Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 1 Dr David Apsley

3. GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW (GVF) AUTUMN 2013

3.1 The Gradually-Varied-Flow Equation

Provided the pressure distribution is hydrostatic then, at any streamwise location x,
) (

x z z
g
p
s
= +
The total head is then

g
V h
z
g
V
z H
b s
2 cos 2
2 2
+ + = + = (1)
where z
s
is the level of the free surface and z
b
is the level of the bed.

u
h
g
h
cos u
z
s
z
b


Although not crucial, we make the small-slope assumption, that 1 cos ~ , and make no
distinction between the depth h perpendicular to the bed (which is used to get the flow rate)
and the vertical depth h/cos (which forms part of the total head).

In terms of specific energy,
E z H
b
+ = (2)
where E is the head relative to the bed:

g
V
h E
2
2
+ = (3)
In frictionless flow, H = constant; i.e. the energy grade line is horizontal. In practice, H
decreases over large distances due to bed friction and the energy grade line slopes downward.

Differentiate (2):

x
E
x
z
x
H
b
d
d
d
d
d
d
+ = (4)
Write:

f
S
x
H
=
d
d
(5)

0
d
d
S
x
z
b
= (6)
S
f
is the downward slope of the energy grade line, or friction slope; (more about how this is
calculated later). S
0
is the actual geometric slope. Then

f
S S
x
E
=
0
d
d
(7)

Thus, the specific energy only changes if there is a difference between the geometric and
friction slopes, i.e. between the rates at which gravity drives the flow and friction retards it.
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 2 Dr David Apsley
Otherwise we would have normal flow, in which the depth and specific energy are constant.
Equations (5) and (7) are two forms of the gradually-varied-flow equation. However, the
third, and most common, form rewrites dE/dx in terms of the rate of change of depth, dh/dx.

g
V
h E
2
2
+ = where
A
Q
V = (8)

2
2
2gA
Q
h E + =
Differentiating w.r.t. distance,

x
A
gA
Q
x
h
x
E
d
d
d
d
d
d
3
2
=
But, with b
s
the width of the channel at the surface:
h b A
s
d d = and
s
b
A
h =
Hence,

) Fr 1 (
d
d
) 1 (
d
d
) 1 (
d
d
d
d
2
2
3
2
=
=
=
x
h
h g
V
x
h
gA
b Q
x
h
x
E
s

Combining this with (7) gives, finally,

Gradually-Varied-Flow Equation


2
0
Fr 1 d
d

=
f
S S
x
h
(9)



3.2 Finding the Friction Slope

Since the flow is only gradually-varying the local friction slope S
f
is evaluated on the quasi-
uniform-flow assumption that it is the same rate of energy loss as that in normal flow of the
same depth; e.g. using Mannings equation:

2 / 1 3 / 2
1
f h
S R
n
V =
Inverting for the friction slope:

2 3 / 4
2 2
3 / 4
2 2
A R
Q n
R
V n
S
h h
f
= = (10)
Both A and R
h
should be written in terms of the depth h (depending on the channel shape).

In general, the deeper the flow then the smaller the velocity and friction losses. Qualitatively,
greater depth lower velocity smaller S
f
;
smaller depth higher velocity greater S
f
.
b
s
dh
A
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 3 Dr David Apsley
3.3 Profile Classification

For any given discharge (but independent of slope) there is a particular critical depth h
c
, at
which Fr = 1. For example, in a wide or rectangular channel,
3 / 1 2
) / ( g q h
c
= .

For any given discharge and slope there is a particular normal depth h
n
, associated with
uniform flow. For example, in a wide channel,
5 / 3
) / ( S nq h
n
= . The normal depth is that to
which the flow would tend given a long enough undisturbed fetch.

A downward slope is classed as steep if the normal depth is less than the critical depth (i.e.
the normal flow is supercritical) and mild if the normal depth is greater than the critical depth
(i.e. the normal flow is subcritical).
1
Note that a particular slope can, at least in principle, be
either steep or mild depending on the flow rate!

In general, given the actual depth h, critical depth h
c
and normal depth h
n
, simple inspection
of signs of numerator and denominator on the RHS of the GVF equation

2
0
Fr 1 d
d

=
f
S S
x
h

will tell us whether depth is increasing or decreasing with distance. In the special case S
f
= S
0

we have dh/dx = 0; i.e. normal flow. Otherwise:
- S
0
S
f
> 0 if and only if h is greater than normal depth; (slower, hence less friction)
- 1 Fr
2
> 0 if and only if h is greater than critical depth
Hence,
0
d
d
<
x
h
(depth decreasing) if and only if h lies between normal and critical depths.

