) was a Spanish Catalan architect born in Reus, in theCatalonia region of Spain and leader of Catalan Modernism. Gaud's works reflect his highly individual and distinctive style and are largely concentrated in the Catalan capital of Barcelona, notably his magnum opus, the Sagrada Famlia. Much of Gaud's work was marked by his big passions in life: architecture, nature, religion. Gaud studied every detail of his creations, integrating into his architecture a series of crafts in which he was skilled: ceramics, stained glass, wrought ironwork forging and carpentry. He introduced new techniques in the treatment of materials, such as trencads, made of waste ceramic pieces. After a few years, under the influence of neo-Gothic art and Oriental techniques, Gaud became part of the Modernista movement which was reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His work transcended mainstream Modernisme, culminating in an organic style inspired by nature. Gaud rarely drew detailed plans of his works, instead preferring to create them as three-dimensional scale models and molding the details as he was conceiving them.
[3]

Style[edit]
Gaud and Modernisme[edit]

The four-armed cross, one of the most typical features of Gaud's works

Gaud's professional life was distinctive in that he never ceased to investigate mechanical building structures. Early on, Gaud was inspired by oriental arts (India, Persia, Japan) through the study of the historicist architectural theoreticians, such as Walter Pater, John Ruskin and William Morris. The influence of the Oriental movement can be seen in works like the Capricho, the Gell Palace, the Gell Pavilions and the Casa Vicens. Later on, he adhered to the neo-Gothic movement that was in fashion at the time, following the ideas of the French architect Viollet-le-Duc. This influence is reflected in the Colegi de les Teresianes, the Episcopal Palace in Astorga, the Casa Botines and the Bellesguard house as well

as in the crypt and the apse of the Sagrada Famlia. Eventually, Gaud embarked on a more personal phase, with the organic style inspired by nature in which he would build his major works. During his time as a student, Gaud was able to study a collection of photographs of Egyptian, Indian, Persian, Mayan, Chinese and Japanese art owned by the School of Architecture. The collection also included Moorish monuments in Spain, which left a deep mark on him and served as an inspiration in many of his works. He also studied the book Plans, elevations, sections and details of the [52] Alhambra by Owen Jones, which he borrowed from the School's library. He took various structural and ornamental solutions from nazar and mudjar art, which he used with variations and stylistic freedom in his works. Notably, Gaud observed of Islamic art its spatial uncertainty, its concept of structures with limitless space; its feeling of sequence, fragmented with holes and partitions, which create a divide [53] without disrupting the feeling of open space by enclosing it with barriers. Undoubtedly the style that most influenced him was the Gothic Revival, promoted in the latter half of the 19th century by the theoretical works of Viollet-le-Duc. The French architect called for studying the styles of the past and adapting them in a rational manner, taking into account both structure and [54] design. Nonetheless, for Gaud the Gothic style was "imperfect", because despite the effectiveness of some of its structural solutions it was an art that had yet to be "perfected". In his own words: Gothic art is imperfect, only half resolved; it is a style created by the compasses, a formulaic industrial repetition. Its stability depends on constant propping up by the buttresses: it is a defective body held up on crutches. (...) The proof that Gothic works are of deficient plasticity is that they produce their greatest emotional effect when they are mutilated, covered in ivy and lit by the moon.
[55]

The salamander in Park Gell has become a symbol of Gaud's work.

After these initial influences, Gaud moved towards Modernisme, then in its heyday. Modernisme in its earlier stages was inspired by historic architecture. Its practitioners saw its return to the past as a response to the industrial forms imposed by the Industrial Revolution's technological advances. The use of these older styles represented a moral regeneration that allowed the bourgeoisie to identify with values they regarded as their cultural roots. The Renaixena (rebirth), the revival of Catalan culture that began in the second half of the 19th century, brought more Gothic forms into the Catalan "national" style that aimed to combine nationalism and cosmopolitanism while at the same time integrating into the European [56] modernizing movement. Some essential features of Modernisme were: an anticlassical language inherited from Romanticism with a tendency to lyricism and subjectivity; the determined connection of architecture with the applied arts and artistic work that produced an overtly ornamental style; the use of new materials from which emerged a mixed constructional language, rich in contrasts, that sought a plastic effect for the whole; a strong

sense of optimism and faith in progress that produced an emphatic art that reflected the atmosphere of [57] prosperity of the time, above all of the esthetic of the bourgeoisie.

Quest for a new architectural language[edit]

Gaud is usually considered the great master of Catalan Modernism, but his works go beyond any one style or classification. They are imaginative works that find their main inspiration in nature. Gaud studied organic and anarchic geometric forms of nature thoroughly, searching for a way to give expression to these forms in architecture. Some of his greatest inspirations came from visits to the mountain of Montserrat, the caves of Mallorca, the saltpetre caves in Collbat), the crag of Fra Guerau in the Prades Mountains behind Reus, the Pareis mountain in the north of Mallorca and Sant Miquel del Fai [58] in Bigues i Riells.

Geometrical forms[edit]

The nave in the Sagrada Familia with ahyperboloid vault. Inspiration from nature is taken from a tree, as the pillar and branches symbolise trees rising up to the roof.

This study of nature translated into his use of ruled geometrical forms such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, [59] the hyperboloid, the helicoid and the cone, which reflect the forms Gaud found in nature. Ruled surfaces are forms generated by a straight line known as the generatrix, as it moves over one or several lines known as directrices. Gaud found abundant examples of them in nature, for instance in rushes, reeds and bones; he used to say that there is no better structure than the trunk of a tree or a human skeleton. These forms are at the same time functional and aesthetic, and Gaud discovered how to adapt the language of nature to the structural forms of architecture. He used to equate the helicoid form to movement and thehyperboloid to light. Concerning ruled surfaces, he said: Paraboloids, hyperboloids and helicoids, constantly varying the incidence of the light, are rich in matrices themselves, which make ornamentation and even modelling unnecessary.
[60]

Another element widely used by Gaud was the catenary curve. He had studied geometry thoroughly when he was young, studying numerous articles about engineering, a field that praised the virtues of the catenary curve as a mechanical element, one which at that time, however, was used only in the construction of suspension bridges. Gaud was the first to use this element in common architecture. Catenary arches in works like the Casa Mil, the School of the Teresianas, the crypt of the Colnia Gell and the Sagrada Famlia allowed Gaud to add an element of great strength to his structures, given that the catenary distributes the weight it regularly carries evenly, being affected only by self[61] canceling tangential forces. Gaud evolved from plane to spatial geometry, to ruled geometry. These constructional forms are highly suited to the use of cheap materials such as brick. Gaud frequently used brick laid with mortar in

successive layers, as in the traditional Catalan vault. This quest for new structural solutions culminated between 1910 and 1920, when he exploited his research and experience in his masterpiece, the Sagrada Famlia. Gaud conceived this church as if it were the structure of a forest, with a set of treelike columns divided into various branches to support a structure of intertwined hyperboloid vaults. He inclined the columns so they could better resist the perpendicular pressures on their section. He also gave them a double turn helicoid shape (right turn and left turn), as in the branches and trunks of trees. [63] This created a structure that is now known as fractal. Together with a modulation of the space that divides it into small, independent and self-supporting modules, it creates a structure that perfectly supports the mechanical traction forces without need for buttresses, as required by the neo-Gothic [64] style. Gaud thus achieved a rational, structured and perfectly logical solution, creating at the same time a new architectural style that was original, simple, practical and aesthetic.

