Fall 2012 THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company

Saudi Aramco

Journal of Technology

Appraising the Performance of Cyclic Production Scheme through Reservoir Simulation, a Case Study see page 2 Application of a Newly Developed Workflow to Design and Optimize MRC and Smart Well Completions see page 22

On the Cover
A pie chart map shows the reduction in water production for some wells due to the cyclic production scheme.

The cyclic production mode calls for shutting in the wells for a period of time followed by production for another period of time and repeating the process onward.

AT T E N T I O N ! M O R E S A U D I A R A M C O JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY ARTICLES AVA I L A B L E O N T H E I N T E R N E T. Additional articles that were submitted for publication in the Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology are being made available online. You can read them at this link on the Saudi Aramco Internet Web site: www.saudiaramco.com/jot.html

The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology is published quarterly by the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, to provide the companys scientific and engineering communities a forum for the exchange of ideas through the presentation of technical information aimed at advancing knowledge in the hydrocarbon industry. Complete issues of the Journal in PDF format are available on the Internet at: http://www.saudiaramco.com (click on publications). SUBSCRIPTIONS Send individual subscription orders, address changes (see page 70) and related questions to: Saudi Aramco Public Relations Department JOT Distribution Box 5000 Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Fax: +966/3-873-6478 Website: www.saudiaramco.com EDITORIAL ADVISORS Mohammed S. Al-Gusaier
President, Vela International Marine Ltd.

EDITORIAL ADVISORS (CONTINUED) Mohammed A. Ansari

Program Director, Technology

P R O D U C T I O N C O O R D I N AT I O N Robert M. Arndt, ASC DESIGN Pixel Creative Group, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Abdulmuhsen A. Al-Sunaid
Senior Engineering Consultant, Environmental Protection

Faisal M. Al-Falqeer
Manager, Lab Research and Development Center

Samer S. AlAshgar
Manager, EXPEC ARC

CONTRIBUTIONS Relevant articles are welcome. Submission guidelines are printed on the last page. Please address all manuscript and editorial correspondence to: EDITOR William E. Bradshaw The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology Room 2240 East Administration Building Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Tel: +966/3-873-5803 E-mail: william.bradshaw.1@aramco.com.sa Unsolicited articles will be returned only when accompanied by a self-addressed envelope. Khalid A. Al-Falih
President & CEO, Saudi Aramco

ISSN 1319-2388. COPYRIGHT 2012 A R A M C O S E R V I C E S C O M PA N Y ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No articles, including art and illustrations, in the Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology, except those from copyrighted sources, may be reproduced or printed without the written permission of Saudi Aramco. Please submit requests for permission to reproduce items to the editor. The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology gratefully acknowledges the assistance, contribution and cooperation of numerous operating organizations throughout the company.

Abdulla A. Al Naim
Vice President, Exploration

Zuhair A. Al-Hussain
Vice President, Southern Area Oil Operations

Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi
General Manager, Northern Area Gas Operations

Khalid I. Abubshait
Executive Director, Saudi Aramco Affairs

Salahaddin H. Dardeer
Manager, Yanbu Refinery

Abdulla I. Al-Isa
General Manager, Public Affairs

Fall 2012 THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company

Saudi Aramco

Journal of Technology

Contents

Appraising the Performance of Cyclic Production Scheme through Reservoir Simulation, a Case Study
Tareq M. Al-Zahrani

Coiled Tubing Operational Guidelines in Conjunction with Multistage Fracturing Completions in the Tight Gas Fields of Saudi Arabia 7
Mohammed A. Al-Ghazal, Saad M. Driweesh, Abdulaziz M. Al-Sagr, J. Tate Abel, Stuart Wilson and Bryan Johnston

Prediction of Collapse Phenomena in Pipelines Using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Sensor Technology
Bander F. Al-Daajani, Waleed A. Al-Obaid, Bassam A. Al-Matar, Dr. Ihsan M. Al-Taie, Wasim A. Jweihan and Thierry Cherpillod

16

Application of a Newly Developed Workflow to Design and Optimize MRC and Smart Well Completions
Dr. Shamsuddin H. Shenawi, Wahyu Hidayat, M. Methgal Al Shammari, Khalid A. Nasser, Abdulhamed A. Al-Faleh, Dr. Umar A. Al-Nahdi, Yahya A. Ghuwaidi and Nabil Mekki

22

Black Powder Inhibitors - Performance Study

Dr. Abdelmounam M. Al-Sherik, Dr. Arnold L. Lewis, Abduljalil H. Rasheed and Ali A. Al-Jabran

30

Representative Prediction of Geological Facies and Rock-Type Proportion Distributions with Novel Beta Field Characterization
Dr. Jose A. Vargas-Guzman and Dr. K. Daniel Khan

37

X-ray Diffraction Technique Application in Evaluating the Damage of a Gas Turbine Blade 46
Dr. Shouwen Shen, Dr. Alaaeldin H. Mustafa, Dr. Gasan Alabedi, Dr. Syed R. Zaidi, Dr. Husin Sitepu and Dr. Ihsan M. Taie

Coiled Tubing Fill Clean Out and Near-Wellbore Acidizing of Plugged Stand-Alone Screens: Highly Successful Campaign in Saudi Arabian Gas Wells 52
Murtadha J. Al-Tammar, Khalid S. Al-Asiri, Saad M. Al-Driweesh, Mohammed A. Asiri and Nahr M. Abulhamayel

Estimating Horizontal Well PI to Develop Giant Carbonate Reservoir with Artificial Lift 60
Majid H. Al-Otaibi, Cesar H. Pardo, Ronny Gunarto and Mohammed S. Kanfar

Moving Toward Intelligent Field Applications: MPFM for Production Rate Testing and Beyond
Karam S. Al-Yateem and Nami A. Al-Amri

66

Appraising the Performance of Cyclic Production Scheme through Reservoir Simulation, a Case Study
Authors: Tareq M. Al-Zahrani

ABSTRACT
Oil wells in mature fields with strong aquifer influx and the first row of producers near peripheral water injectors experience very high water cuts (above 80%), which lower oil production and increase disposal costs. To mitigate this situation, various production strategies have been implemented in this simulation study to reduce water production, optimize oil production and revive dead wells. One strategy is to implement a cyclic production scheme (CPS)1. CPS involves alternate shutting in and flowing of wells with high water cuts over predetermined time cycles. The main objectives of the cyclic strategy are to reduce water production by optimizing oil production, minimizing the coning effect and having a better control of the uniform waterflood front to the up-dip producers. This strategy enhances the sweep efficiency, improving pressure maintenance and minimizing water production2. This simulation study assessed the effectiveness and the performance of CPS implemented in a reservoir simulation model of a mature oil field. Simulation runs using several scenarios were conducted to understand and optimize the impact of CPS. The simulation results provided the best cyclic production/shut-in period and showed the significant advantages of applying CPS over the regular noncyclic production in all scenarios. In this study, more than 93 wells have been evaluated, and most of these wells showed good overall oil recovery after applying the CPS strategy.

treatment and disposal costs. In general, excessive water production in mature fields is a serious issue in effective reservoir managment4. One option to reduce water production from high water cut wells is to convert the well into a cyclic producer. Cyclic wells are alternated between shut-in and producing phases that normally last for six months each. The results of closing these wells are the reduction of high water with a minimal impact on oil field production. The main benefit of the cyclic strategy is to reduce water production, which allows optimizing of the water injection process, minimizing of recirculation and a better displacement of the waterflood front to the up-dip offset producers3. In terms of economics, since less injected water is recirculated, the operational handling costs decrease and the economic efficiency of the water injection project improves. This study was implemented in a mature field as a part of the water management effort to reduce water production. In this study, a reservoir simulation model was developed based upon very fine geological characterization and history matching of the field performance. The model has constantly updated its history matching by using the latest reservoir surveillance data, pressure, water saturation for flood front detection and new infill well data. The predictability of the reservoir simulation model is very good. Simulation runs with several cyclic production scenarios (CPS) were conducted to analyze and optimize the impact of CPS on the production performance of the field.

CPS CONCEPTS
Figure 1 illustrates the CPS with a certain period of shut-in time. In a cyclic production mode, the mechanism of fluid movement is different than it is in a normal production mode. During the shut-in period, heavier water of greater density is segregated and separated from the oil and settles down towards the lower portion of the oil column. Water coning and fingering will smear back to the lower part of the reservoir, enabling the well to produce oil at a reasonable rate during the production period. One main advantage of cyclic production is less water coning (and lower water cut) during the production phase because gravity segregation restores the oil column in the wellbore region during the shut-in phase. Another advantage is that cyclic

INTRODUCTION
Water management has become a key strategy in fields that have entered into a high water cut development period. As fields mature, there is a natural trend for water volumes to increase as aquifer and injected water advances towards the producers. Increasing levels of water production can impair oil production rates, in some cases to the point where the well ceases to be economical to produce3. Although injected water is an enabler for improved hydrocarbon recovery, it is essential to control water production volumes and the flood front. High water production may limit oil production in a rate-limited well and may increase water
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matching parameters include new enhanced permeability distribution, vertical transmissibility reduction, lower aquifer permeability and localized fracture lineaments.

HISTORY MATCHING
History matching is a critical step in simulation model calibration because it allows the static geological model to be rationalized with production data. It plays a critical role in monitoring displacement processes and enhances the understanding of reservoir flow dynamics and the predictability of future production performance. In this model, the historical production and pressures were calibrated and matched for the CPS wells used in this evaluation. The accuracy of the history matching was very high, reflecting the good quality of the reservoir simulation model. Figures 2 and 3 show the good history matching quality for two wells; the cyclic mode is captured clearly in these graphs. Given this good quality, the model can be used to simulate the future reservoir performance with a higher degree of confidence.

Fig. 1. CPS.

production is particularly applicable to dead wells that have been revived but have marginal pressure potential, as the shutin period also allows the buildup of potential pressure2. The main objectives of CPS are to save reservoir energy by keeping water in the reservoir: reservoir pressure is maintained, which enhances sweep efficiency by disrupting the streamlines around the injection wells that direct the injected water to the un-contacted areas, enabling recovery of the bypassed oil. Also, CPS provides other benefits related to gas-oil separation plant operations as it can be used to minimize surging conditions after reducing water production, to control the water handling capacity for disposal wells and to optimize demulsifer consumption.

EVALUATION PARAMETERS
The following two main parameters have been evaluated very closely: (1) duration of shut-in intervals, and (2) production

SELECTION CRITERIA AND IMPLEMENTATION

The key well production parameters used in the selection of CPS candidates are water cut above 60% and up to 99%, and minimum oil production, normally below 1,000 barrels of oil per day (MBOD) and sometimes as marginal as 0.2 MBOD. The designation of a producer well as a cyclic producer is done after other water control methods, such as water shut-off and workovers, have been considered. Cyclic producers are selected in areas of thin oil columns near to peripheral water injectors. This strategy was first implemented in 2005 with 22 wells, mostly located in a thin oil column of less than 20 ft and spread throughout the entire area of the field. No evaluation through reservoir simulation had been done to assess the performance of these wells before this study. The results show that CPS wells under these conditions achieve a significant water reduction with minimum impact on oil field production.

Fig. 2. History matching quality for Well AAAA.

RESERVOIR SIMULATION MODEL DESCRIPTION

The model used in this study is based on the latest geological models developed with detailed reservoir characterization. It offers fine layering (49 layers) with a grid size is of 250 meters, totaling 3 million cells. It includes detailed fracture modeling and petrophysical rock typing. The permeability distribution for this model is validated by transmissibility (KH) values obtained from pressure transient analyses. The main history

Fig. 3. History matching quality for Well BBBB.

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Table 1. Study constraints

# 1 2 3 4

Months Off 12 8 6 4

Months On 12 4 6 8

Fig. 5. The best cycle time.

Table 2. Cyclic periods used in the study

Fig. 6. Increase in oil rate for the cyclic wells group.

PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE
Fig. 4. All prediction cases in one well.

performance. The main constraints used in this study are shown in Table 1. A total of 93 wells were evaluated in this study.
Duration of Shut-In Intervals

The second parameter evaluated in this study was the production performance. The study assessed the following four major outcomes that contributed to a reasonable judgment on CPS performance: (1) oil production, (2) water production, (3) sweep efficiency, and (4) offset wells performance. The following sections evaluate the impact of CPS on these areas.
Oil Production

The goal of this part of the study was to come up with an acceptable timing for shut-in and flowing periods. The key parameter was the water reduction assessed via reservoir simulation. Four different cycles were tested and evaluated, Table 2. After many simulation runs and evaluations, all well results showed that the best cyclic period is eight months flowing followed by four shut-in months (8/4), based on the reduction of water and improvement in oil rate. The prediction cases of water cut, oil rate and cumulative oil production for all four different production cycles for one of the cyclic wells are shown in Fig. 4. The green line representing the best cyclic case (8/4) shows the water cut reduction and oil rate improvement. Figure 5 further shows the advantageous performance in the 8/4 case, where the green line is the base case (wells without cyclic mode) and the red one is the cyclic cases for all the wells. Based on these results, the 8/4 cycle has been used in the actual field production optimization of cyclic wells.
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This is the first key parameter to evaluate in this study. Figure 6 shows the production performance of the cyclic group compared to the normal case, clearly indicating an increase in oil rate when the cyclic wells were put on production. This increase in oil rate occurred due to the buildup of pressure and the oil accumulation in the top of the wellbore during the shut-in period. Figure 7 shows a single wells performance. Cyclic wells improve the oil production when compared to continuous production wells.
Water Production

The major key objective in this study was to reduce water production. A reasonable correlation can be developed between the number of cyclic wells placed on production and the decrease in the amount of water production; water production decreased by about 20%, Fig. 8.

Fig. 7. Increase in oil rate in one cyclic well. Fig. 10. Sweep efficiency improvement after cyclic mode.

Fig. 8. Water production reduction in the cyclic group.

Fig. 11. Well performance for one of the offset wells around a CPS well.

In this study, sweep efficiency improvement from flow pattern redistribution has been observed, and this redistribution could make an additional contribution to oil recovery. This happened due to the realignment of streamlines established in the field. The improvement in the sweep efficiency in some parts of the field is shown in Fig. 10.
Offset Wells Performance

Fig. 9. Pie chart for some cyclic wells showing water reduction.

The closing CPS wells provide a high water reduction with minimal impact on oil field production. Figure 9 shows oil and water reduction for some cyclic wells. It has been found that a greater reduction in produced water can be achieved by using CPS.
Sweep Efficiency

In this study, the effect of the CPS process was evaluated also for the offset wells around the cyclic wells. Cyclic wells have a significant impact on the offset wells performance. Figure 11 shows the performance of one of the offset wells with and without a cyclic process in the wells around it, and it clearly shows that the oil rate has increased in the CPS case. Improved performance of offset wells has been observed in many areas, with improvement continuing beyond the cyclic period and into the future.

CONCLUSIONS
The implementation of this CPS water management strategy had a big impact on the optimization of oil production from the reservoir. Significant water reduction from CPS wells was considered one of the most important factors in achieving more effective reservoir management. The oil production was
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In the cyclic process, an incremental production effect is reached due to the interplay of different production mechanisms: capillary and viscous forces, gravity segregation and compressibility effects. This interplay leads to improved fluid cross flow and better reservoir sweep efficiency.

reduced slightly, though, due to the eight months flowing and four months shut-in cyclic time, compared to continuous production of these wells. After CPS, an instantaneous increase in oil rate and a reduction in water were observed in all reservoir simulation cases: due to gravity effects, cyclic production enhanced the oil rate and reduced the total water production during the flow period cycle. The study results show that CPS is a viable option for water production management in oil fields. Cyclic production continues to be an effective practice to reduce water production and conserve reservoir energy in mature fields.

BIOGRAPHIES
Tareq M. Al-Zahrani joined Saudi Aramco in October 2002. He is a Petroleum Engineer working in the Reservoir Description & Simulation Department. Tariq has 10 years of experience and a proven track record of success within various organizations in Saudi Aramco, mainly in reservoir engineering and reservoir management. He is an active Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) member and has published many papers. Recently, Tariq was awarded the SPE Century Club membership for his outstanding membership and recruitment efforts. In 2002, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article. This article was presented at the SPE International Production and Operations Conference and Exhibition, Doha, Qatar, May 14-16, 2012.

REFERENCES
1. Al-Mutairi, S.M. and Al-Harbi, M.H.: Water Production Management Strategy in North Uthmaniyah Area, SPE paper 98847, presented at the SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria, June 12-15, 2006. 2. Al-Mutairi, S.M., Al-Yousef, H., Al-Ajmi, F. and AlHashim, H.: Cyclic Production Scheme: Innovative Application in Reducing Water Production and Increasing Ultimate Recovery from Mature Areas, SPE paper 120818, presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, May 10-12, 2008. 3. Babadagli, T.: Mature Field Development A Review, SPE paper 93884, presented at the SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference, Madrid, Spain, June 13-16, 2005. 4. Yaozahong, Y., Tao, D. and Chengfeng, W.: The Reservoir Simulation Research and Extending Application about Cyclic Water Injection, SPE paper 104440, presented at the International Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Beijing, China, December 5-7, 2006.

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Coiled Tubing Operational Guidelines in Conjunction with Multistage Fracturing Completions in the Tight Gas Fields of Saudi Arabia
Authors: Mohammed A. Al-Ghazal, Saad M. Driweesh, Abdulaziz M. Al-Sagr, J. Tate Abel, Stuart Wilson and Bryan Johnston

ABSTRACT
Open hole multistage fracturing completions are becoming standard practice in the southern gas fields development in Saudi Arabia, with more than 40 wells completed to date using open hole packers and selective port technology. Overall, the production results from the use of multistage fracturing completions have been very positive, and the forecast is that multistage fracturing technology usage will grow considerably over the next several years. In general, multistage fracturing completions provide an excellent advantage in that they are intervention-less in their standard mode of operation. An evolving aspect of such completions is the secondary use of coiled tubing (CT) to handle the planned and unplanned (contingency) operations occasionally required to reach well production objectives. Without optimum operational planning and the selection of correct CT downhole tools, completion problems can be encountered, and this ultimately can result in not reaching the job objective at all or only at increased costs. In addition, the use of CT to function ball-activated ports to shut-off zones or to restimulate wells is starting to be appreciated. This article presents multistage fracturing case studies where CT has been deployed, and then investigates the operational impact and productivity enhancement of CT deployment. Correlations taken from the key hardware variables, such as fracturing port size and type, motor type, mill type and CT size, are also considered and analyzed. Following the lessons learned and best practices derived from these experiences, the findings from this article, with correct implementation, should increase the potential for successful multistage completion operations and ultimate improvements in productivity. These guidelines can therefore be transferable to other operators using similar multistage fracturing completion technologies.

fewer than 10%. The key reason is that in nearly all cases, milling seats is seen to add risk that outweighs the potential positive effect on hydrocarbon production. For this article, we will discuss cases where milling of the ball-activated port seats was necessary, and we will provide recommendations on the optimum bottom-hole assembly (BHA) tool string setup. Since every application will vary with the wells size, depth, inclination and hole condition, this analysis is only a guideline, as it cannot cover all the potential issues involved in CT operations. As such, the intent of this article is to take the lessons learned from surface testing and field operations, and transfer this knowledge to operators for use in developing a successful milling program, given local well conditions, equipment availability and operator preferences. The use of local procedures for well and personnel safety, hole cleaning and CT conveyance should be followed as required for each application. This analysis is not intended to specify the selection of CT BHA tools, but to recommend the preferred and field proven options. The availability and selection of these tools will vary in each operation and remain the responsibility of the completion/CT service company. This article will discuss seat milling operations conducted during the past two years on ball-activated ports in four wells that involved multistage fracturing. Two different suppliers provided the ball-activated ports and these will be referred to as port suppliers A and B. Each of the ball-activated port suppliers provided the specialized mills to mill out the balls and seats of their ports. Two different milling service suppliers were used and these will be referred to as milling suppliers A and B. The milling suppliers provided the complete BHAs, including the motors, used in the ball and seat milling operations.
Ball-activated Ports

INTRODUCTION
This article is intended to act as a guideline covering all relevant options in milling ball-activated port seats with coiled tubing (CT) in multistage fracturing completions. It should be noted that of the more than 10,5001 multistage fracturing completion operations that have been performed worldwide, the milling of ball-activated port seats has been performed in

All ball-activated ports used for multistage fracturing operations have a similar basic design: a seat is attached to a sleeve that moves downwards to open when a ball is on the seat and pressure is applied. Here is where the similarity ends, as there are many variations in seat materials and seat design, and ports may be designed for single or multiple operations. There are also several different types of ball materials, depending on conditions in the well during stimulation operations. All of these factors can affect the ease of milling out the balls and seats.
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Seat Material

The seat should be made from a material that is able to resist corrosion and abrasion from wellbore and stimulation fluids, yet can be easily milled, if required. Seats manufactured from hardened steel address part of the equation the material is resistant to corrosion and abrasion but mill-out is difficult and time consuming. Port supplier A has developed a proprietary seat material that is both strongly resistant to corrosion and abrasion, yet easily millable.
Seat Type

Fig. 1. Ball-activated port showing ball seat of a multistage fracturing completion: Closed/Initial position.

If water breakthrough can occur, it is preferable to use reclosable, ball-activated ports so that zones producing water can be identified and shut off. If the well can benefit from future stimulation treatments, it is also preferable to use reclosable, ball-activated ports so that the additional stimulations can be performed. Seats for reclosable, ball-activated ports tend to be longer than single operation ports, increasing the need for easily millable material.
Ball Material

Fig. 2. Ball-activated port showing ball seat of a multistage fracturing completion: Open/Final position.

Depending on the application, balls are manufactured from different materials. Ball materials used for low temperature and lowpressure wells are different from those used for high temperature and high-pressure wells. The choice of material is based on the need to have a ball with sufficient fracture toughness and hardness to be pumped downhole at a high rate, land on the ball seat at a high velocity without any damage, open the ball-activated port and seal off the zones below. When the stimulation job on a zone is complete, the ball is no longer required, so the balls have to be either flowed back with the produced fluids or milled out. As soon as the surface pressure has been released after stimulation on a zone is complete, the ball will move off the seat. With the added pressure and flow from the well production below, the ball will be further pushed off the seat and will not be a hindrance to hydrocarbon production. Following fracturing operations, ideally the ball will be pushed back to the surface during well flow back and initial production, where it will be caught by a ball catcher in the flow back line. Recovery of complete balls does happen in some situations; however, what has been seen in many field operations is that the balls appear to flow back part of the way and then reach a particular deviation in the well where they churn pulled up by the produced hydrocarbons and down by gravity. As the balls are rapidly moved around in this way, they smash against the tubing and each other, and disintegrate over a short time. In most instances, only fragments of the balls are recovered in the ball catcher.

and injection into all zones is required. Operations and/or interventions that require tools (e.g., logging, perforating or shifting tools) to be run to the lower part of the multistage fracturing completion immediately after stimulation treatments and before flow back. In these instances, milling of only the balls should be considered first, leaving the seats intact so the ball-activated ports can be used for future operations. In all other cases, optional milling of both balls and ball seats can be considered and conducted on an as-needed basis. Multistage fracturing systems should be designed so that the seats inside diameters (IDs) allow CT and logging tools to be deployed to total depth without milling out the seats. The two positions of the ball seat within the ball-activated port are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Following the initial fracturing treatment and when the pressure from above has been released, the ball will roll off the seat to allow production back to the surface during well flow back. The proprietary material of the drillable, ball-activated port seat is strong and highly pressure and abrasion resistant, but it has low ductility and so is fairly brittle and easy to mill out.

FIELD EXPERIENCE
Typically, as noted earlier, the balls for the ball-activated ports are flowed back to the surface when production is started. If the balls are not retrieved or if there is an obstruction, such as wellbore debris, in the ball-activated ports, the ball seats and balls need to be milled out. Experience shows that the seats of both port suppliers A and B can be milled; however, the choice of mills and motors, as well as the time required, varies significantly. Port supplier A allows for multiple ball seat milling operations in one run, with or without the balls present in the system; however, with port supplier B, if the ball is on the seat, two CT runs per sleeve are required. Four recent cases in the southern gas fields of Saudi Arabia were investigated and compared: Well 1: Mill-out of two ball-activated ports (port supplier A, milling supplier A); Well 2: Mill-out of two ball-activated ports

DISCUSSION POINTS REGARDING CT MILLING REQUIREMENTS

In some multistage fracturing cases, ball-activated port seat milling and/or ball milling is essential and must be planned in advance. These cases include: Water injector wells, where the balls cannot be flowed back
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the lower seat was milled out in 30 minutes, Fig. 4. The post-job data shows a fast target approach and intentional motor stall to confirm the depth of the ball seat. The milling BHA was then slowly lowered at approximately 1,050 psi off-bottom pressure, which increased to 2,450 psi when the mill engaged the seat. With a motor load of approximately 1,000 ft-lb, the seat was steadily milled in approximately 25 minutes, without a motor stall.
Case Study Well 3

Fig. 3. Well 1: Milling out lower seat with starcutter mill post-job plot.

(port supplier A, milling supplier A); Well 3: Mill-out attempt of one ball-activated port (port supplier B, milling supplier B); and Well 4: Mill-out of one ball-activated port (port supplier B, milling supplier A).
Case Study Well 1

The objective was to mill-out two ball seats (port supplier A) in a single CT run (milling supplier A): Ball-activated port #1 at 16,472 ft, mill-out from 3 to 3.375 ID. Ball-activated port #2 at 16,853 ft, mill-out from 2.75 to 3.375 ID. Following the milling recommendation given by port supplier A, a 3.375 4-bladed starcutter mill was run below a 2.875 outside diameter (OD) high-torque motor. Each ball seat mill-out took approximately 45 minutes at moderate weight on bit (WOB); no stalls and no high-drag situations were encountered, Fig. 3. The post-job plot shows the mill-out of the ball seats without a single motor stall. The mill approached the ball-activated port at approximately 5,800 psi off-bottom pressure. Once the mill engaged the seat, pressure increased to 7,250 psi on-bottom pressure and was kept steady while proceeding slowly. After 30 minutes, the ball seat was milled and a check trip performed. Motor performance at 1,450 psi differential pressure was approximately 1,050 ft-lb torque output at 45 horsepower (HP).
Case Study Well 2

The objective of the intervention was to mill out a single ball seat (port supplier B) at 14,448 ft from 3.025 ID to 3 ID. Milling services were provided by milling supplier B, with a 2.875 OD CT motor and a 3 OD step mill. Repeated motor stalls were experienced immediately after the mill engaged the seat, and no milling progress was possible. High drag was observed when pulling up, indicating either that the mill was wedged in the seat, as opposed to milling the seat, or that the ball left in the seat had deflected the taper-shaped mill from the desired milling path. The mill-out operation was abandoned due to the risk of the mills getting stuck and also the potential to damage the completion by creating an accidental sidetrack. While approaching the ball-activated port, the pump

Fig. 4. Well 2: Milling out upper seat with starcutter mill post-job plot.

The objective was to mill-out two ball seats (port supplier A) in a single CT run (milling supplier A): Ball-activated port #1 at 13,670 ft, mill-out from 3 to 3.375 ID. Ball-activated port #2 at 15,184 ft, mill-out from 2.75 to 3.375 ID. The two ball seats were milled out with the recommended milling BHA: a 3.375 OD starcutter mill below a high-torque motor. The average WOB was higher than in Well 1 throughout the milling operation, resulting in faster rates of penetration (ROP). The upper seat was milled out in 25 minutes and

Fig. 5. Well 3: Unsuccessful attempt to mill out ball and seat.

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Fig. 7. Well 4: First run with 5-bladed flat-bottomed mill post-job plot.

Fig. 6. Picture of step mill after retrieval back to surface. Fig. 8. Well 4: Second run with 4-bladed flat-bottomed mill post-job plot.

pressure (off-bottom pressure) was constant and low, after which a sudden pressure spike was observed on all three attempts when the mill contacted the seat, Fig. 5. The pressure spikes resulted from the mills locking into the seat and stopping the motor, thereby blocking the flow through the motor. The off-bottom circulating pressure remained constant and the motor stalled at the same depth, indicating that no progress was made. After the last milling attempt, an overpull of 20,000 ft-lb was experienced, showing the mill had become temporarily stuck. During surface inspection, the mill showed no wear patterns at the bottom steps, but significant wear on the top section, Fig. 6. This indicates that the mill became jammed inside the port and explains the overpull experienced on the last milling run.
Case Study Well 4
Fig. 9. Well 4: Third run with 4-bladed step mill post-job plot.

Based on lessons learned from the previous mill-outs, the milling supplier on this well was changed to milling supplier A. The objective was to mill-out a 3.025 ID seat (port supplier B) to a 3 ID. Following a mill-out procedure provided by port supplier B, two unsuccessful runs were made: first using a 5-bladed flatbottomed mill, then using a 4-bladed flat-bottomed mill, below a 2.875 OD high-torque downhole motor. On both runs, motor stalls were encountered and no milling pattern could be established. The mill-out procedure was revised to include a 410
FALL 2012 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

bladed step mill, which is typically used to mill out nipple profiles or other very hard-to-mill materials. Running this special step mill on the third run proved fairly successful; however, the mill-out took approximately three hours at maximum motor torque output, Figs. 7, 8 and 9. Seven stalls, indicated by sudden pressure peaks, were experienced when the mill made contact with the ball seat, Fig. 7. Even at a very slow target approach speed, it was not possible to make progress, indicated by the steady low pumping pressure

Well 1

Well 2

Well 3

Well 4

Port Supplier Depth, Port #2 Depth, Port #1 Mill Supplier Mill Type

A 16,472 ft 16,853 ft A 3.375 Starcutter Mill 4-Bladed Flat-bottom, w/ Starcutter Inserts Semi-aggressive HighTorque Motor 1,100 ft-lbf 52 hp 45 min per Seat

A 13,670 ft 15,184 ft A 3.375 Starcutter Mill 4-Bladed Flat-bottom, w/ Starcutter Inserts Semi-aggressive HighTorque Motor 1,100 ft-lbf 52 hp 25 min and 30 min per Seat

B 14,448 ft B 3.500 OD Step Mill 4-Bladed, w/ Carbide Inserts Non-aggressive CT Motor Could not Mill Seat

B 13,400 ft B 3.500 OD Step Mill 4-Bladed, w/ Carbide Inserts Semi-aggressive HighTorque Motor 1,100 ft-lbf 52 hp 3 hours for 1 Seat Failure on 1st and 2nd Run, Success on 3rd Run

Mill Details

Mill Characterization Motor Type Maximum Torque Maximum hp Milling Time, per Port

Job Result

Success on 1st Run

Success on 1st Run

Failure

Fig. 10. BHA diagram showing the component options for CT milling of ballactivated seats.

Ball-activated Port Millability and Mill Selection

Table 1. Summary of the four wells analyzed from field operations

(off-bottom pressure) and the motors stalling at the same depth repeatedly. Similar results were observed on four additional milling attempts, Fig. 8. The motor worked at low pressure during the target approach, then stopped as soon as the mill contacted the seat. The post-job data plot, Fig. 9, shows the successful mill-out of the ball seat with a 4-bladed step mill. The first approach was performed with an intentional stall to confirm the target depth, and the seat was then milled out in three milling stages. The off-bottom pressure during the target approach was approximately 1,700 psi; it then increased to 3,200 psi on-bottom pressure when the mill was engaged. At 1,500 psi differential pressure, the motor put out approximately 1,100 ft-lb torque. The total time required to mill the sleeve was approximately 150 minutes. The results of the case studies listed above are summarized in Table 1.

DISCUSSION
Analysis of four recent ball seat mill-out examples showed significant performance variations.

The seats of the ball-activated ports from supplier B are millable; however, operationally it was noted that they required a significant amount of preparation, runs and time to mill. This is because the ball seats are made from hardened steel. As such, a nonaggressive mill, such as a multiple stepped mill with precision carbide inserts, is required. Any aggressive mill will overload a high-torque motor, even at minimum WOB force. Mill-out time experienced was approximately three hours. With the ball still on the ball seat, two runs were required per port to achieve mill-out. The ball had to be milled with an aggressive flat-bottomed junk mill first, followed by a second run with a nonaggressive step mill. Combining the two runs is impossible because the taper-shaped step mill can be deflected off the desired milling path when the ball is on the seat, while the aggressive junk mill overloads (stalls) the motor immediately when milling the ball seat itself. The ball-activated ports from supplier A proved to be readily millable in a short time regardless of whether the ball was still on the seat or not. Multiple balls and seats could be removed in one run. This is because the ball seats are made of a proprietary material that is hard, yet millable. The material can be milled in a short time with a semi-aggressive mill. A customized, 4-bladed junk mill with starcutter inserts provided by port
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supplier A is recommended. Mill-out time ranged between 25 and 40 minutes per seat when run in conjunction with a hightorque motor.
Motor and Mill Operational Performance Analysis

CT Connector

A standard grub screw or slips type connector is recommended. A roll-on type connector is not recommended as it risks losing its grip on the CT string when used in conjunction with motors.
Motorhead Assembly

Motor selection proved to be a critical parameter when milling ball seats provided by port supplier B. Even with a nonaggressive mill, the seat material hardness caused the mill to stop rotating at minimal WOB (see Well 3, milling supplier B), and this in turn caused frequent motor stalls with little or no progress. Changing to a high-torque motor helped to rectify this condition, keeping the mill turning when high torque was required. Even with the high-torque motor working at maximum HP output, however, milling the hardened steel seat took significant time and patience. Ball seats from port supplier A were found to be easily millable. In both cases that were evaluated (Well 1 and 2, milling supplier A), high-torque motors were run, and no stalls were encountered at high ROP. This leads to the assumption that these seats could potentially be milled with a standard motor, if it was required. High-torque motors are preferred because: The high-torque output keeps the mill rotating at high load (reduced number of stalls). No milling interruptions after motor stalls. Longer mean time between failures because reduced or no stall damage occurs (stator rubber decomposition, chunking). Higher ROP due to increased HP output. Chemical-resistant design allows for combining seat mill-out with other job objectives (acid spotting, N2 lifts).

RECOMMENDED BHA FOR MULTISTAGE FRACTURING MILLING OPERATION

The recommended BHA for the mill-out of a ball-activated port ball seat in a multistage fracturing completion, Fig. 10, would be as follows: CT connector. Motorhead assembly (dual-flapper check valves, hydraulic disconnect and circulation sub). Hydraulic up-acting jar (optional). Circulation sub (optional). Nonrotating centralizer (recommended). Hydraulic high-torque motor. Starcutter mill. Based on the extensive testing, field cases and general practices for milling with CT, the following recommendations can be made with respect to mills, motors, stabilizers and additional milling equipment. Note that the circumstances for each well will be different. As such, these procedures are not intended to cover every application, nor should they take precedence over local practices and procedures, especially with regard to health, safety and environmental issues; rather, they should be used as a guide based on previous successful operations.
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A heavy-duty, rigid motorhead assembly is recommended that incorporates dual-flapper check valves, a hydraulic drop-ball disconnect and a drop-ball circulation sub. A hydraulic disconnect should always be employed when milling in the event the BHA becomes stuck in the well. It also must be rugged enough to withstand the forces imposed during the milling operation. The separation section is actuated by dropping a ball and pumping it through the CT string to a ball seat in the hydraulic disconnect tool. When the ball seats, the BHA is placed in tension and pressure is applied to shear the pins connecting the two portions of the hydraulic disconnect. The lower portion of the hydraulic disconnect remains in the well; it incorporates an internal fishing neck, which facilitates fishing operations. The upper portion is retrieved to the surface. Once milling is complete, it may be desirable to increase the pump rate to clean up the well or pump nitrogen to unload the well. This increase in pump rate is accomplished by bypassing the motor to eliminate rotation and the friction pressure drop. The circulating sub is positioned below the hydraulic disconnect so that the separation section can still be actuated after the circulation sub is opened, if required. The circulating sub may be actuated by dropping a ball and pumping it through the CT string to the ball seat in the circulating sub, or by applying high circulation pressure alone. In the ball-drop design, when the ball seats, the BHA is placed in tension and pressure is applied to shear the pins, allowing an internal sleeve to shift and expose large circulation ports.
Stabilizers/Centralizers

The use of a stabilizer is recommended as part of the milling assembly. The stabilizer should have an OD between 0.125 and 0.25 smaller than that of the mill to allow drifting through an obstacle that is milled. The stabilizer allows for a better centralized milling operation and more efficient cuttings removal during milling (e.g., in horizontal wells, where the tool could be lying on the low side of the well and so restrict cuttings flow back). In restricted wellbore applications, the motor OD may approach the mill size. In these cases, the use of a stabilizer is of limited benefit and therefore optional.
Hydraulic Motor

In the majority of cases, as large a motor as possible should be run for the milling job. Certainly the motor OD needs to be at least one size (~0.25 to 0.125) smaller than the mill OD. The OD is initially dependent on the minimum restrictions in the well, as with the mill, but also the annular clearance between the motor OD and the tubing/casing ID needs to be considered to ensure good flow passage of the debris being returned to the surface.

For a given size motor, it is recommended to choose a hightorque motor over one with high rotational speed when a hard object, such as a ball seat, will be milled. Generally, the torque increases with the number of stages and the number of lobes in the rotor/stator assembly. The speed decreases as the number of lobes increase. High speed is not efficient if the feed rate and WOB cannot be controlled effectively, as the motor will constantly stall. Often, the initial issue for the milling program is to address the available CT size and length. This will greatly affect the selection of the milling BHA. While all motors will generally operate over a wide range of flow rates, it is essential to check that the motor will function with the optimum torque range for the flow rates available. A large, high-torque motor is not effective if the available flow rate is too low. CT force simulations should be run to check that sufficient WOB is available. If tubing forces simulation results indicate potential weight transfer problems, a metal-to-metal friction reducer may also be considered.
Mills

(port supplier A). The starcutter mill can mill through multiple balls and seats in a single run.
Selection of Motor

High-torque motors are preferred over standard motors. For mill-out of ball seats from supplier B, a high-torque motor is mandatory to achieve success. Mill-out of ball seats from supplier A could be performed with standard motors; however, using high-torque motors reduces milling time. High-torque motors from milling service supplier A have proven successful at milling out all types of ball seats. The high-torque output is achieved by higher differential pressure, which is made possible due to the even layer of rubber lining the stator. These motors can be used in high temperature applications, if nitrogen-assisted cuttings lift is required or even if aggressive chemicals have to be spotted.
Selection of BHA

The recommended mill type is a 4-bladed end mill with down facing holes for circulation. The OD of the mill is dependent upon the ID minimum restriction in the well (e.g., upper RNipples, etc.); otherwise the mill OD will be determined by the liner/tubing drift ID or the mill-out ID of the ball-activated port. It is important that the mill have a long body or shaft, to allow for better stabilization of the mill and to reduce the risk of having the mill end fall into recesses and mill on non-drillable components of the ball-activated port.

The CT BHA for milling ball seats from ball-activated ports should include a dimple connector, a circulation sub, an emergency disconnect and a stabilizer. Milling services supplier A includes a circulation valve in their BHA to provide a contingency for removing cuttings during ball seat mill-out. The circulation valve can be switched from milling mode to cleanout mode by adjusting the pump rate.
Contingencies/Efficiency

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Selection of Ball-activated Ports

As with any milling operation, removal of cuttings and hole cleaning is crucial to reduce the risk of loading up the annulus and becoming stuck. Best practices developed include circulation of high viscosity pills or sweeping the wellbore after milling out several ball seats. Nitrified gel can be pumped to transport cuttings in low bottom-hole pressure wells or to increase cutting transport velocity.

If removal of the seats from ball-activated ports is anticipated, or even a potential requirement, it is important to deploy ports that are designed for easy mill-out. Hardened steel seats are not easy to mill, and if the ball is still on the seat, a separate run is required to first remove the ball. Then a second run with a different mill is required to remove the seat. In addition to the time and cost of a second CT run, much time is required to mill the hardened steel seat. If hardened steel seats have to be removed from multiple ports, two runs will be required for each port. When ball-activated ports with seats engineered for mill-out are deployed, a single mill can be used to remove the balls and seats from multiple ports in a single run.
Selection of Mill

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the management of Saudi Aramco, Schlumberger and Packers Plus Energy Services for their permission to present and publish this article. The authors would also like to thank Maria Meijer and Marco Dutra at Packers Plus Energy Services for their assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. This article was presented at the SPE Middle East Unconventional Gas Conference and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., January 23-25, 2012.

REFERENCES
1. Rahim, Z., Al-Kanaan, A., Johnston, B., Wilson, S., AlAnazi, H. and Kalinin, D.: Success Criteria for Multistage Fracturing of Tight Gas in Saudi Arabia, SPE paper 149064, presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, May 15-18, 2011.
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2012

Each supplier of ball-activated ports will have recommendations for the mills to use for milling the seats from their ports. The most efficient seat and mill combination found to date is the starcutter mill used on the proprietary engineered seat

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BIOGRAPHIES
Mohammed A. Al-Ghazal is a Production Engineer at Saudi Aramco. He is part of a team that is responsible for gas production optimization in the Southern Area gas reserves of Saudi Arabia. During Mohammeds career with Saudi Aramco, he has participated in several upstream projects, including pressure control valve optimization, cathodic protection system performance, new stimulation technologies, safety management processes and petroleum applications enhancement. In 2011, Mohammed assumed the position of Gas Production HSE Advisor in addition to his production engineering duties. In early 2012, he went on assignment with the Southern Area Well Completion Operations Department, where he worked as a foreman leading a well completion site. In 2010, Mohammed received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He has also authored and coauthored several SPE papers and articles in technical publications. Saad M. Driweesh is a Gas Production Engineering General Supervisor in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED), where he is involved in gas production engineering, well completion and fracturing and stimulation activities. His main interest is in the field of production engineering, including production optimization, fracturing and stimulation, and new well completion applications. Saad has 24 years of experience in areas related to gas and oil production engineering. In 1988, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Abdulaziz M. Al-Sagr is a Supervisor in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED). He has been very involved in the gas development program in the Southern Area to meet the growing global gas demand. Abdulazizs experience covers several aspects of production optimization, including acid stimulation, coiled tubing applications and fishing operations. In 1995, he received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.

J. Tate Abel is a Senior Petroleum Engineer working for Saudi Aramco in the Gas Production Engineering Division. Before joining Saudi Aramco, he spent 3 years as a consultant for numerous independent oil and gas operators in North America and for several state-run E&P companies in India. Tate has over 17 years of workover/completion and project management experience in the Middle East, North America and Asia. He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM, and a MBA from Centenary College, Shreveport, LA. Stuart Wilson is a Stage FRAC Manager for Schlumberger Well Services in al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, responsible for the marketing and technical development of the companys multistage fracturing completion business throughout Saudi Arabia and the Middle East region. After earning his B.Eng. degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, England, and his M.Eng. degree in Business and Operations Management from the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway, in 1997, Stuart joined Schlumberger as a Field Engineer in Stavanger, Norway. He worked 5 years in various technical and operational positions in Norway and Denmark. From 2002 until 2005, Stuart served as the worldwide product champion for the Schlumberger coiled tubing (CT) inflatable packer business. In late 2005, he became the GeoMarket Technical Engineer in Moscow, covering CT operations in the Russia area. In 2006 until late 2007, Stuart worked as the CT Operations Manager for the Far East-Russia GeoMarket region in the Sakhalin area, working on several projects, including Lunskoye. From 2008 until taking his current post in 2009, he served as the multistage fracturing completion product champion based in Dubai, U.A.E., covering the Middle East and Far East regions. Stuart is the author of several papers on multistage fracturing, inflatable packers and CT offshore technology. In 2003, he was named a World Oil New Horizons award finalist. Stuart is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE).

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Bryan Johnston is the Business Development Coordinator for Packers Plus, serving the Middle East Gulf countries. He has worked in the oil services industry for 20 years in operational, technical and marketing positions, and is experienced in cementing, stimulation and downhole tools. Bryan worked for Dowell Schlumberger as a Field Engineer, then as an Operations Supervisor and District Manager. He worked with McAllister Petroleum Services, the manufacturer of inflatable packer products, as Marketing Manager. When that company was acquired by Weatherford, Bryan worked in sales and business development positions within Weatherford before joining Packers Plus in 2006. He received his technical diploma from the British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, and an MBA degree from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Bryan is a coauthor on several papers on multistage stimulation in the Gulf region and he is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE).

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Prediction of Collapse Phenomena in Pipelines Using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Sensor Technology
Authors: Bander F. Al-Daajani, Waleed A. Al-Obaid, Bassam A. Al-Matar, Dr. Ihsan M. Al-Taie, Wasim A. Jweihan and Thierry Cherpillod

ABSTRACT
This article discusses the application of fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) for use as strain sensors to monitor and predict the buckling phenomena in sleeved pipes. Some sections of a pipeline are sleeved when their wall thickness is significantly reduced due to localized corrosion/erosion. The sleeve is basically adding additional thickness to the pipe to keep it in service; however, the sleeve does not stop corrosion/erosion from progressing, and the hydrogen evolution byproduct of the corrosion process will permeate the steel and be trapped in any gaps or voids that it may encounter. Obviously, the added sleeve provides in its annulus just such a small gap for hydrogen entrapment, and consequently, inward pipe buckling may occur due to the hydrogen pressure buildup. It has been observed that such buckling usually occurs directly under the butt strap reinforcement on the sleeve. The pipe buckling leads to serious consequences, including increased operational cost due to scrapers becoming lodged at the location of the buckling during the frequent scraping of the pipe. Over the past decade, use of a fiber optic sensor for strain measurement has become an attractive technology for integrity monitoring. The most frequently used technology involves inscribing nanostructured Bragg gratings, in the form of periodic variations of the optical refractive index, into the core of optical fibers made of glass. The Bragg grating period represents the scale length that can be influenced by external strains. The scale length can be determined using the wavelength of the light reflected in the optical fiber. Due to all these advantages, it was decided to use FBGs to monitor pipelines for potential buckling phenomena and to help in predicting its occurrence through measurements of several operational parameters.

Fig. 1. Sleeved pipes with a butt strap.

INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of sleeved pipe collapse is a major concern for pipeline operations. The collapse usually occurs due to a combination of two factors: the formation of hydrogen atoms as a result of corrosion, and the pressure fluctuation of the pipeline caused by abnormal operation. The effect of hydrogen atoms in metal is known as hydrogen embrittlement; this phenomenon has been studied over the past seven decades, but a full explanation for it has not been identified1. In general, corrosion can be the result of one process or a combination of
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two processes: internal corrosion as a result of the interaction of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the carried media (sour crude or gas) with the pipe material, and/or external corrosion as a result of other corrosion processes depending on the location of the pipe (this includes interaction of the outer environment, salt water due to rain and cathodic protection, with the steel pipe, which may release hydrogen). When H2S reacts with steel (the pipe material), it forms iron sulfide and releases hydrogen atoms. Therefore, an increase in the amount of hydrogen entry flux to the pipe leads to a buildup in the local concentration of hydrogen until it reaches some threshold level necessary to initiate cracking2. The hydrogen atom represents the smallest atom and is the only atom that can permeate steel. In the case of the sleeved pipe, the small gap between the sleeve and the pipe is a preferential site for hydrogen to accumulate. Collapse will not occur as long as the amount of the pressure generated by the trapped hydrogen is lower than the operating pressure of the pipe. It is strongly believed that collapse occurs only when there is a sudden drop in the operating pressure of the pipe. The affected pipe can be sleeved with direct welding or butt strap welding, Fig. 1. This study was carried out to assess and monitor both types of sleeves. The objective of the monitoring was to detect and possibly predict the sleeved pipes collapse.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors have a potential application for structural monitoring because of their stability and exceptional capacity for long-term monitoring. This sensing technology takes advantage of a spectrally encoded signal,

which provides inherent immunity from the signal intensity fluctuations that plague many other fiber optic and electronic sensing techniques. This technology has undergone rapid development in recent years, following the observation of very narrow band reflection in the photosensitive core region of Ge-doped silica optical fibers and its first successful fabrication on fiber core by exposure of a coherent two-beam UV interference pattern in 19893, 4. This FBG system consists of three main components: an optical strain gauge, a temperature compensation sensor and an optical sensing interrogator.
Optical Strain Gauge
Fig. 2. Locations for strain gauges (SU, SD) and temperature sensors (TU, TD).

The optical strain gauge is designed to make fiber handling easy, and sensor installation fast and repeatable. It is based on FBG technology. The optical strain gauges stainless steel carrier holds the FBG in tension and protects the fiber during installation. Since there are no epoxies holding the fiber to the carrier, long-term stability is ensured by the gauges design. There are two ways of holding the optical strain gauges: either by welding or by epoxy attachment to a structures surface. Welded gauges can be used immediately after attachment. The optical strain gauge is qualified for use in harsh environments and delivers many advantages inherent to all FBG based sensors.
Temperature Compensation Sensor

Fig. 3. Transmission and reflection spectra of a FBG.

The temperature compensation sensor is specifically designed to provide temperature compensation data for strain measurements from FBG based strain gauges installed on the same structure. Like the optical strain gauge, it is designed to make fiber handling easy, and sensor installation fast and repeatable. It is based on FBG technology. The temperature compensation sensors stainless steel carrier holds the FBG in tension and protects the fiber during installation. Since there are no epoxies holding the fiber to the carrier, long-term stability is ensured by the sensors design. Using FBGs for temperature and pressure sensing generally follows the same procedures used for long-term static and dynamic strain testing. The idea here is to isolate the FBG that is being used for temperature testing from any effects of strain on the structure being tested.
Optical Sensing Interrogator

and are ideally suited to measure many different optical sensor types, including FBGs, long period gratings, extrinsic FabryPerot sensors and many others. Well over half of the fiber optic sensors deployed today are measured with instrumentation that uses Micron Optics technology.

PRINCIPAL OPERATION AND EXPERIMENTS

The sensing system selected for this test is based upon FBG optical strain gauges. The complete sensing system requires an optical interrogator, strain gauges and thermal compensation sensors. Based upon the prior analysis, locations for the strain gauge and temperature sensor placement were determined. Locations were chosen to provide strain measurements at key locations on the pipe, on the sleeve and directly on the butt strap. Figure 2 shows the locations of the sensors. The sensors were connected serially in four strings. The upper strain gauges were designated as SU# and the lower strain gauges were designated as SD#, where numbers run from 1 to 5. Similarly, the 10 temperature sensors, five upper and five lower, were designated as TU# and TD#, respectively. A FBG is a wavelength-dependent filter/reflector formed by introducing a periodic refractive index structure within the core of an optical fiber. Whenever a broad-spectrum light beam impinges on the FBG, it will have a portion of its energy transmitted through and another portion reflected off, as depicted in Fig. 3. The reflected light signal, which is very narrow, will be centered at the Bragg wavelength, which corresponds to twice the periodic unit spacing, . Any change in the modal index or grating pitch of the fiber caused by strain or temperature changes
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY FALL 2012

The optical sensing interrogator is a compact, field proven, industrial grade static sensor interrogation module designed for robust, reliable, long-term field operation. It is built upon the Micron Optics x25 optical interrogator core, featuring a high power, low noise swept wavelength laser that is realized with Micron Optics patented Fiber FabryPerot Tunable Filter technology. The x25 optical interrogator core employs full spectral scanning and data acquisition, providing measurements with high absolute accuracy, and features flexible software post-processing and high dynamic range performance. The x25 based interrogators support continuous, onboard, NIST traceable wavelength reference components

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will result in a Bragg wavelength shift. Strain can be measured using FBG sensors by properly mounting them on, or embedding them into, the substrate of interest. One of the advantages of this technique is that the detected signal is spectrally encoded, so that transmission losses in the fiber are of no concern. Two field studies were conducted to assess the FBG system, as follows.
Detection Configuration of Pipe Collapse

The first part of the study focused on using the sensor configuration to detect the collapse as soon as it occurs. This study was conducted on two sleeved pipe sections (supplied by the Pipeline Department). The pipe sections were placed in a designated area at the Pipeline Department yard for high-pressure tests. The first pipe was left with two open ends, and the second one was sealed at both ends. The sealed pipe was 90% filled with water. Both pipes were subjected to pressure buildup in the annulus between the pipe and the sleeve. The test continued by increasing the pressure difference between the annulus and the main pipe until the sealed pipe collapsed. The open-ended sleeved pipe section did not collapse, even at a higher pressure (1,000 psi); for this test the open-ended pipe had a diameter of 28. The fiber optic system was examined for the detection signal. The signals of the FBG sensors were collected for further interpretation. The types of the signals collected were programmed in the system and were standardized to be utilized for the field trial.
Prediction Configuration of Pipe Collapse

This part of the study focused on the methodology of predicting the pipes collapse by determining the following three main variables: Delta Pressure: During this test, the two pressures, the trapped hydrogen pressure and the pipe pressure, were continuously monitored until the collapse occurred due to the controlled pressure reduction of the pipe. Threshold Pressure: The threshold pressure was experimentally determined under various pressure differences between the sleeve and the pipe. This experiment was in tended to allow for different operating pressures used by different pipeline operators. Collapse Predictor: A prediction algorithm capable of generating an alarm before the collapse occurs can be developed based on a mathematical model of the pipe, the delta pressure changes recorded during previous phases and the threshold pressure determined experimentally.

the pipe wall. It was assumed that the mechanism was sufficiently linear and that the operating pressure was not significant: only the pressure differential across the wall was important. The monitoring instrument and sensors were set up with the test pipe initially unpressurized. The sensor interrogator was set to scan each sensor every 10 seconds, and the pressure in the annulus was increased manually in 100 psi increments. No automated reading of the pressure was possible during this test. Approximately 2-10 minutes was allowed between steps to allow for settling and for the temperature to become as uniform as possible. During the pressure increase from 400 psi to 500 psi, an audible indication of buckling was heard when the pressure reached 430 psi. Figure 4 shows the location of the buckling underneath the butt strap section. The pressure was held at 430 psi for 10-12 minutes until the sensor scanning was terminated. The data recorded during the test was imported into FOX-TEKs DMAT Database software for analysis. The temperature sensor data was used to compensate for any thermal effects on the strain gauges due to the outdoor location of the test pipe and the pressurization. Examination of plots in Figs. 5 and 6 reveals clear and consistent trends in reference to the distances of the sensors from the butt strap and the location of the buckling area. Although insufficient time was allowed during the initial phases of pressurization for the readings to stabilize, it is clear from Figs. 5 and 6 that the upper strain gauge array, including SU1, SU2, SU3 and SU4, showed the largest changes in strain values and greatest response to pressure changes in the annulus region between the sleeve and the main pipe. This difference in response between the upper strain gauge array (SU) and lower strain gauge array (SD) is attributed to the proximity of SU to the butt strap, whereas the SD was less than 10 cm from the butt strap. Closer examination of the trends, as seen in Figs. 5 and 6, indicates that pre-buckling strain changes occurred approximately 5-10 seconds before the buckling took place. The slight deviations from the linear trends in the strain graphs are thereby precursors to buckling. These occur over a very narrow pressure change range and can be of practical use as an indicator that buckling is about to happen if the system is configured as a remote monitoring station designed to track

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Prior analysis and field evidence suggested that the occurrence of buckling coincided with the reduction in internal operating pressure when the annular region under the sleeve contained hydrogen. It was decided that this could be tested by pressurizing only the annular region to create a pressure differential across
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Fig. 4. Collapsed area that occurred during the experiment.

Fig. 5. Temperature compensated strain (SU1-SU5) vs. time.

these changes continuously. It is very important to notice that the trends shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 7 can be used to indicate both the occurrence of buckling and its approximate location. This is demonstrated by the readings of SU4, SU5, SD4 and SD5 about 5 seconds before the buckling. The sharp jump in strain readings is shown clearly in Figs. 5 and 6; see SU1/SD1, SU3/ SD3 and SU4/SD4. This indicates that the locations of these sensors are the optimum, in particular SU3 and SD3. This dramatic shift results from a pressure increase of approximately 7.5%, which simply reinforces that buckling is a nonlinear event. The buckling behavior can be made to stand out from normal elastic response by correcting for the pressure changes. If the data in Fig. 6 are examined, SU5 appears to vary only with pressure and is not affected by the buckling. If all data points at each pressure increment are divided by the corresponding strain value given by SU5, the strains are normalized and the influence of pressure is eliminated, Fig. 8. The data clearly shows that the ratio of surface strains on the sleeve and butt strap to a reference value that tracks pressure gives a very clear indication when buckling occurs. For a field system, a monitoring package would be required with the capability to process the raw FBG data into strains, then to compute the strain ratios, then to determine when and where buckling occurs, and finally to relay that information remotely to a data station.

Fig. 6. Temperature compensated strain (SD1-SD5) vs. time (40 minutes time scale).

CONCLUSIONS
The direct welded sleeve pipe did not exhibit the collapse phenomena even at a 1,000 psi pressure difference in the annulus region. This is due to the sleeve configuration, which allowed the pipe to be exposed to uniform pressure in all directions (360). The butt strapped sleeved pipe with the specification previously mentioned collapsed at a pressure difference of 430 psi between the sleeve butt strap and the main pipe. The presence of the butt strap section on the sleeved pipe created a localized pressure vessel, which resulted in a collapse at less than 430 psi pressure difference between the main pipe and the butt strap sleeve with the pipe specification previously mentioned. The FBG sensor system can be configured to detect the critical pressure difference in the sleeve annulus. Therefore, it can be utilized to predict the collapse before it occurs. Although FBG has shown the capability to predict collapse in a sleeved pipe, the obtained results cannot be generalized for all cases of sleeved pipes with different dimensions and thickness.

Fig. 7. Magnified time scale (1 minute total scale) of Fig. 8 showing details of sensors response before, during and after buckling.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article.

REFERENCES
1. Chatzidouros, E.V., Papazoglou, V.J., Tsiourva, T.E. and Pantelis, D.I.: Hydrogen Effect on Fracture Toughness of Pipeline Steel Welds, with In-Situ Hydrogen Charging, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 36,
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Fig. 8. Temperature compensated strain ratio (SU#/SU5 and SD#/SU5).

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No. 49, September 2011, pp. 12,626-12,643. 2. Han, Y.D., Jing, H.Y. and Xua, L.Y.: Welding Heat Input Effect on the Hydrogen Permeation in the X80 Steel Welded Joints, Materials Chemistry and Physics, Vol. 132, No. 1, January 16, 2012, pp. 216-222. 3. Maaskant, R., Alavie, Q.T., Measures, R.M., Tadroqb, G., Rizkalla, S.H. and Guha-Thakurtad, A.: Fiber Optic Bragg Grating Sensors for Bridge Monitoring, Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1997, pp. 21-33. 4. Majumder, M., Gangopadhyay, T.K., Chakraborty, A.K., Dasgupta, K. and Bhattacharya, D.K.: Fiber Bragg Gratings in Structural Health Monitoring Present Status and Applications, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, Vol. 147, No. 1, 2008, pp. 150-164.

BIOGRAPHIES
Bander F. Al-Daajani joined Saudi Aramco in October 2001 and began working in the Corrosion Services Unit of the Research and Development Center (R&DC) as a Lab Scientist. In April 2003, he started his field deployment with the Tanajib gas plant as an Operation Engineer. Then Bander moved to the Riyadh refinery as a Process Engineer for 1 year, and then worked as a Corrosion Engineer for the remaining period of his 3-year assignment. He led some projects during this assignment, such as the installation and implementation of fiber optic sensors in the refinery. In June 2006, Bander rejoined R&DC as a Lab Scientist and worked with the Materials Performance Group. He contributed to different upstream research projects and had the opportunity to lead some activities. Bander has also led and contributed to some activities in the technical support program, such as the assessment of the Pinpoint System Project and the efforts to identify a suitable internal coating system for the Arabiyah and Hasbah trunk lines. He is currently assigned to the Nanotechnology sub-team under the Design Nano Application Team at the R&DC. Bander contributes to nano-material, metallic coating and nano-structured coating activities. Bander has published three technical papers as the main author and five other papers as coauthor in addition to several submitted innovative ideas. In 2000, he received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Waleed A. Al-Obaid is a Specialist Lab Technician in the Research and Development Center (R&DC) at Saudi Aramco. He joined Saudi Aramco in 1991 after successful completion of the Saudi Technical Development Program (STDP) in the company. Waleed has been contributing to several research projects, including Materials Performance Testing, Corrosion Monitoring and Prediction, and Development of Nanostructured Materials. He is the author of several articles in the area of Corrosion Science and Nanotechnology.

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Bassam A. Al-Matar joined Saudi Aramcos College Preparatory Program in 1996. After receiving his B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering in 2002 from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, Bassam went to work with the Northern Area Pipelines Department (NAPD) from 2002 until 2004. He then moved to the Pipeline Technical Support Divisions Instrument Scraping Unit for a period of 1 year. Bassam was then assigned to the Inspection Unit of NAPD until 2008. After that time, he became the Inspection Unit Supervisor, until 2011, when he was moved to NAPDs Project Coordination Unit. Bassams experience includes the testing and piloting of several technologies related to new inspection methods and coating systems, which were completed successfully. Dr. Ihsan M. Al-Taie joined Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC) in 2001. Currently, he is the team leader of the Design Nano Applications R&D Division. Prior to this, Ihsan worked as a Research Scientist at the Canadian Ministry of Natural Resources. He received his Ph.D. degree in High Temperature Materials and Corrosion from Manchester University, Manchester, U.K., in 1992. