Advanced Mathematics-II

Subject code: MATDIP401

EDUSAT programme-18
Dr. S. S. Benchalli
Associate Professor and Head
Department of Mathematics
Basaveshwar Engineering College
Bagalkot 587102, Karnataka
Email: sbenchalli@gmail.com
Mobile: 8762644634
Syllabus
Vector Algebra:
Vector addition, multiplication (Dot and Cross products), Triple products, vector
differentiation: Velocity, Acceleration of a vector point function.
Solid Geometry: Straight lines, angle between the planes
Why do we bother with Vector algebra?
Learning vector Algebra represents an important step in students ability to solve
problems.
The importance of vector algebra can be understood in the context of previous
steps in knowledge.
At some point (usually in previous classes) students are taught basic algebra
because the mathematics they have known up to the point, arithmetic, cannot
solve most real-world problems.
For example, a student may be asked to find the speed required to travel 33
miles in 60 minutes. For this problem, arithmetic alone is not terribly useful.
During high school students begin to realize that even algebra cannot solve
problems that incorporate two-dimensional space, so they learn trigonometry and
geometry. For example, if a student was trying to find the amount to concrete
needed to fill a cone-shaped hole, simple algebra alone will be of little help.
However, geometry and trigonometry are very difficult to apply in many
situations. Vector algebra was invented in order to solve two-dimensional and
three-dimensional problems without the use of cumbersome geometry.
Although it is possible to use ordinary trigonometry and geometry to solve
most of Physics problems we are likely to encounter, vector algebra has
some significant advantages:
1. Vector algebra is much easier to apply then geometry and requires knowledge of
fewer rules.
2. The Mechanics of vector algebra are straightforward, requiring less intuition and
cleverness in finding a solution.
3. Vector algebra operations are much easier to express with familiar nomenclature.
(For example, the statement C = A + B is a typical vector algebra expressions.)
Many of the rules learned in basic algebra also apply in vector algebra.(For
example, we can add the same vector to both sides of an equation , we can
divide both sides of an equation by a number and so on.)
What is a vector?
Historical Note: The word vector has been derived from a Latin word vectus,
which means to carry.
The germinal ideas of modern vector theory date from around 1800
when Caspar Wessel (1745-1818) and Jean Robert Argand (1768-1822)
described that how a complex number a + ib could be given a geometric
interpretation with the help of a directed line segment in a coordinate plane,
William Rowen Hamilton (1805-1865 ) an Irish Mathematician was the first
to use the term vector for a directed line segment in his book Lectures on
Quaternions (1853).
The idea of vector concept and their addition was known much earlier ever since
the time of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), a Greek philosopher, and pupil of Plato (427-
348 B.C.).
That time it was supposed to be known that the combined action of two or
more forces could be seen by adding them according to parallelogram law.
The correct law for the composition of forces, that forces add vectorially,
had been discovered in the case of perpendicular forces by Stevin-Simon
(1548-1620).
In the 1880, Josaih Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), an American Physicist and
Mathematician, and Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925), an English engineer, created
what we now know as vector analysis, essentially by separating the real (scalar)
part of quaternion from its imaginary (vector) part.
In 1881 and 1884 Gibbs printed a treatise entitled Elements of vector
Analysis; This book gave a systematic and concise account of vectors.
However, much of the credit for demonstrating the applications of vectors
is due to the Heaviside and P. G, Tait (1831-1901) who contributed significantly
to this subject.
What is vector?
Suppose you were given the job as weatherman for national television station.
You would like to convey to your audience the wind speeds and directions in their
area, and how they compare to other areas.
First you could try writing down the speed and direction of the wind at
various locations on a map.
What is a vector?
However, notice that the viewer is going to have a miserable time.
First, he will need very good eyesight, and patience. Most importantly, such a
system is insufficient for detecting general trends in wind direction and speed.
To do so, the viewer has to write down all the data for each location and
study it(but it is not a good system!).
A slight Improvement:
Another idea is to indicate the direction of the wind an arrow, while writing the
wind speed next to the arrow. Now the viewer can compare the directions of the
wind easily with other locations.
A slight Improvement:
Some of the arrows may correspond to mere breezes, others to full-blown gales.
Therefore, such a system is visually misleading, because numbers alone do not provide
the necessary visual cues establish general trends in wind speed.
Using the idea of the vector:
Is there a way that we can incorporate both aspects of wind speed and direction, with a
simple system?
Yes! Make the length of the arrow correspond to the speed of the wind. With this
system, long arrows correspond to high winds, so on. Now, the viewer can tell which
direction the wind is blowing in his area with a quick glance. Furthermore, the viewer can
tell how the wind speed in his area compares other areas.
Vector Algebra
Once the arrow indicates both a magnitude of some sort (in this case, the speed of the
wind) and a direction, it is called a vector. The vector in this example is a velocity vector.
The length of the arrow, which represents the magnitude of the velocity, is called the
speed.
Introduction:
in our day today life, we come across many queries such as
i) What is your height?
ii) How should a football player hit the ball to give a pass to another player
of his team?
Observe that a possible answer to the first query may be 1.6
meters, a quantity that involves only one value (magnitude) which is a real
number. Such quantities are called Scalars.
However, an answer to the second query is a quantity( called force) which
involves muscular strength (magnitude) and direction (in which another player is
positioned). Such quantities are called vectors.
In Mathematics, Physics and Engineering, we frequently come across with
both types of quantities, namely, scalar quantities such as length , mass, time,
distance, speed, area, volume, temperature, work, money, voltage, density,
resistance etc and vector quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, weight, momentum, electric field intensity etc.
Some Basic Concepts:
Let l be any straight line in plane or three dimensional spaces. This line
can be given two directions by means of arrowheads. A line with one of these
directions prescribed is called a directed line.
A directed line segment: A directed line segment is a segment say AB, of an infinite
straight line which has got a particular direction say from A to B, as shown in the figure.
A is called the initial point and B is called the terminal point. The infinite straight line on
which the segment AB lies is called the line of support. Thus a directed line segment
whose initial point is A and terminal point B, denoted by has length and
direction.
Hence a directed line segment can be used to denote vectors. Thus if is a vector
then represents its length or magnitude or the modulus,
Single letters like are also used to denote vectors and denote their
lengths.
Definition: A quantity that has magnitude as well as direction is called a vector. The
arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
Note: Since the length is never negative, the notation has no meaning.
Types of vector:
Zero vector: A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector
( or null vector) and is denoted as . Zero vector cannot be assigned a definite