[62]

Surpassing the Gothic[edit]

This new constructional technique allowed Gaud to achieve his greatest architectural goal; to perfect and go beyond Gothic style. The hyperboloid vaults have their centre where Gothic vaults had their keystone, and the hyperboloid allows for a hole in this space to let natural light in. In the intersection between vaults, where Gothic vaults have ribs, the hyperboloid allows for holes as well, which Gaud employed to give the [65] impression of a starry sky. Gaud complemented this organic vision of architecture with a unique spatial vision that allowed him to conceive his designs in three dimensions, unlike the flat design of traditional architecture. He used to say that he had acquired this spatial sense as a boy by looking at the drawings his father made of the boilers [66] and stills he produced. Because of this spatial conception, Gaud always preferred to work with casts and scale models or even improvise on site as a work progressed. Reluctant to draw plans, only on rare occasions did he sketch his works, in fact only when required by authorities.

An upside down force model of theColnia Gell, Sagrada Famlia Museum

Another of Gaud's innovations in the technical realm was the use of a scale model to calculate structures: for the church of the Colnia Gell, he built a 1:10 scale model with a height of 4 metres (13 ft)

in a shed next to the building. There, he set up a model that had strings with small bags full of birdshot hanging from them. On a drawing board that was attached to the ceiling he drew the floor of the church, and he hung the strings (for the catenaries) with the birdshot (for the weight) from the supporting points of the buildingcolumns, intersection of walls. These weights produced a catenary curve both in the arches and vaults. At that point, he took a picture that, when inverted, showed the structure for columns and arches that Gaud was looking for. Gaud then painted over these photographs with gouache or pastel. The outline of the church defined, he recorded every single detail of the building: architectural, stylistic [67] and decorative. Gaud's position in the history of architecture is that of a creative genius who, inspired by nature, developed a style of his own that attained technical perfection as well as aesthetic value, and bore the mark of his character. Gaud's structural innovations were to an extent the result of his journey through various styles, from Doric to Baroque via Gothic, his main inspiration. It could be said that these styles culminated in his work, which reinterpreted and perfected them. Gaud passed through the historicism and eclecticism of his generation without connecting with other architectural movements of the 20th century that, with their rationalist postulates, derived from the Bauhaus school, and represented an antithetical evolution to that initiated by Gaud, given that it later reflected the disdain and the initial lack of comprehension of the work of the modernista architect. Other factors that led to the initial neglect of the Catalan architect's work was that despite having numerous assistants and helpers, Gaud created no school of his own and never taught, nor did he leave written documents. Some of his subordinates adopted his innovations, above all Francesc Berenguer and Josep Maria Jujol; others, like Csar Martinell, Francesc Folguera and Josep Francesc Rfols [68] graduated towards Noucentisme, leaving the master's trail. Despite this, a degree of influence can be discerned in some architects that either formed part of the Modernista movement or departed from it and who had had no direct contact with him, such as Josep Maria Pericas (Casa Als, Ripoll), Bernard Martorell (Olius cemetery) and Llus Muncunill (Masa Freixa, Terrassa). Nonetheless, Gaud left a deep mark on 20th-century architecture: masters like Le Corbusier declared themselves admirers, and the works of other architects like Pier Luigi Nervi, Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Oscar Niemeyer, Flix Candela, Eduardo Torroja and Santiago Calatrava were inspired by Gaud. Frei Otto used Gaud's forms in the construction of the Munich Olympic Stadium. In Japan, the work of Kenji Imai bears evidence of Gaud's influence, as can be seen in the Memorial for the Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan in Nagasaki (Japanese National Architecture Award in 1962), where the use of Gaud's famous [69] "trencads" stands out.

Design and craftsmanship[edit]

Entrance gate of the Gell Pavilions

During his student days, Gaud attended craft workshops, such as those taught by Eudald Punt, Lloren Matamala and Joan Os, where he learned the basic aspects of techniques relating to architecture, [70] including sculpture, carpentry, wrought ironwork, stained glass, ceramics, plaster modelling, etc. He also absorbed new technological developments, integrating into his technique the use of iron and reinforced concrete in construction. Gaud took a broad view of architecture as a multifunctional design, in which every single detail in an arrangement has to be harmoniously made and well-proportioned. This knowledge allowed him to design architectural projects, including all the elements of his works, from furnishings to illumination to wrought ironwork. Gaud was also an innovator in the realm of craftsmanship, conceiving new technical and decorative solutions with his materials, for example his way of designing ceramic mosaics made of waste pieces ("trencads") in original and imaginative combinations. For the restoration of Mallorca Cathedral he invented a new technique to produce stained glass, which consisted of juxtaposing three glass panes of primary colours, and sometimes a neutral one, varying the thickness of the glass in order to graduate [71] the light's intensity.

Dedicatory object for Orfe Catal(1922), designed by Gaud, drawn by Francesc Quintana and coloured by Josep Maria Jujol

This was how he personally designed many of the Sagrada Famlia's sculptures. He would thoroughly study the anatomy of the figure, concentrating on gestures. For this purpose, he studied the human skeleton and sometimes used dummies made of wire to test the appropriate posture of the figure he was about to sculpt. In a second step, he photographed his models, using a mirror system that provided multiple perspectives. He then made plaster casts of the figures, both of people and animals (on one occasion he made a donkey stand up so it would not move). He modified the proportions of these casts to obtain the figure's desired appearance, depending on its place in the church (the higher up, the bigger it [72] would be). Eventually, he sculpted the figures in stone.

Urban spaces and landscaping[edit]

Gaud also practiced landscaping, often in urban settings. He aimed to place his works in the most appropriate natural and architectural surroundings by studying the location of his constructions thoroughly and trying to naturally integrate them into those surroundings. For this purpose, he often used the material that was most common in the nearby environment, such as the slate of Bellesguard and the grey Bierzo granite in the Episcopal Palace, Astorga. Many of his projects were gardens, such as the Gell Park and the Can Artigas Gardens, or incorporated gardens, as in the Casa Vicens or the Gell Pavilions. Gaud's harmonious approach to landscaping is exemplified at the First Mystery of the Glory of

the Rosary at Montserrat, where the architectural framework is nature itself here the Montserrat rock nature encircles the group of sculptures that adorned the path to the Holy Cave.