Considering the whole range of possibilities allows a two-character classification of slopes
(S1, M3 etc) where:
- the first character is S, C, M, H, A for Steep, Critical, Mild, Horizontal, Adverse;
- the second character is 1, 2, 3 depending on where h lies with respect to h
c
and h
n
.
Typical profiles and examples of where they occur are given in the table overleaf.

A backwater curve is a streamwise increase of depth because of a downstream obstruction or
because the slope is insufficient to maintain that rate of flow. A reduction in depth is called a
drawdown curve. Profiles with second character 1 or 3 are backwater curves (numerator and
denominator of the GVF equation have the same sign); profiles with second character 2 are
drawdown curves (numerator and denominator of the GVF equation have opposite signs).

Note that:
- the normal depth is approached asymptotically (dh/dx 0);
- the critical-depth line is approached at right angles (1 Fr
2
in the denominator).
- above normal depth a backwater asymptotes a horizontal surface (M1, S1)

1
An alternative statement is that a downward slope is steep if it exceeds the critical slope (that slope at which
the normal flow is critical).
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 4 Dr David Apsley

Type Symbol Definition Sketches Examples
STEEP
(normal flow is
supercritical)
S1
n c
h h h > >
h
n
h
c
S
1
S
2
S
3

Hydraulic jump upstream with obstruction or
reservoir controlling water level downstream.
S2
n c
h h h > > Change to steeper slope.
S3 h h h
n c
> > Change to less steep slope.
CRITICAL
(undesirable;
undular unsteady
flow)
C1
n c
h h h = >
h
n
h
c
C
1
3
C
=


C3 h h h
n c
> =
MILD
(normal flow is
subcritical)
M1
c n
h h h > >
h
n
h
c
M
1
M
2
3
M

Obstruction or reservoir controlling water level
downstream.
M2
c n
h h h > > Approach to free overfall.
M3 h h h
c n
> >
Hydraulic jump downstream; change from steep to
mild slope or downstream of sluice gate.
HORIZONTAL
(limiting mild
slope; h
n
)
H2
c
h h >
H
2
h
c
3
H

Approach to free overfall.
H3 h h
c
>
Hydraulic jump downstream; change from steep to
horizontal or downstream of sluice gate.
ADVERSE
(upslope)
A2
c
h h >
A
2
h
c
3
A


A3 h h
c
>
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 5 Dr David Apsley
3.4 Qualitative Examples of Open-Channel Flow Behaviour

A control point is a location where there is a known relationship between water depth (or
head) and discharge (aka stage-discharge relation). Examples include critical-flow points
(weirs, venturi flumes, sudden changes in slope, free overfall), sluice gates, entry or discharge
to a reservoir. A hydraulic jump can also be classed as a control point. Control points provide
a location where one can start a GVF calculation.

Some general rules:
(i) Supercritical controlled by upstream conditions.
Subcritical controlled by downstream conditions.

(ii) Given a long-enough fetch the flow will try to revert to normal flow.

(iii) A hydraulic jump occurs between two regions of gradually-varied flow at the point
where the jump condition for the sequent depths is correct.

(iv) Where the slope is mild (i.e. the normal flow is subcritical) and there is no influential
downstream control, a hydraulic jump can usually be assumed to jump directly to the
normal depth.


Flow over a weir (mild slope)

WEIR
normal
M1
normal
hydraulic
jump
h
n
c
h
1
h
2
h
M3
CP
CP
h
n



Flow under a sluice gate (a) mild slope

normal
M1
normal
hydraulic
jump
h
n
2
h
M3
CP CP
h
n
h
1


Flow under a sluice gate (b) steep slope

normal
S1
2
h
S3
CP
n
h
normal
n
h
h
1

Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 6 Dr David Apsley

Flow from a reservoir (a) mild slope


RESERVOIR
h
n
normal
CP



Flow from a reservoir (b) steep slope


RESERVOIR
h
c
normal
S2
CP





Outflow to reservoir (mild slope)


RESERVOIR
h
n
normal
CP
M1



Free overfall (mild slope)


h
n
normal
CP
M2
critical
h
c



Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 7 Dr David Apsley
3.5 Numerical Solution of the GVF Equation

Analytical solutions of the GVF equation are very rare and it is usual to solve it numerically.
The process yields a series of discrete pairs of distance x
i
and depth h
i
. Intermediate points
can be determined, if required, by interpolation.

All methods employ a discrete approximation to one of the following forms of GVF equation:

f
S
x
H
=
d
d
(total head
g
V
h z H
b
2
2
+ + = ) (11)

f
S S
x
E
=
0
d
d
(specific energy
g
V
h E
2
2
+ = ) (12)

2
0
Fr 1 d
d

=
f
S S
x
h
(13)

In any of these the friction slope can be obtained by inverting Mannings equation:

2 3 / 4
2 2
3 / 4
2 2
A R
Q n
R
V n
S
h h
f
= = (14)
and the Froude number is

h g
V
= Fr (15)
where
s
b A h / = is the mean depth (= actual depth for a rectangular or wide channel).