AB

AB
c b a

, , c b a

, ,
0 < a

AB
o

direction as it has zero magnitude. Or, alternatively otherwise, it may be regarded as

having any direction.
Unit vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity ( i.e. 1 unit) is called a unit vector in the
direction of a given vector .
Co-initial Vector: Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called co initial
vectors are co-initial vectors (see the following figure.)..
Collinear vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to
the same line, irrespective of their magnitude and directions.
Are collinear vector.
Equal vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if they have
i) The same length
ii) The same direction
iii) The same or parallel line of supports
The vectors are all equal
Negative of a vector:
Consider a vector (as shown in figure). The vector whose magnitude is same
as that of ,but whose direction is opposite to that of is called the negative of
and is denoted by -
a by denoted is and

a

OR OQ, , OP

C D , AB
EF , C D , AB

AB

AB

AB

AB

AB - BA
Example 1: Represent graphically a displacement of 40 km, 30
0
west of south.
Solution: The vector represents the required displacement.
Example: Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors
i) 5 seconds
ii) 1000 cm
3
iii) 10 Newton
iv) 30km/hr
v) 10 g/cm
3
vi) 20 m/s towards north
Solution: i) Time - Scalar
ii) Volume Scalar
iii) Force- vector
Iv)Speed scalar
V) Density scalar
Velocity vector
Example: In the following diagram which of the vectors are:
i) Collinear ii) Equal iii) Co-initial
OP

To see how the method works, consider the following problem: Eric leaves the base camp and
hikes 11km, north and then hikes 11km east. Determine Erics resulting displacement.
This problem asks to determine the result of adding two displacement vectors
that are at right angles to each other.
To result (or resultant) of walking 11km north and 11km east is a vector directed as
shown in the diagram to the right. Since the northward displacement and the eastward
displacement are at right angles to each other, the Pythagorean Theorem can be used to
determine the resultant (i.e, the hypotenuse of the right triangle)
Now, consider a boat in a river going from one bank of the river to the other in a direction
perpendicular to the flow of the river. Then, it is acted upon by two velocity vector, one in the
velocity imparted to the boat by its engine and other one is the velocity of the flow of river
water.
Under the simultaneous influence of these two velocities, the boat in actual starts
travelling with a different velocity.
To have a precise idea about the effective speed and direction (i.e. the resultant
velocity) of the boat, we have the following law of vector addition.
Example:
An airplane starts from an airport located at the origin O and flies 150 miles in the
direction 20
0
north of east of city A. From A, the airplane then flies 200 miles in the
direction 23
0
west of north to city B. From B, the airplane flies 240 miles in the direction
10
0
south of west to city C. Express the location of city C as a vector.
, OC and OB , OA vectors The
l OC and l OB l, OA

=

Product of Two vectors: So for we have studied about addition and subtraction of
vectors . Another algebraic operation which we intend to discuss regarding vectors is
their product.
We may recall that product of two numbers is a number, product of two matrices
is again a matrix. But in case of functions, we may multiply them in two ways, namely,
multiplication of two functions point wise and composition of two functions.
Similarly, multiplication of two vectors is also defined in two ways, namely, scalar
(or dot ) product where the result is a scalar, and vector (or cross) product where the
result is a vector. Based upon these two types of products for vectors, they have found
various applications in geometry, mechanics and engineering.
Right handed rectangular system:
XOX, YOY and ZOZ are three lines which are mutually right angles at O. The
positive directions OX,OY,OZ are such that when a right handed screw is placed at O
along OZ and rotated in the anticlockwise direction. The screw would move in the
direction of OZ, such system of co-ordinate axes is called the right handed rectangular
system of axes.
Right handed system of vectors:
Vector Product:
sin b h =
b a

The order of vector multiplication is important.

Geometrical Interpretation:
Area of the parallelogram formed by a and b
Properties
Vector multiplication is not Commutative.
Vector multiplication is Distributive
Multiplication by a scalar
If
0 b a

and a

and b

are not null vectors, then a

is parallel to b

.
0 k

Angle between them 0
j

; i

; k

Angle between them 90
j

; i

; k

a b b a

=
c a b a ) c b ( a

+ = +
m m m m ) b a ( ) b ( a b ) a ( ) b a (

= = =
0 0 sin | b a | = = = ab

Vector Product: Components

a

Vector Product: Determinant :

3 2 1
3 2 1
k

b b b
a a a b x a =

Example: simple cross product

An Example:
) k

(
3 3
) j

(
2 3
) i

(
1 3
) k

(
3 2
) j

(
2 2
) i

(
1 2
) k

(
3 1
) j

(
2 1
) i

(
1 1
+ + +
+ + +
+ + =
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
)

2 ( )

2

5 ( k j i k j i - + + -
1 3 2
2 1 5

-
- =
k j i
k
j
i

)] 1 . 2 ( 3 . 5 [

)] 1 . 5 ( 2 . 2 [

] 2 . 3 ) 1 . 1 [(
- - +
- - +
- - - =
)

2 ( )

2

5 ( k j i k j i - + + - k j i

17

5 + + - =
Check :
An example:
Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of
)

2

5 ( k j i a

and
)

2 ( k j i b - + =

An Example:
TRIPLE PRODUCTS:
Scalar Triple Product
) c b ( a

),

2 ( ),

( k j i b k j i a f i + + = + - =

, ,
75
5
25 25 25
5 5 5
| |
by given is both lar to perpendicu r unit vecto
5 5 5
1 1 2
3 2 1
k j i k j i
b a
b a
b and a The
k j i
k j i
b a
+ + -
=
+ +
+ + -
=

+ + - = - =

k 2j - 3i 4k; - j 2i
2k - j k;3i 2j - 6i
vectors of pairs following the to
lar perpendicu r unit vecto the :
84
75
1 1 4 9 4 1
25 25 25 | |
sin )
+ +
+ +
=
+ + + +
+ +
=

=
Fi nd Assi gnment
b a
b a
i i

Vector Triple Product

) ( c b a

Scalar Triple Product
, ,
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
c c c
b b b
a a a
c x b a = -

Area of the base

)]

1
( )

1
[(
)

1
(
k c j c i c k b j b i b
k a j a i a
+ + + +
- + +
]

)
1 2 2 1
(

)
3 1 1 3
(

)
2 3 3 2
[(
)

1
(
k c b c b
j c b c b i c b c b
k a j a i a
- +
- + -
- + + =
) (
) ( ) (
1 2 2 1 3
3 1 1 3 2 2 3 3 2 1
c b c b a
c b c b a c b c b a
- +
- + - =
sin | | bc c b =

| | c b

c o s | | | ) ( | c b a c b a

Volume of the parallelepiped
An Example
An Example
Differentiation of vectors:
Introduction:
Many physical quantities that occur in engineering and science require more than a
single number to characterize them. When describing quantities such as force and
velocity it is necessary to specify both a magnitude and direction, and these are
examples of vector quantities, whereas the air temperature, which can be specified by
giving a single number, is an example of scalar quantity. Physical problems are often
, ,
, , 3
1 1 2
5 1 1
4 3 2
a
2 , 5 4k, - 3j 2i a
following in the a
= -
-
= -
+ + = + - = + =
-
c b
k j i c k j i b
c b Fi nd

, ,
, , 0
1 1 1
4 3 2
8 5 2
a i.e
0 a is
, , a vectors for the :
, 4 3 2 8k, 5 j 2i a
coplanar are
vectors of
=
-
-
-
= -
= -
+ - = + - = + - =
c b
c b coplanar
be to c b condi ton The soluti on
k j i c k j i b
sets followi ng the that Show

best described in terms of vectors, so the objective of this lecture is to develop the most
important aspects of vector differential calculus.
Limits continuity of vector functions
of a single real variable:
Definition: A vector function of a single real variable F(t) = f
1
(t)I + f
2
(t)j + f
3
(t)k is said to
have L as its limit at t
0
, written
Definition: Continuous:
Derivative of a vector function of a single real variable:
A vector function of a single real variable F(t) = f
1
(t)I + f
2
(t)j + f
3
(t)k defined over the
interval a t b is said to be differentiable at a point t
0
in the interval if its components
are differentiable at t
0
.
It is said to be differentiable over the interval if it is differentiable over the interval if it is
differentiable at each point of the interval, and when F(t) is differentiable its derivative
with respect to t is
Derivative of a vector function of a single real variable:
When dF/dt is differentiable, the second order derivative d
2
F/dt
2
is defined as
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 2 1
) ( lim , ) ( lim , ) ( lim
L L L L where ) ( lim
0 0 0
0
L t f L t f L t f i f
k j i L t F
t t t t t t
t t
= = =
+ + = =

.
3 2 1
k
dt
df
j
dt
df
i
dt
df
dt
dF
+ + =
Differentiation of vector functions of a single real variable:
Let u(t) and v(t) be differential functions of t over some interval a t b with C an
arbitrary constant vector and C an arbitrary constant scalar. Then rules for
differentiation of vector functions of a single real variable over the interval a t b are
Example:
, ,
, , , , c by scaled vector a of ation differenti )
ector constant v a of ation differenti 0 )
dt
du
c cu
dt
d
i i
dt
dC
i
=
=
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
ds
dt
dt
du
ds
du
If vi
dt
dv
x u v x
dt
du
v x u
dt
d
v
dt
dv
u v
dt
du
v u
dt
d
i v
dt
dv
dt
du
v u
dt
d
i i i
=
=
+ =
- + - = -
=
then s, of function able differenti a is
t(s) t and t of function able differenti a is u(t) )
product cross a of ation differenti )
product dot a of ation differenti )
difference or sum a of ation differenti )
k t j k t t j t
k t t t j t t i t
) 2 6 ( 2 ; ) 1 2 3 ( ) 1 2 (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 (
0
2
2 3 2
+ + = |
.
|

\
|
= + + + + + =
+ + + + + + + + =
= = =
+ + + + + + + + =
dt
dr
dt
d
dt
r d
i
dt
dr
dt
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
dr
dt
dk
dt
dj
dt
di
vect ors const ant ar e k j, i, t hat know We : Sol uti on
.
dt
r d
and
dt
dr
fi nd 1 ) k t t ( t 1 ) j t ( t 1 ) i ( t r If
2
2
2
2
2 3 2
2. n ,
exist. s derivative the provided general, in ,
1
1
2
2
:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
-
-
for
dt
F d
dt
d
dt
F d
and
dt
dF
dt
d
dt
F d
n
n
n
n
Example:
Example:
A particle moves along the curve x = 1-t
3
, y = 1+t
2
, and z = 2t-5.
Determine its velocity and acceleration.
Solution: r(t) = (1-t
3
)i +( 1+t
2
)j +(2t-5)k
Velocity = v=
Acceleration =
Example:
A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are:
x = e
-t
, y = 2cos3t, z = 2sin3t, where t is the time. Find the velocity and acceleration at
any time t and also their magnitude at t = 0.
Solution : Given x = e
-t
, y = 2cos3t, z = 2sin3t then
r = (e
-t
)i + (2cos3t)j + ( 2sin3t)k
Velocity = v=
, , , ,
, , , , 1 cos sin
2 1 sin cos
2 2
2 2 2
= - + - =
= + - + =
t t and
t t
2
2
dt
r d
dt
dr
k tj i t
dt
dr
2 2 3
2
+ + - =
j ti
dt
r d
2 6
2
2
+ - =
tk tj i e
dt
r d
t
3 cos 6 3 sin 6 + - - =
-

j t ti k tj ti
k t j t i t
and
) (cos sin ; sin cos
) ( ) (cos ) (sin
0
- - = |
.
|

\
|
= + - =
+ + =
= = =
+ + =
dt
dr
dt
d
dt
r d
dt
dr
dt
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
dr
dt
dk
dt
dj
dt
di
vect or s const ant ar e k j, i, t hat kno w We : Sol uti on
dt
r d
dt
dr
,
dt
r d
,
dt
dr
fi nd t k j cost i si nt r If
2
2
2
2
2
2
Acceleration =
The magnitude of velocity and acceleration are
The magnitude at t = 0 are
Example : Find the radial and transverse velocity of a particle moving in a plane curve
324 ) 3 cos 3 (sin 324
36 ) 3 cos 3 (sin 36
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
+ = + + =
+ = + + =
- -
- -
t t
t t
e t t e a
e t t e v

325 324 1
37 36 1
= + =
= + =
a
v

, , j r
dt
d
dt
v d
v
j r
j i j

sin i rcos
sin i rcos v vectors velocity The
rs. unit vecto tranverse and radial called s lar vector perpendicu
are cos sin

and sin i cos r Therefore

t. any time at ) P(r,
particle moving a of ector position v a be r Let : Solution
+ = =
+ =
+ - = + =
, , , ,
ly respective r and
are velocity of component e transvers and radial Hence

cos i sin sin i cos

sin cos i cos sin
dt
d
dt
dr
dt
d
r r
dt
dr
j
dt
d
r j
dt
dr
j
dt
dr
dt
d
r
dt
dr
dt
d
r
dt
v d

+ =
+ - + + =
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ - =

tk tj i e
dt
r d
t
3 sin 18 3 cos 18
2
2
- - =
-

j wt rw wt rw
j wt rw wt rw
j wt r wt

sin i cos
dt
v d
a on accelerati
cos i sin
dt
r d
v velocity The
sin i rcos r
2 2
- - = =
+ - = =
+ =
, , , ,
, ,
t cons r w r w a
e i
r w j wt r wt r w
dt
v d
a
wt wt w r wt wt w r
j wt r wt j wt rw wt rw
tan Also center. the towards
directed always is on accelerati that shows sign Negative .
sin i cos
lar perpendicu are r and v
0 cos sin cos sin
sin i rcos cos i sin r v
2 2
2 2
2 2
= = - =
- = + - = =

= + - =
+ - + - = -

, , , ,
, ,
w r
w r
wtk wtk w r
j xi wt w r i xj wt w r
j wt rw wt rw x j wt r wt
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
magnitude of ector constant v is v x r Hence
sin cos
) ( sin ) ( cos
cos i sin sin i cos r v x r



=
+ =
- =
+ - + =
, ,
j rw rw
dt
r d
v
j wt r wt r

wt cos i sin wt
sin i cos r
+ - = =
+ =
, ,
. sec / 25 70
10 61 . 6
10 133 . 2 31
cos sin and
8
7 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
ft
x
x x gr rr w v
w r wt wt w r v
=
=
= = =
= + =

Relative velocity : For relative velocity problems, some fixed data point needs to be
selected. This is often a fixed on the earths surface. In any vector equation , only the
start and finish points affect the resultant vector of a system. Two different systems are
shown in the following diagram, but in each of the systems, the resultant vector is ad .
|
.
|

\
|
= = = =
+ =
+ =
+ = - =
- = - =
+ = - =
-
4
1
tan and
4
1
tan rsin 1 and cos 4
rsin rcos r ector position v the since
17 1 16 V
4 V
3 V
4 3 V
1
BE
BE
W E
BW


r
j i
j i V V
j i V V
j i V V
E B
E W
W B

Relative velocity (contd.): Note:
Thus in vector equations of this form ,only the first and last letters ,
a and d, respectively , fix the magnitude and direction of the
resultant vector. This principle is used in relative velocity problems.
Example: Two cars, P and Q, are travelling towards the junction of two roads which
are at right angles to one another. Car P has a velocity of 45 km/h due east and car Q
a velocity of 55 km/h due South. Calculate i) the velocity of car P relative to car Q, and
ii) The velocity of Car Q relative to car P.
Solution:
i) The directions of the cars are shown in the above figure, called a space diagram.
Velocity diagram is shown as follows.
Solution(contd.):In which pe is taken as the velocity of car P relative to point e on the
earths surface. The velocity P relative to Q is vector pq and the vector equation is pq =
pe + eq. Hence the vector directions are as shown, eq being in the opposite
direction to qe. From the geometry of the vector triangle.
i,e the velocity of car P relative to car Q is 71.06 km/h at 50.71
0
ii)The velocity of car Q relative to car P is given by the vector equation qp = qe + ep
and the vector diagram is as shown in the following , having ep opposite in direction to
pe.
From the geometry of this vector triangle.
But must lie in the third quadrant. i.e the required angle is 180
0
+50.71
0
=230.71
0
. Thus
the velocity of car Q relative to car P is 71.06m/s at 230.71
0
Assignment:
Example: 1) A car is moving along a straight horizontal road at 79.2 km/h and rain is
falling vertically downwards at 26,4 km/h. Find the velocity of the rain relative to the
driver of the car.
Answer:83.5 km/h at 71.60 to the vertical.
2) Calculate the time needed to swim across a river 142m wide when the swimmer can
swim at 2 km/h in still water and the river is flowing at 1 km/h.
Answer: 4 minutes 55 seconds.
0
2 2
71 . 5 0
45
5 5
tan pq and
/ 06 . 71 5 5 45
= |
.
|

\
|
=
= + = h k m pq
0
2 2
71 . 5 0
45
5 5
tan qp and
/ 06 . 71 5 5 45
= |
.
|

\
|
=
= + = h k m qp
Analytical geometry:
Introduction : Analytical geometry or co-ordinate geometry deals with the study of the
geometrical properties of the points, lines, curves through the use of algebraic methods
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was the first French Mathematician, who introduced the
system of combining Algebra and Geometry and developed the subject which we now
call Algebraic Geometry or co-ordinate geometry or Analytical geometry. It was shown
that every point in a plane can be represented by an ordered pair (x, y) of real number
uniquely and conversely for every ordered pair of real numbers there exists a point in
the plane. Thus each, geometrical figure can be associated with an algebraic equation
in x and y and its properties can be studied with the help of algebraic equation.
Draw three mutually perpendicular straight lines x o x , y o y and z o z as shown in
the figure o is called the origin . The three mutually perpendicular lines are called
rectangular coordinate axes. These three axes take in pairs determine the three planes
XOY, YOZ, and ZOX (or XY, YZ and ZX) mutually at right angles known as rectangular
co-ordinate planes.
Take any point P in the plane Draw planes parallel to the rectangular coordinate
planes to meet the axes in A, B and C. Let OA = x OB = y. OZ = z. The numbers x, y, z
are called the coordinates of P and the ordered triple ( x, y, z) is used to denote the
point P.
The straight line:
A straight line is generally regarded as the intersection of two planes and its orientation is
completely determined when the equations are known.
Let a
1
x+b
1
y+c
1
z+d
1
=0 and a
2
x+b
2
y+c
2
z+d
2
=0 be the equations of the two planes intersecting
along the straight line AB, then these two equations taken together represent the equations of
the line AB.
Hence these equations of the line AB a
1
x+b
1
y+c
1
z+d
1
=0 and a
2
x+b
2
y+c
2
z+d
2
=0 are taken as
non-symmetrical form or plane form of the equation of the line AB.
Note: The x-axis is the line of intersection of xy and zx planes whose equations are z =
0 and y = 0. Therefore equations of the x-axis are y = 0, z= 0
Similarly the equations of the y-axis are z = 0, x = 0 and the equations of the z-
axis are x = 0 , y = 0.
Equation of line in symmetrical form: To find the equation of the straight line passing
through the point A(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and having direction cosines l , m , n.
Let AB be the line in a space and A be the point (x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and Let (x, y, z) be any point on the line AB and
AP = r,
Draw AL and PM perpendicular on x-axis
So that OL= x
1
, OM= x
LM = OM OL
LM= x x
1
-------( 1 )
Also LM = Projection of AP on x-axis
= AP Coso where o is the angle which AP makes with x-axis i,e LM= r l -------( 2 ) from ( 1) and
(2) we have
x x
1
= r l similarly y - y
1
=mr z - z
1
=nr, we write
which is the equation of line symmetrical form.
Note : Any point on the line is obtained from
Two point form : The equation of a line passing through two points P(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
) and Q (x
2
,y
2
,z
2
) is
Example : Find the angle between two lines
Example : Convert the line 2x y z + 4 = 0 = 3x + 2y - z into the symmetrical form
r
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
=
-
=
-
=
-
1 1 1
, , nr z mr y lr x
nr z z mr y y lr x x
r
n
z z
r
m
y y
r
l
x x
e i
r
n
z z
m
y y
l
x x
+ + +
+ = + = + =
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
=
-
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
, , is line on the point Any
, , ,
, , . .
c
z z
b
y y
a
x x
If
z z
z z
y y
y y
x x
x x
1 1 1
1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
form the of is the of equation
then line the of ratios direction the are c b, a,
-
=
-
=
-
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
5
1
10
2
100
2
100
(-1)5 4(0) 3(1)
C os
em between th angle the is If
3,4,5 and 1,0,-1 are s D R' The : Solution
5
1
4 3
2
1
1
0
2
1
3
- = - = - =
+ +
=
-
= =
-
-
+
=
-
=
-

z y x
and
z y x
0 1 - z - 2y 3x and 0 4 y 2x equation
in the 0 z put line straight on the point a find To
1 : -2 : 3/2 c : b : a get we Solving
0 ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 (
0 ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 (
ratios direction the be c b, , a Let : Solution
= + = + +
=
=
= - + +
= - + - +
c b a
c b a
Perpendicular distance formula :
Example :Find the direction cosines of a line
Example : Prove that the line
1
0
2
2
2
3
1 x
is form symmetric in line straight of equation
line straight on the point a (-1,2,0)is Therefore
2, y and -1 x equations, us simultaneo the solving
-
=
-
-
=
+
= =
z y
, , , , , , , , , , , ,

- + - + - - - - - + - =
-
=
-
=
+
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 1 1
l
x x
line the from
) , , p( point the of distance lar perpendicu The
z n y m x l z y x pm
i s
n
z z
m
y y
4 1
4
;
4 1
3 -
;
4 1
1
.
4 9 1
4
;
4 9 1
3 -
;
4 9 1
1
are s D C ' 1,-3,4 are s D R' The
4
4
3
2
1
2 / 3 x
4
4
3
2
2
3 2x
is line of equation given : Solution
4
4
3
2
2
3 2x
e i
z y
z y
z y
+ + + + + +

+
=
-
-
=
-

+
=
-
=
-
+
=
-
=
-
plane on the lie line the
hence, and plane on the lie (4,2,3) point The 7 7
7 3 8 - 12
7 (3) 4(2) 3(4)
plane. given in the ng Substituti
(4,2,3). point he through t passes line Given : Solution
7. z 4y - 3x plane in the lies
6
3
3
2
2
4 x
=
= +
= + -
= +
-
=
-
=
- z y
Example : Find the coordinates of the reflection (image) of the point(2,-1,3) in the plane
3x-2y-z-9=0
AB of point mid the is M and A of reflection the is B point
3) r - 1. - 2,-2r (3r is line on this point Any
r
1
3
2
1
3
2 x
are plane the to
lar perpendicu (2,-1,3) through line the of equation Hence
3,-2,-1 are plane the to normal the of s D R' : Solution
+ +
=
-
-
=
-
+
=
- z y
, , 0 9
2
6 r -
1 1 2
2
4 3r
3
0 9 - z - 2y - 3x plane on the lies M Since
) 1 (
2
6 r -
, 1 ,
2
4 3r
are M of s coordinate
= -
|
.
|

\
|
+
- - - -
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
- - -
|
.
|

\
|
+
- -
+

r
r
|
.
|

\
| -
=
= -
= - - + + + +
= -
-
+ + +
+

7
17
,
7
15
,
7
26
(1) equation in 4/7 - r put
7
4
0 8 14
0 18 6 4 4 12 9r
. 0 9
2
6
2 2
2
12 9r
r
r
r r
r
r
figure) (see plane the
to normal the and line e between th angle the is 90 then
plane, the and line e between th angle the be If : Solution
0. d cz by ax plane andthe
n
z
m
y
l
x
0
1 1 1

-
= + + +
-
=
-
=
- z y x
Example : Now the direction ratios of the line are l.m.n and the direction ratios of the
normal to the plane are a,b,c
Example :Find the equation of the line
i) Through the point(1,-2,2) and making angles 60
0
, 120
0
, 45
0
with positive directions of
axes.
ii) Passing through the points (-2,1,3) and (4,2,-2).
Solution: Since the line making angles 60
0
, 120
0
, 45
0
with positive direction of axes,
then direction cosines are cos 60
0
, cos120
0
, cos45
0
Given points(-2,1,3) and (4,2,-2) Therefore the equation of straight line in two point form is
Example : Find the symmetrical form of the line 2x+y-3z = 3, 3z+2y-5z-5 = 0
Solution: 2x+y-3z = 3 ; 3x + 2y -5z = 5
Put z = 0 in the equations, we get 2x+y = 3 ; 3x + 2y = 5 on solving these two equations, we get x=1,
y=1. Therefore the point on the line is (1,1,0) Equation of the line passing through (1,1,0) is
, ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ +
=
+ + + +
+ +
=
+ + + +
+ +
= -
-
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
c b a n m l
nc mb la
sin
c b a n m l
nc mb la
sin or
c b a n m l
nc mb la
90 cos

2
1
2 - z
2
1
2 y
2
1
1 - x
are line the of Equation (1,-2,2) point he through t passes which
.
2
1
,
2
1
,
2
1
.
=
-
+
=

e i
Where a, b , c are direction ratios of required line.
Since equation (1) is the line of intersection of 2z + y -3z = 3 and 3x +2y -5z -5 = 0. therefore it is
perpendicular to both the normal's , then 2a+b-3c = 0 ; 3a +2b -5c = 0
Example : Find k so that the lines
Are perpendicular each other.
Solution: The direction ratios of the given lines are -3,2k,2 and 3k,1,-5. If the lines are perpendicular,
then
(-3)(3k)+(2k)(1)+(2)(-5)=0
i.E -9k+2k-10=0
i.E k=-10/7
) 1 (
0 1 1
. - - -
-
=
-
=
-
c
z
b
y
a
x
e i
z y x
z y x
c b a
c b a
c b a
= - = -
-
=
-
=
-
= = = = =
=
-
=
-
-

1 1
1
0
1
1
1
1
becomes (1) equation 1 , 1 , 1
1 1 1
2 3
1 2
3 5
2 3
5 2
3 1
5
3
1
5
3 2
5
2
1
3
2
-
+
=
-
=
+
=
-
=
-
+ z y
k
x
and
z
k
y x
5
3
1
1
6
2
.
3 2
3
1 2
1
2 4
2
.
1 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1
-
-
=
-
=
+
- -
-
=
-
-
=
+
+
-
-
=
-
-
=
-
-
z y x
e i
z y x
e i
z z
z z
y y
y y
x x
x x
Example : Prove that the following lines Are coplanar
Solution: The condition for the two lines to be coplanar is
Angle between two plances:
Angle between two planes is equal to the angle between the normals to the planes from any
point
Consider two planes
ax+by+cz+d=0-----(1)
a
1
x+b
1
y+c
1
z+d
1
=0----(2)
Then a,b,c are DRs of normal to (1) and a1, b1, c1 are DRs of normal to (2)
Hence the angle between the two planes is
Example : Find the angle between the pairs of planes
0
n m l
n m l
z z y y x x
5
4
4
3
3
2
4
3
3
2
2
1
2 2 2
1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2
=
- - -
-
=
-
=
- -
=
-
=
- z y x
and
z y x
coplanar are lines both the
0 0
0 1 2 1
0 ) 9 8 ( 1 ) 12 10 ( 1 ) 16 15 ( 1 ,
0
5 4 3
4 3 2
1 1 1
0
5 4 3
4 3 2
3 4 2 3 1 2

=
= - + -
= - + - - -
=
=
- - -
e i
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ +
=
-
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
1
1 1 1
cos
c b a c b a
cc bb aa

2x y +2z =3 ; 3x +6y +2z =4

Solution: angle between two planes is
Example : Find the equation of the line through the points (-2,1,3) and (4,2,-2).
Solution: Since the line is perpendicular to the plane x 3y + 2z = 4. Its direction ratios
are 1, 3 ,2. It passes through the point (1,-3,4).
Therefore the equations of the line are
Example : Find the angle between the line
, , , ,
, , , ,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ +
=
- -
-
17
14
sin
9 4 1 4 9 4
2 3 3 2 1 2
sin
c b a n m l
nc mb la
sin
1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1

x x x
, ,, , , ,, , , ,, ,
, , , ,
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ - + + - +
+ - - +
=
-
-
-
21
4
cos
7 3
4
cos
2 6 3 2 1 2
2 2 6 1 3 2
cos
1
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
x

4
2
3
3
1
1 -
=
-
+
=
- z y x
is plane and line given e between th angle The : Solution
8. 3z 2y x plane the and
2
1
3
3
2
1
= + +
-
=
+
=
- z y x
Reference:
1)Elementary Engineering Mathematics by B S Grewal
2) Higher Engineering Mathematics by B S Grewal.
3.) Mathematics textbook for class xii (part-ii) CBSE, NCERT Publication.
4.) Internet.
5. ) Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Alan Jeffrey, Elsevier publication.
6.) Higher Engineering Mathematics by John Bird. Elsevier publication.