Interiors[edit]

Interior of the Casa Vicens

Equally, Gaud stood out as interior decorator, decorating most of his buildings personally, from the furnishings to the smallest details. In each case he knew how to apply stylistic particularities, personalising the decoration according to the owner's taste, the predominant style of the arrangement or its place in the surroundingswhether urban or natural, secular or religious. Many of his works were related to liturgical furnishing. From the design of a desk for his office at the beginning of his career to the furnishings designed for the Sobrellano Palace of Comillas, he designed all furnishing of the Vicens, Calvet, Batll and Mil houses, of the Gell Palace and the Bellesguard Tower, and the liturgical furnishing of the Sagrada Famlia. It is noteworthy that Gaud studied some ergonomy in order to adapt [73] his furnishings to human anatomy. Many of his furnishings are exhibited at Gaud Museum. Another aspect is the intelligent distribution of space, always with the aim of creating a comfortable, intimate, interior atmosphere. For this purpose, Gaud would divide the space into sections, adapted to their specific use, by means of low walls, dropped ceilings, sliding doors and wall closets. Apart from taking care of every detail of all structural and ornamental elements, he made sure his constructions had good lighting and ventilation. For this purpose, he studied each project's orientation with respect to the cardinal points, as well as the local climate and its place in its surroundings. At that time, there was an increasing demand for more domestic comfort, with piped water and gas and the use of electric light, all of which Gaud expertly incorporated. For the Sagrada Famlia, for example, he carried out thorough studies on acoustics and illumination, in order to optimise them. With regard to light, he stated: Light achieves maximum harmony at an inclination of 45, since it resides on objects in a way that is neither horizontal nor vertical. This can be considered medium light, and it offers the most perfect vision of objects and their most exquisite nuances. It is the Mediterranean light.
[74]

Lighting also served Gaud for the organisation of space, which required a careful study of the gradient of light intensity to adequately adapt to each specific environment. He achieved this with different elements such as skylights, windows, shutters and blinds; a notable case is the gradation of colour used in the atrium of the Casa Batll to achieve uniform distribution of light throughout the interior. He also tended [75] to build south-facing houses to maximise sunlight.

Works[edit]
Main article: List of Gaud buildings Gaud's work is normally classed as modernista, and it belongs to this movement because of its eagerness to renovate without breaking with tradition, its quest for modernity, the ornamental sense applied to works, and the multidisciplinary character of its undertakings, where craftsmanship plays a central role. To this, Gaud adds a dose of the baroque, adopts technical advances and continues to use traditional architectural language. Together with his inspiration from nature and the original touch of his works, this amalgam gives his works their personal and unique character in the history of architecture. Chronologically, it is difficult to establish guidelines that illustrate the evolution of Gaud's style faithfully. Although he moved on from his initially historicist approach to immerse himself completely in the modernista movement which arose so vigorously in the last third of the 19th century in Catalonia, before finally attaining his personal, organic style, this process did not consist of clearly-defined stages with obvious boundaries: rather, at every stage there are reflections of all the earlier ones, as he gradually assimilated and surpassed them. One of the best descriptions of Gaud's work was made by his disciple and biographer Joan Bergs, according to plastic and structural criteria. Bergs establishes five periods in Gaud's productions: preliminary period, mudjar-morisco (Moorish/mudjar art), emulated Gothic, [76] naturalist and expressionist, and organic synthesis.

Early works[edit]
Gauds first works both from his student days and the time just after his graduation stand out for the precision of their details, the use of geometry and the prevalence of mechanical considerations in the [77] structural calculations.

University years[edit]
During his studies, Gaud designed various projects, among which the following stand out: a cemetery gate (1875), a Spanish pavilion for the Philadelphia World Fair of 1876, a quay-side building (1876), a courtyard for the Diputaci de Barcelona (1876), a monumental fountain for the Plaa Catalunya in [78] Barcelona (1877) and a university assembly hall (1877).

Student works

Cemetery gate (1875)

Quay-side building (1876)

Fountain in Plaa Catalunya (1877)

University assembly hall (1877)

Antoni Gaud started his professional career while still at university. To pay for his studies, he worked as a draughtsman for some of the most outstanding Barcelona architects of the time, such as Joan Martorell, Josep Fontser, Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano, Leandre Serrallach and Emili Sala [23] Corts. Gaud had a long-standing relationship with Josep Fontser, since his family was also from Riudoms and they had known each other for some time. Despite not having an architecture degree, Fontser received the commission from the city council for the Parc de la Ciutadella development, carried out between 1873 and 1882. For this project, Gaud was in charge of the design of the Park's entrance gate, the bandstand's balustrade and the water project for the monumental fountain, where he designed [79] an artificial cave that showed his liking for nature and the organic touch he would give his architecture. Gaud worked for Francisco de Paula del Villar on the apse of the Montserrat monastery, designing the niche for the image of the Black Virgin of Montserrat in 1876. He would later substitute Villar in the works of the Sagrada Famlia. With Leandre Serrallach, he worked on a tram line project to Villa Arcadia in Montjuc. Eventually, he collaborated with Joan Martorell on the Jesuit church on Carrer Casp and the Salesian convent in Passeig de Sant Joan, as well as the Villaricos church (Almera). He also carried out a project for Martorell for the competition for a new facade for Barcelona cathedral, which was never accepted. His relationship with Martorell, whom he always considered one of his main and most influential masters, brought him unexpected luck; he later recommended Gaud for the Sagrada Famlia.

Early post-graduation projects[edit]

After his graduation as an architect in 1878, Gaud's first work was a set of lampposts for the Plaa Reial, the project for the Girossi newsstands and the Matar cooperative, which was his first important work. He received the request from the city council of Barcelona in February 1878, when he had graduated but not [80] yet received his degree, which was sent from Madrid on 15 March of the same year. For this commission he designed two types of lampposts: one with six arms, of which two were installed in the Plaa Reial, and another with three, of which two were installed in the Pla del Palau, opposite the Civil Government. The lampposts were inaugurated during the Merc festivities in 1879. Made of cast iron with a marble base, they have a decoration in which thecaduceus of Mercury is prominent, symbol of commerce and emblem of Barcelona.

Early post-graduate works

Lampposts

Girossi newsstands

Esteban Comella display

Gibert Pharmacy

The Girossi newsstands project, which was never carried out, was a commission from the tradesman Enrique Girossi de Sanctis. It would have consisted of 20 newsstands, spread throughout Barcelona. Each would have included a public lavatory, a flower stand and glass panels for advertisements as well as a clock, a calendar, a barometer and a thermometer. Gaud conceived a structure with iron pillars and [81] marble and glass slabs, crowned by a large iron and glass roof, with a gas illumination system. The Cooperativa Obrera Mataronense (Matar Workers' Cooperative) was Gaud's first big project, on which he worked from 1878 to 1882, for Salvador Pags i Anglada. The project, for the cooperative's head office in Matar, comprised a factory, a worker's housing estate, a social centre and a services building, though only the factory and the services building were completed. In the factory roof Gaud used [82] the catenary arch for the first time, with a bolt assembly system devised by Philibert de l'Orme. He also used ceramic tile decoration for the first time in the services building. Gaud laid out the site taking account of solar orientation, another signature of his works, and included landscaped areas. He even designed the Cooperative's banner, with the figure of abee, symbol of industriousness. In May 1878 Gaud designed a display cabinet for the Esteban Comella glove factory, which was [83] exhibited in the Spanish pavilion at the Paris World Exhibition that year. It was this work that attracted the attention of the entrepreneur Eusebi Gell, visiting the French capital; he was so impressed that he wanted to meet Gaud on his return, beginning a long friendship and professional collaboration. Gell became Gaud's main patron and sponsor of many of his large projects.