VERY IMPORTANT!
Integration starts at a control point and proceeds:
forward in x if the flow is supercritical (upstream control); or
backward in x if the flow is subcritical (downstream control).


3.5.1 The Standard-Step Method

This solves for depth h at specified distances x, intervals x.

It uses the total-head form of the GVF equation:

f
S
x
H
=
d
d

which is discretised as
)
2
(

1 , ,
1
+
+
+
=

i f i f
i i
S S
x
H H
(16)
solving sequentially for h
1
, h
2
, h
3
, starting at
the depth at the control point h
0
.

The method operates by adjusting h
i+1
(iteratively) at each step so that LHS and RHS of (16)
are equal.

This is a good method, but since it requires iterative solution at each step it is better suited to
a computer program than hand or spreadsheet calculation.
0
h
h
1
h
2
h
3
h
4
Ax x A x A x A
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 8 Dr David Apsley
3.5.2 The Direct-Step Method

This solves for distance x at specified depth intervals h. The advantage is that it can be used
to calculate the profile starting from a critical point (where 1 Fr
2
= 0 and the standard-step
method would fail).


It uses either the specific-energy or depth forms of the GVF equation.


Specific-Energy Form

f
S S
x
E
=
0
d
d
(where
2
2 2
2 2 gh
q
h
g
V
h E + = + = for a rectangular channel)
This is inverted to make x the dependent variable:

f
S S E
x

=
0
1
d
d

and then discretised and rearranged for the distance increment at each step as:

av f
S S
E
x
) (

0

= where
i i
E E E =
+1

In the commonest form, av is the average of values at start (i) and end (i+1) of an interval.


Depth Form

2
0
Fr 1 d
d

=
f
S S
x
h

This is inverted to make x the dependent variable:

f
S S h
x

=
0
2
Fr 1
d
d

and then discretised and rearranged for the distance increments as:
h
h
x
x
av

d
d

|
.
|

\
|
=
As before, the bracketed term on the RHS can be taken as the average of values at the start
and end of an interval or (my own preference) by evaluation at the mid-point depth
) (
1 2
1
+
+ =
i i mid
h h h .

x
0 1
x
2
x
3
x
CP
Ah
Ah
Ah
supercritical:
direction of integration
x
0 1
x
2
x
3
x
CP
Ah
Ah
Ah
subcritical:
direction of integration
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 9 Dr David Apsley

Comment. Different authors adopt different ways of solving the GVF equation numerically:
particularly in choosing whether to use the specific-energy or depth form, and how to form
the average derivative (e.g., average of values at the ends of the interval or simply the single
value at the midpoint). All should give the same answer when the step size h becomes very
small, but may differ for the larger step sizes typical of hand calculations. The specific-
energy form seems to be slightly more common in the literature, but my own experience is
that the depth form, with derivative evaluated just once at the mid-point of the interval, seems
to give slightly better results for large step sizes. Note that surface profiles become highly
curved near critical points and more steps, with a smaller h, should be used there.


Example (Examination, January 2007 modified).

A long rectangular channel of width 4 m has a slope of 1:5000 and a Mannings n of
0.015 m
1/3
s. The total discharge is 8 m
3
s
1
. The channel narrows to a width of 1 m as a
venturi flume over a short length.

(a) Determine the normal depth for the 4 m wide channel.

(b) Show that critical conditions occur at the narrow 1 m wide section.

(c) Determine the depth just upstream of the venturi where the width is 4 m.

(d) Determine the distance upstream to where the depth is 5% greater than the normal
depth using two steps in the gradually-varied flow equation given below; (you may
use either form).

Data
In standard notation,

2
0
Fr 1 d
d

=
f
S S
x
h
or
f
S S
x
E
=
0
d
d



Solution.
(a) For the normal depth,
VA Q = where
2 / 1 3 / 2
1
S R
n
V
h
= ,
b h
h
R
h
/ 2 1+
= , bh A =

3 / 2
3 / 5
) / 2 1 ( b h
h
n
S b
Q
+
=
Rearrange as an iterative formula for h:

5 / 2
5 / 3
) / 2 1 ( b h
S b
nQ
h +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
or, in this case, (with h in m):

5 / 2
) 5 . 0 1 ( 570 . 1 h h + =
Iterate to get a normal depth:
m 090 . 2 =
n
h
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 10 Dr David Apsley
(b) To determine whether critical conditions occur, compare the total head in the approach
flow with that assuming critical conditions at the throat.

The total head at the normal depth and measuring heights from the bed of the channel is
m 137 . 2
2 2
) (
2 2
2 2
= + = + = =
n
n
n
n n n
h gb
Q
h
g
V
h E H

At the throat the discharge per unit width is

1 2
min
s m 8

= =
b
Q
q
m

The critical depth for this rectangular section is
m 869 . 1
3 / 1
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g
q
h
m
c

and the corresponding critical specific energy is
m 804 . 2
2
3
= =
c c
h E
Since the bed of the flume is flat, this is also the total head H
c
.

Since the approach-flow head is less than the head corresponding to critical flow (H
a
< H
c
)
the flow must back up and go critical through the throat. The total head throughout the
venturi is H = H
c
= 2.804 m.


(c) Just upstream of the venturi the total head is H = 2.804 m and we are looking for a
subcritical solution of

2 2
2 2
2 2 h gb
Q
h
g
V
h H + = + =
Rearrange for the deeper solution as

2 2
2
2 h gb
Q
H h =
or, in this case (with h in m):

2
2039 . 0
804 . 2
h
h =
Iterate (from, say, 2.804) to get a depth just upstream of the venturi as
m 778 . 2 = h


(d) Need to solve upstream from a depth h = 2.778 to a depth h = 2.194 (i.e. 1.05h
n
) using 2
steps. Hence, h = 0.292 m.

METHOD 1: using the depth form of the GVF equation

2
0
Fr 1 d
d

=
f
S S
x
h


f
S S h
x

=
0
2
Fr 1
d
d

Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 11 Dr David Apsley

mid
h
x
h
x
|
.
|

\
|
~
d
d

h
h
x
x
mid

d
d

|
.
|

\
|
~
(mid means mid-point of the interval: half way between h
i
and h
i+1
; sometimes written h
i+
.)

For convenience, work out numerical expressions for Fr
2
and S
f
in terms of h:

3 3
2 2 2
2
4077 . 0 /
Fr
h gh
b Q
gh
V
= = =

3 / 10
3 / 4
4
3 / 10
3 / 4
2
) 5 . 0 1 (
10 9
) / 2 1 (
h
h
h
b h
b
nQ
S
f
+
=
+
|
.
|

\
|
=


Hence,

3 / 10
3 / 4
4 4
3
0
2
) 5 . 0 1 (
10 9 10 2
4077 . 0
1
Fr 1
d
d
h
h
h
S S h
x
f
+

=


With
h
h
x
x
mid

d
d

|
.
|

\
|
= and h = 0.292 m
working may then be set out in tabular form.

i h
i
x
i
h
mid
(dx/dh)
mid
x
0 2.778 0
2.632 10810 3157
1 2.486 3157
2.340 18850 5504
2 2.194 8661

This gives a distance of about 8660 m upstream.


METHOD 2: Using the specific-energy form of the GVF equation:

f
S S
x
E
=
0
d
d


f
S S E
x

=
0
1
d
d


av f
S S E
x
) (
1

0

~

av f
S S
E
x
) (

0

~
(av means the average of values calculated at start and end of each interval in h.)

Here:
Hydraulics 3 Gradually-Varied Flow - 12 Dr David Apsley

2 2
2 2 2
2039 . 0
2
/
2 h
h
gh
b Q
h
g
V
h E + = + = + =
and the same expression as before may be used for S
f
, so that:

3 / 10
3 / 4
4 4
0
) 5 . 0 1 (
10 9 10 2
h
h
S S
f
+
=


With

av f
S S
E
x
) (

0

=
working may then be set out in tabular form.

i h
i
x
i
E
i
S
0
S
f
E (S
0
S
f
)
av
x
0 2.778 0 2.804 1.04610
4

0.285 8.88310
5
3208
1 2.486 3208 2.519 7.30410
5

0.283 4.85110
5
5834
2 2.194 9042



This gives a distance of about 9040 m upstream.

Smaller steps h will give more accurate results (and closer agreement between the two
methods). However, the accuracy with which one generally knows n does not justify this.




Example (Examination, January 2008 modified)

A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:2747 with a Mannings n of 0.015 m
1/3
s. It carries a
discharge of 2.5 m
3
s
1
per metre width, and there is a free overfall at the downstream end.
An undershot sluice is placed a certain distance upstream of the free overfall which
determines the nature of the flow between sluice and overfall. The depth just downstream of
the sluice is 0.5 m.

(a) Determine the critical depth and normal depth.

(b) Sketch, with explanation, the two possible gradually-varied flows between sluice and
overfall.

(c) Calculate the particular distance between sluice and overfall which determines the
boundary between these two flows. Use one step in the gradually-varied-flow
equation.