First Gell projects[edit]

Gell's first task for Gaud, that same year, was the design of the furniture for the pantheon chapel of the Palacio de Sobrellano in Comillas, which was then being constructed by Joan Martorell, Gaud's teacher, at the request of the Marquis of Comillas, Gell's father in law. Gaud designed a chair, a bench and a prayer stool: the chair was upholstered with velvet, finished with two eagles and the Marquis's coat of arms; the bench stands out with the motif of a dragon, designed by Lloren Matamala; the prayer stool is decorated with plants. Also in 1878 he drew up the plans for a theatre in the former town of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles (now a district of Barcelona); Gaud did not take part in the construction of the theatre, which no longer exists. The following year he designed the furniture and counter for the Gibert Pharmacy, with marquetry of Arab influence. The same year he made five drawings for a procession in honour of the poet Francesc Vicent Garcia i Torres in Vallfogona de Riucorb, where this celebrated 17th-century writer and friend of Lope de Vega was the parish priest. Gaud's project was centred on the poet and on several aspects of agricultural work, such as reaping and harvesting grapes and olives; however, as a result of [84] organisational problems Gaud's ideas were not carried out. Between 1879 and 1881 he drew up a proposal for the decoration of the church of Sant Paci, belonging to the Colegio de Jess-Mara in Sant Andreu del Palomar: he created the altar in a Gothic style, the monstrance with Byzantine influence, the mosaics and the lighting, as well as the school's furniture. The church caught fire during the Tragic Week of 1909, and now only the mosaics remain, of "opus [85] tesselatum", probably the work of the Italian mosaicist Luigi Pellerin. He was given the task of decorating the church of the Colegio de Jess-Mara in Tarragona (18801882): he created the altar in

white Italian marble, and its front part, or antependium, with four columns bearing medallions of polychrome alabaster, with figures of angels; the ostensory with gilt wood, the work of Eudald Punt, decorated with rosaries, angels, tetramorph symbols and the dove of the Holy Ghost; and the choir stalls, [86] which were destroyed in 1936. In 1880 he designed an electric lighting project for Barcelona's Muralla de Mar, or seawall, which was not carried out. It consisted of eight large iron streetlamps, profusely decorated with plantmotifs, friezes, shields and names of battles and Catalan admirals. The same year he participated in the competition for the construction of the San Sebastin social centre (now town hall), won by Luis Aladrn Mendivi and Adolfo Morales de los Ros; Gaud submitted a project that synthesised several of his earlier studies, [87] such as the fountain for the Plaa Catalunya and the courtyard of the Provincial Council.

Collaboration with Martorell[edit]

Gaud's drawing for the facade of the Barcelona Cathedral

A new task of the Gell-Lpez's for Comillas was the gazebo for Alfonso XII's visit to the Cantabrian town in 1881. Gaud designed a small pavilion in the shape of a Hindu turban, covered in mosaics and decorated with an abundance of small bells which jingled constantly. It was subsequently moved into the [88] Gell Pavilions. In 1882 he designed a Benedictine monastery and a church dedicated to the Holy Spirit in Villaricos (Cuevas de Vera, Almeria) for his former teacher, Joan Martorell. It was of neo-Gothic design, similar to the Convent of the Salesians that Gaud also planned with Martorell. Ultimately it was not carried out, and [89] the project plans were destroyed in the looting of the Sagrada Famlia in 1936. The same year he was tasked with constructing a hunting lodge and wine cellarsat a country residence known as La Cuadra, in Garraf (Sitges), property of baron Eusebi Gell. Ultimately the wine cellars, but not the lodge, were built

some years later. With Martorell he also collaborated on three other projects: the church of the Jesuit School in Carrer Caspe; the Convent of the Salesians in Passeig de Sant Joan, a neo-Gothic project with an altar in the centre of the crossing; and the facade project for Barcelona cathedral, for the competition convened by the cathedral chapter in 1882, ultimately won by Josep Oriol Mestres and August Font i [90] Carreras. Gaud's collaboration with Martorell was a determining factor in Gaud's recommendation for the Sagrada Famlia. The church was the idea of Josep Maria Bocabella, founder of the Devotees of Saint Joseph [91] Association, which acquired a complete block of Barcelona's Eixample district. The project was originally entrusted to Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano, who planned the construction of a neoGothic church, on which work began in 1882. However, the following year Villar resigned due to disagreements with the construction board, and the task went to Gaud, who completely redesigned the [92] project, apart from the part of the crypt that had already been built. Gaud devoted the rest of his life to the construction of the church, which was to be the synthesis of all of his architectural discoveries.

Orientalist period[edit]
During these years Gaud completed a series of works with a distinctly oriental flavour, inspired by the art of the Middle and Far East (India, Persia, Japan), as well as Islamic-Hispanic art, mainly Mudejar and Nazari. Gaud used ceramic tile decoration abundantly, as well as Moorish arches, [93] columns of exposed brick and pinnacles in the shape of pavilions or domes. Between 1883 and 1888 he constructed the Casa Vicens, commissioned by stockbroker Manuel Vicens i Montaner. It was constructed with four floors, with facades on three sides and an extensive garden, including a monumental brick fountain. The house was surrounded by a wall with iron gates, decorated with palmetto leaves, work of Lloren Matamala. The walls of the house are of stone alternated with lines of tile, which imitate yellow flowers typical of this area; the house is topped with chimneys and turrets. In the interior the polychrome wooden roof beams stand out, adorned with floral themes of papier mach; the walls are decorated with vegetable motifs, as well as paintings by Josep Torrescasana; finally, the floor consists of Roman-style mosaics of "opus tesselatum". One of the most original rooms is the smoking room, notable the ceiling, decorated with Moorish honeycomb-work, reminiscent of [94] theGeneralife in the Alhambra in Granada.

Orientalist works

Casa Vicens (1883 88)

El Capricho (188385)

Gell Pavilions (1884 87)

Palau Gell (188688)

Compaa Trasatlntica (1888)

In the same year, 1883, Gaud designed the Santsimo Sacramento chapel for the parish church of San Flix de Alella, as well as some topographical plans for the Can Rosell de la Llena country residence in Gelida. He also received a commission to build a small annex to the Palacio de Sobrellano, for the Baron of Comillas, in the Cantabrian town of the same name. Known as El Capricho, it was commissioned by Mximo Daz de Quijano and constructed between 1883 and 1885. Cristfor Cascante i Colom, Gaud's fellow student, directed the construction. In an oriental style, it has an elongated shape, on three levels and a cylindrical tower in the shape of a Persian minaret, faced completely in ceramics. The entrance is set behind four columns supporting depressed arches, with capitals decorated with birds and leaves, similar to those that can be seen at the Casa Vicens. Notable are the main lounge, with its large sash [95] window, and the smoking room with a ceiling consisting of a false Arab-style stucco vault. Gaud carried out a second commission from Eusebi Gell between 1884 and 1887, the Gell Pavilions in Pedralbes, now on the outskirts of Barcelona. Gell had a country residence in Les Corts de Sarri, consisting of two adjacent properties known as Can Feliu and Can Cuys de la Riera. The architect Joan Martorell had built a Caribbean-style mansion, which was demolished in 1919 to make way for the Royal Palace of Pedralbes. Gaud undertook to refurbish the house and construct a wall and porter's lodge. He completed the stone wall with several entrances, the main entrance with an iron gate in the shape of a [96] dragon, with symbology allusive to the myths of Hercules and the Garden of the Hesperides. The buildings consist of a stable, covered longeing ring and porter's lodge: the stable has a rectangular base and catenary arches; the longeing ring has a square base with a hyperboloid dome; the porter's lodge consists of three small buildings, the central one being polygonal with a hyperbolic dome, and the other two smaller and cubic. All three are topped by ventilators in the shape of chimneys faced with ceramics. The walls are of exposed brick in various shades of reds and yellows; in certain sections prefabricated cement blocks are also used. The Pavilions are now the headquarters of the Real Ctedra Gaud, of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia. In 1885 Gaud accepted a commission from Josep Maria Bocabella, promotor of the Sagrada Famlia, for an altar in the oratory of the Bocabella family, who had obtained permission from the Pope to have an altar in their home. The altar is made of varnished mahogany, with a slab of white marble in the centre for relics. It is decorated with plants and religious motifs, such as the Greek letters alpha and omega, symbol of the beginning and end, gospel phrases and images of Saint Francis of Paola, Saint Teresa of Avila and the Holy Family and closed with a curtain of crimson embroidery. It was made by the cabinet [97] maker Frederic Labria, who also collaborated with Gaud on the Sagrada Famlia. Shortly after, Gaud received an important new commission from Gell: the construction of his family house, in the Carrer Nou de la Rambla in Barcelona. The Palau Gell (18861888) continues the tradition of large Catalan urban mansions such as those in Carrer Montcada. Gaud designed a monumental entrance with a magnificent parabolic arch above iron gates, decorated with the Catalan coat of arms and a helmet with a winged dragon, the work of Joan Os. A notable feature is the triple-height entrance hall; it is the core of the building, surrounded by the main rooms of the palace, and it is remarkable for its double dome, parabolic within and conical on the outside, a solution typical of Byzantine art. For the gallery on the street facade Gaud used an original system of catenary arches and columns with

hyperbolic capitals, a style he used only here. He designed the interior of the palace with a sumptuous Mudejar-style decoration, where the wood and iron coffered ceilings stand out. The chimneys on the roof are a remarkable feature, faced in vividly-coloured ceramic tiles, as is the tall spire in the form of a lantern tower, which is the external termination of the dome within, and is also faced with ceramic tiles and [99] topped with an iron weather vane. On the occasion of the World Expo held in Barcelona in 1888, Gaud constructed the pavilion for the Compaa Trasatlntica, property of the Marquis of Comillas, in the Maritime Section of the event. He created it in a Granadinian Nazari style, with horseshoe arches and stucco decoration; the building survived until the Passeig Martim was opened up in 1960. In the wake of the event he received a commission from Barcelona Council to restore the Sal de Cent and the grand stairs in Barcelona City Hall, as well as a chair for the queen Maria Cristina; only the chair was made, and Mayor Francesc Rius i [100] Taulet presented it to the Queen.

[98]

Neo-Gothic period[edit]
During this period Gaud was inspired above all by mediaeval Gothic art, but wanted to improve on its structural solutions. Neo-gothic was one of the most successful historicist styles at that time, above all as [101] a result of the theoretical studies of Viollet-le-Duc. Gaud studied examples in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Roussillon in depth, as well as Leonese and Castillian buildings during his stays in Len and Burgos, and became convinced that it was an imperfect style, leaving major structural issues only partly resolved. In his works he eliminated the need of buttresses through the use of ruled surfaces, and [102] abolished crenellations and excessive openwork.

Neo-gothic works

Colegi de les Teresianes

Episcopal Palace

Casa Botines

Bodegues Gell

Torre Bellesguard

The first example was the Colegi de les Teresianes (18881889), in Barcelona's Carrer Ganduxer, commissioned by San Enrique de Oss. Gaud fulfilled the wish of the order that the building should be austere, in keeping with their vows of poverty. He designed a simple building, using bricks for the exterior and some brick elements for the interior. Wrought ironwork, one of Gaud's favourite materials, appeared on the facades. The building is crowned by a row of merlons which suggest a castle, a possible reference [103] to Saint Teresa's Interior Castle. The corners have brick pinnacles topped by helicoidal columns and culminate in a four-armed cross, typical of Gaud's works, and with ceramic shields bearing various

symbols of the order. The interior includes a corridor which is famous for the series of catenary arches that it contains. These elegant arches are decorative and support the ceiling and the floor above. For Gaud, the catenary arch was an ideal constructional element, capable of supporting great loads with [104] slender masonry. Gaud received his next commission from a clergyman who had been a boyhood friend in his native Reus. When he was appointed bishop of Astorga, Joan Baptista Grau i Vallespins asked Gaud to design a new episcopal palace for the city, as the previous building had caught fire. Constructed between 1889 and 1915, in a neo-Gothic style with four cylindrical towers, it was surrounded by a moat. The stone with which it was built (grey granite from the El Bierzo area) is in harmony with its surroundings, particularly with the cathedral in its immediate vicinity, as well as with the natural landscape, which in late 19th-century Astorga was more visible than today. The porch has three large flared arches, built of ashlar and separated by sloping buttresses. The structure is supported by columns with decorated capitals and by ribbed vaults on pointed arches, and topped with Mudejar-style merlons. Gaud resigned from the project in 1893, at the death of Bishop Grau, due to disagreements with the Chapter, and it was finished in 1915 by Ricardo Garca Guereta. It currently houses a museum about the Way of Saint [105] James, which passes through Astorga Another of Gaud's projects outside of Catalonia was the Casa de los Botines, in Len (18911894), commissioned by Simn Fernndez Fernndez and Mariano Andrs Luna, textile merchants from Leon, who were recommended Gaud by Eusebi Gell, with whom they did business. Gaud's project was an impressive neo-Gothic style building, which bears his unmistakable modernistaimprint. The building was used to accommodate offices and textile shops on the lower floors, as well as apartments on the upper [106] floors. It was constructed with walls of solid limestone. The building is flanked by four cylindrical turrets surmounted by slate spires, and surrounded by an area with an iron grille. The Gothic facade style, with its cusped arches, has a clock and a sculpture of Saint George and the Dragon, the work of Lloren [107] Matamala. As of 2010 it was the headquarters of the Caja Espaa. In 1892 Gaud was commissioned by Claudio Lpez Bru, second Marquis of Comillas, with the Franciscana Catholic Missions for the city of Tangier, in Morocco (at the time a Spanish colony). The project included a church, hospital and school, and Gaud conceived a quadrilobulate ground-plan floor structure, with catenary arches, parabolic towers, and hyperboloid windows. Gaud deeply regretted the project's eventual demise, always keeping his design with him. In spite of this, the project influenced the works of the Sagrada Famlia, in particular the design of the towers, with their paraboloid shape like those [108] of the Missions.

Franciscan Mission of Tangiers

In 1895 he designed a funerary chapel for the Gell family at the abbey of Montserrat, but little is known about this work, which was never built. That year, construction finally began on the Bodegas Gell, the 1882 project for a hunting lodge and some wineries at La Cuadra de Garraf (Sitges), property of Eusebi Gell. Constructed between 1895 and 1897 under the direction of Francesc Berenguer, Gaud's aide, the wineries have a triangular end facade, a very steep stone roof, a group of chimneys and two bridges that join them to an older building. It has three floors: the bottom one for a garage, an apartment and a chapel with catenary arches, with the altar in the centre. It was completed with a porter's lodge, notable for the iron gate in the shape of a fishing net. In the township of Sant Gervasi de Cassoles (now a district of Barcelona), the widow of Jaume Figueras commissioned Gaud to renovate the Torre Bellesguard (19001909), former summer palace of King [109] Martin I the Humane. Gaud designed it in a neo-Gothic style, respecting the former building as much as possible, and tried as always to integrate the architecture into the natural surroundings. This influenced his choice of local slate for the construction. The building's ground-plan measures 15 x 15 meters, with the corners oriented to the four cardinal points. Constructed in stone and brick, it is taller than it is wide, with a spire topped with the four-armed cross, the Catalan flag and the royal crown. The [110] house has a basement, ground floor, first floor and an attic, with a gable roof.

Naturalist period[edit]
During this period Gaud perfected his personal style, inspired by the organic shapes of nature, putting into practise a whole series of new structural solutions originating from his deep analysis ofruled geometry. To this he added a great creative freedom and an imaginative ornamental style. His works acquired a great structural richness, with shapes and volumes devoid of rational rigidity or any classic [111] premise.

18981900[edit]
Commissioned by the company Hijos de Pedro Mrtir Calvet, Gaud built the Casa Calvet (18981899), in Barcelona's Carrer Casp. The facade is built of Montjuc stone, adorned with wrought iron balconies and topped with two pediments with wrought iron crosses. Another notable feature of the facade is the gallery on the main floor, decorated with plant and mythological motifs. For this project Gaud used a Baroque style, visible in the use of Solomonic columns, decoration with floral themes and the design of the terraced roof . In 1900 he won the award for the best building of the year from Barcelona City [112] Council. A virtually unknown work by Gaud is the Casa Claps (1899 1900), at 125 Carrer Escorial, commissioned by the painter Aleix Claps, who collaborated on occasion with Gaud, such as in decorating the Palau Gell and the Casa Mil. It has a ground floor and three apartments, with stuccoed walls and cast-iron balconies. Due to its lack of decoration or original structural solutions its authorship [113] was unknown until 1976, when the architect's signed plans by Gaud were discovered. In 1900 he renovated the house of Dr. Pere Santal, at 32 Carrer Nou de la Rambla, a work of equally low importance. Santal was a friend of Gaud's, whom he accompanied during his stay in Puigcerd in [114] 1911.It was he who recommended him to do manual work for his rheumatism.

Naturalist works (18981900)

Casa Calvert

Finca Miralles

Park Gell

Rosary of Montserrat

Also in 1900 he designed two banners: for the Orfe Feliu (of Sant Feliu de Codines), made of brass, leather, cork and silk, with ornamental motifs based on the martyrdom of San Flix (a millstone), music (a staff and clef) and the inscription "Orfe Feliu"; and Our Lady of Mercy of Reus, for the pilgrimage of the Reus residents of Barcelona, with an image of Isabel Besora, the shepherdess to whom the Virgin appeared in 1592, work of Aleix Claps and, on the back, a rose and the Catalan flag. In the same year, for the shrine of Our Lady of Mercy in Reus, Gaud outlined a project for the renovation of the church's main facade, which ultimately was not undertaken, as the board considered it too expensive. Gaud took this rejection quite badly, leaving some bitterness towards Reus, possibly the source of his subsequent [115] claim that Riudoms was his place of birth. Between 1900 and 1902 Gaud worked on the Casa Miralles, commissioned by the industrialist Hermenegild Miralles i Angls; Gaud designed only the wall near the gateway, of undulating masonry, with an iron gate topped with the four-armed cross. Subsequently, the house for Seor Miralles was designed by Domnec Sugraes, associate architect of Gaud. Gaud's main new project at the beginning of the 20th century was the Park Gell (19001914), commissioned by Eusebi Gell. It was intended to be a residential estate in the style of an Englishgarden city. The project was unsuccessful: of the 60 plots into which the site was divided only one was sold. Despite this, the park entrances and service areas were built, displaying Gaud's genius and putting into practise many of his innovative structural solutions. The Park Gell is situated in Barcelona's Crmel district, a rugged area, with steep slopes that Gaud negotiated with a system of viaducts integrated into the terrain. The main entrance to the park has a building on each side, intended as a porter's lodge and an office, and the site is surrounded by a stone and glazed-ceramic wall. These entrance buildings are an example of Gaud at the height of his powers, with Catalan vaults that form a parabolic [116] hyperboloid. After passing through the gate, steps lead to higher levels, decorated with sculpted fountains, notably the dragon fountain, which has become a symbol of the park and one of Gaud's most recognised emblems. These steps lead to the Hypostyle Hall, which was to have been the residents' market, constructed with large Doric columns. Above this chamber is a large plaza in the form of a Greek theatre, with the famous undulating bench covered in broken ceramics ("trencads"), the work of Josep [117] Maria Jujol. The park's show home, the work of Francesc Berenguer, was Gaud's residence from 1906 to 1926, and currently houses the Casa-Museu Gaud.

During this period Gaud contributed to a group project, the Rosary of Montserrat (1900 1916). Located on the way to the Holy Cave of Montserrat, it was a series of groups of sculptures that evoked the mysteries of the Virgin, who tells the rosary. This project involved the best architects and sculptors of the era, and is a curious example of Catalan Modernism. Gaud designed the First Mystery of Glory, which represents the Holy Sepulcher. The series include a statue of Christ Risen, the work of Josep Llimona, and the Three Marys sculpted by Dions Renart. Another monumental project designed by Gaud for Montserrat was never carried out: it would have included crowning the summit of El Cavall Bernat (one of the mountain peaks) with a viewpoint in the shape of a royal crown, incorporating a 20 metres (66 ft) high [118] Catalan coat of arms into the wall.

19011903[edit]
In 1901 Gaud decorated the house of Isabel Gell Lpez, Marchioness of Castelldosrius, and daughter of Eusebi Gell. Situated at 19 Carrer Junta de Comer, the house had been built in 1885 and renovated [119] between 1901 and 1904; it was destroyed by a bomb during the Civil War. The following year Gaud took part in the decoration of the Bar Torino, property of Flaminio Mezzalana, located at 18 Passeig de Grcia; Gaud designed the ornamentation of el Saln rabe of that establishment, made with varnished Arabian-style cardboard tiles (which no longer exist). A project of great interest to Gaud was the restoration of the Cathedral of Santa Maria in Palma de Mallorca (19031914), commissioned by the city's bishop, Pere Campins i Barcel. Gaud planned a series of works including removing the baroque altarpiece, revealing the bishop's throne, moving the choir-stalls from the centre of the nave and placing them in the presbytery, clearing the way through chapel of the Holy Trinity, placing new pulpits, fitting the cathedral with electrical lighting, uncovering the Gothic windows of the Royal Chapel and filling them with stained glass, placing a large canopy above the main altar and completing the decoration with paintings. This was coordinated by Joan Rubi i Bellver, Gaud's assistant. Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Joaqun Torres Garca, Iu Pascual and Jaume Llongueras were also involved. Gaud abandoned the project in 1914 due to disagreements with the [120] Cathedral chapter.

1904[edit]

Casa Batll

One of Gaud's largest and most striking works is the Casa Batll (19041906). Commissioned by Josep [121] Batll i Casanovas to renovate an existing building erected in 1875 by Emili Sala Corts, Gaud focused on the facade, the main floor, the patio and the roof, and built a fifth floor for the staff. For this project he was assisted by his aides Domnec Sugraes, Joan Rubi and Josep Canaleta. The facade is of Montjuc sandstone cut to create warped ruled surfaces; the columns are bone-shaped with vegetable decoration. Gaud kept the rectangular shape of the old building's balconieswith iron railings in the shape of masksgiving the rest of the facade an ascending undulating form. He also faced the facade with ceramic fragments of various colours ("trencads"), which Gaud obtained from the waste material of the Pelegr glass works. The interior courtyard is roofed by a skylight supported by an iron structure in the shape of a double T, which rests on a series of catenary aches. The helicoidal chimneys are a notable feature of the roof, topped with conical caps, covered in clear glass in the centre and ceramics at the top, and surmounted by clear glass balls filled with sand of different colours. The facade culminates in catenary vaults covered with two layers of brick and faced with glazed ceramic tiles in the form of scales (in shades of yellow, green and blue), which resemble a dragon's back; on the left side is a cylindrical [122] turret with anagrams of Jesus, Mary and Joseph, and with Gaud's four-armed cross. In 1904, commissioned by the painter Llus Graner i Arruf, he designed the decoration of the Sala Merc, in the Rambla dels Estudis, one of the first cinemas in Barcelona; the theatre imitated a cave, inspired by the Coves del del Drac (Dragon's Caves) in Mallorca. Also for Graner he designed a detached house in the Bonanova district of Barcelona, of which only the foundations and the main gate were built, with three openings: for people, vehicles and birds; the building would have had a structure similar to the Casa [123] Batll or the porter's lodge of the Park Gell.

El chalet de Catllars (1905), in La Pobla de Lillet

The same year he built a workshop, the Taller Badia, for Josep and Llus Badia Miarnau, blacksmiths who worked for Gaud on several of his works, such as the Batll and Mil houses, the Park Gell and the Sagrada Famlia. Located at 278 Carrer Npols, it was a simple stone building. Around that time he also designed hexagonal hydraulic floor tiles for the Casa Batll, they were eventually used instead for the Casa Mil; they were a green colour and were decorated with seaweed, shells and starfish. These tiles [124] were subsequently chosen to pave Barcelona's Passeig de Grcia. Also in 1904 he built the Chalet de Catllars, in La Pobla de Lillet, for the Asland cement factory, owned by Eusebi Gell. It has a simple structure though very original, in the shape of a pointed arch, with two semi-circular flights of stairs leading to the top two floors. This building fell into ruin when the cement works closed, and when it was eventually restored its appearance was radically altered, the ingenious original staircase being replaced with a simpler metal one. In the same area he created the Can Artigas

Gardens between 1905 and 1907, in an area called Font de la Magnesia, commissioned by the textile merchant Joan Artigas i Alart; men who had worked the Park Gell were also involved on this project, [125] similar to the famous park in Barcelona.

1906[edit]

Artigas Gardens, in La Pobla de Lillet

In 1906 he designed a bridge over the Torrent de Pomeret, between Sarri and Sant Gervasi. This river flowed directly between two of Gaud's works, Bellesguard and the Chalet Graner, and so he was asked to bridge the divide. Gaud designed an interesting structure composed of juxtaposed triangles that would support the bridge's framework, following the style of the viaducts that he made for the Park Gell. It would have been built with cement, and would have had a length of 154 metres (505 ft) and a height of 15 metres (49 ft); the balustrade would have been covered with glazed tiles, with an inscription dedicated to [126] Santa Eullia. The project was not approved by the Town Council of Sarri. The same year Gaud apparently took part in the construction of the Torre Dami Mateu, in Llinars del Valls, in collaboration with his disciple Francesc Berenguer, though the project's authorship is not clear or to what extent they each contributed to it. The style of the building evokes Gaud's early work, such as the Casa Vicens or the Gell Pavilions; it had an entrance gate in the shape of a fishing net, currently [127] installed in the Park Gell. The building was demolished in 1939. Also in 1906 he designed a new banner, this time for the Guild of metalworkers and blacksmiths for the Corpus Christi procession of 1910, in Barcelona Cathedral. It was dark green in colour, with Barcelona's coat of arms in the upper left corner, and an image of Saint Eligius, patron of the guild, with typical tools of the trade. The banner was burned [128] in July 1936.

Casa Mil

Another of Gaud's major projects and one of his most admired works is the Casa Mil, better known as La Pedrera (19061910), commissioned by Pere Mil i Camps. Gaud designed the house around two large, curved courtyards, with a structure of stone, brick and cast-iron columns and steel beams. The facade is built of limestone from Vilafranca del Peneds, apart from the upper level, which is covered in white tiles, evoking a snowy mountain. It has a total of five floors, plus a loft made entirely of catenary arches, as well as two large interior courtyards, one circular and one oval. Notable features are the staircases to the roof, topped with the four-armed cross, and the chimneys, covered in ceramics and with shapes that suggest mediaeval helmets. The interior decoration was carried out by Josep Maria Jujol and the painters Iu Pascual, Xavier Nogus and Aleix Claps. The facade was to have been completed with a stone, metal and glass sculpture with Our lady of the Rosary accompanied by the archangels Michael and Gabriel, 4m in height. A sketch was made by the sculptor Carles Mani, but due to the events of the Tragic [129] Week in 1909 the project was abandoned.

19078[edit]

Sketch of the Hotel Attraction, by Joan Matamala

In 1907, to mark the seventh centenary of the birth of King James I, Gaud designed a monument in his memory. It would have been situated in the Plaa del Rei, and would have also meant the renovation of the adjacent buildings: new roof for the cathedral, as well as the completion of its towers and cupola; placement of three vases above the buttresses of the Chapel of Santa gada, dedicated to the Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary, as well as the figure of an angel on top of the chapel's tower; finally, the opening of a large square next to the walls (now the Plaa Ramon Berenguer el Grand). The project was not [130] executed because the city council disliked it. In 1908 Gaud devised a project for a skyscraper hotel in New York, the Hotel Attraction, commissioned by two American entrepreneurs whose names are unknown. It would have been 360 metres (1,180 ft) high (taller than the Empire State Building), with a taller parabolic central section, topped with a star, and flanked by four volumes containing museums, art galleries and concert halls, with shapes similar to the [131] Casa Mil. Inside it would have had five large rooms, one dedicated to every continent.

Original design of the church for the Colnia Gell

The final project for his great patron Eusebi Gell was the church for the Colnia Gell, an industrial village in Santa Coloma de Cervell, of which only the crypt was constructed (known today as Crypt of the Colnia Gell) (19081918). The project began in 1890, and the factory, service buildings and housing for the workers were constructed. What would have been the colony's church was designed by Gaud in 1898, though the first stone was not laid until 4 October 1908. Unfortunately only the crypt was built, as Gell's sons abandoned the project after his death in 1918. Gaud designed an oval church with five aisles, one central aisle and two at either side. He conceived it as fully integrated into nature. A porch of hyperbolic paraboloid vaults precedes the crypt, the first time that Gaud used this structure and [132] notably the first use of paraboloid vaults in the history of architecture. In the crypt the large hyperboloid stained glass windows stand out, with the shapes of flower petals and butterfly wings. Inside, circular brick pillars alternate with slanted basalt columns from Castellfollit de la Roca.

Final period[edit]

Sagrada Familia schools

During the last years of his career, dedicated almost exclusively to la Sagrada Famlia, Gaud reached the culmination of this naturalistic style, creating a synthesis of all of the solutions and styles he had tried until then. Gaud achieved perfect harmony between structural and ornamental elements, between plastic and aesthetic, between function and form, between container and content, achieving the integration of all [133] arts in one structured, logical work.

The first example of his final stage can be seen in a simple but very ingenious building, the Sagrada Famlia schools, a small school for the workers' children. Built in 1909, it has a rectangular ground plan of 10 by 20 metres (33 ft 66 ft), and contained three classrooms, a vestibule and a chapel. It was built of exposed brick, in three overlapping layers, following the traditional Catalan method. The walls and roof have an undulating shape, giving the structure a sense of lightness but also strength. The Sagrada Famlia schools have set an example of constructive genius and have served as a source of inspiration [134] for many architects, such is their simplicity, strength, originality, functionality and geometric excellence. In May 1910 Gaud paid a short visit to Vic, where he was tasked to design the lampposts for the city's Plaa Major, in commemoration of the first centenary of the birth of Jaume Balmes. They were obeliskshaped lamps, with basalt rock bases from Castellfollit de la Roca and wrought iron arms, topped with the four-armed cross; they were decorated with vegetable themes and included the birth and death dates of [135] Balmes. They were demolished in 1924 due to poor maintenance. The same year, on the occasion of Eusebi Gell's obtaining the title of count, Gaud designed a coat of arms for his patron. He devised a shield with the lower part in a catenary shape typical of Gaud. He divided it into two parts: the lantern of Palau Gell features a dove and a gear-wheel on the right in allusion to the Colnia Gell in Santa Coloma de Cervell (coloma is Catalan for dove), with the phrase ahir pastor (yesterday Shepherd). On the left is an owl perched on a half-moonsymbol of prudence and wisdomwith the words avuy senyor (today Lord). The shield is surmounted by a helmet [136] with the count's coronet and the dove symbol of the Holy Spirit. In 1912 he built two pulpits for the church of Santa Maria in Blanes: the pulpit on the Gospel side had a hexagonal base, decorated with the dove of the Holy Spirit and the names in Latin of the four evangelists and the seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit; the pulpit of the Epistle side had the names of the apostles who wrote epistles (Saint Peter, Saint Paul, Saint John the Evangelist, Saint Judas Thadeus and Saint James the Great), with the three theological virtues and the flames of Pentecost. These pulpits were burned in [137] July 1936.

Sagrada Famlia[edit]

Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Famlia

From 1915 Gaud devoted himself almost exclusively to his magnum opus, the Sagrada Famlia, a synthesis of his architectural evolution. After completion of thecrypt and the apse, still in Gothic style, the

rest of the church is conceived in an organic style, imitating natural shapes with their abundance of ruled surfaces. He intended the interior to resemble a forest, with inclined columns like branching trees, helicoidal in form, creating a simple but sturdy structure. Gaud applied all of his previous experimental findings in this project, from works such as the Park Gell and the crypt of the Colnia Gell, creating a church that is at once structurally perfect, harmonious and aesthetically satisfying. The Sagrada Famlia has a cruciform plan, with a five-aisled nave, a transept of three aisles, and an apse with seven chapels. It has three facades dedicated to the birth, passion and glory of Jesus, and when completed it will have eighteen towers: four at each side making a total of twelve for the apostles, four on the transept invoking the evangelists and one on the apse dedicated to the Virgin, plus the central tower [138] in honour of Jesus, which will reach 170 metres (560 ft) in height. The church will have two sacristies adjacent to the apse, and three large chapels: one for the Assumption in the apse, and the Baptism and Penitence chapels at the west end; also, it will be surrounded by a cloister designed for processions and to isolate the building from the exterior. Gaud used highly symbolic content in the Sagrada Famlia, both in architecture and sculpture, dedicating each part of the church to a religious theme. During Gaud's life only the crypt, apse and part of the Nativity facade were completed. Upon his death his assistant Domnec Sugraes took over the construction; thereafter it was directed by various architects. Jordi Bonet i Armengol assumed responsibility in 1987 and continued as of 2011. Artists such as Lloren and Joan Matamala, Carles Mani, Jaume Busquets, Joaquim Ros i Bofarull, Etsuro Sotoo and Josep Maria Subirachs (creator of the Passion facade) have worked on the sculptural decoration. Completion is not expected until at least 2027.

Minor, late projects[edit]

During the last years of his life, apart from his devotion to the Sagrada Famlia, Gaud participated only in minor projects which were not completed: in 1916, on the death of his friend bishop Josep Torras i Bages, he designed a monument in his honour, which he wanted to place in front of the Passion facade of the Sagrada Famlia. He made a sketch of the project, which ultimately was not carried out, and made a plaster bust of the bishop, the work of Joan Matamala under the instruction of Gaud. It was put in the [139] Sagrada Famlia, where it would have formed part of the church, but it was destroyed in 1936. Another commemorative monument project, also not carried out, was dedicated to Enric Prat de la Riba, which would have been situated in Castellterol, birthplace of this Catalan politician. The project dates from 1918, and would have consisted of a tall tower with two porticos and a spire topped with an iron structure [140] flying the Catalan flag. The sketch of the project was done by Llus Bonet i Gar, Gaud's assistant. In 1922 Gaud was commissioned, by the Franciscan Padre Anglico Aranda, to construct a church [141] dedicated to the Assumption in Rancagua (Chile). Gaud apologised and said that he was occupied exclusively with the Sagrada Famlia, but sent some sketches of the Assumption chapel which he had designed for the apse of the Sagrada Famlia, which more or less coincided with what Padre Aranda had asked for. Unfortunately this project was not carried out, though there are currently plans by the Chilean architect Christian Matzner to take up the project, which if completed would become the first of Gaud's [142] works to be constructed in the Americas. The same year Gaud was consulted about the construction of a monumental train station for Barcelona (the future Estaci de Frana). Gaud suggested an iron structure in the form of a large suspended awning, a solution quite ahead of its time; perhaps for this reason, it put the head engineers off, and they

declined Gaud's offer. The last known projects by the architect are the chapel for the Colnia Calvet in Torell, of 1923, and a pulpit for Valencia (the exact location is unknown), of 1924. From then on, Gaud worked exclusively on the Sagrada Famlia, until the fateful day of the accident which caused his death.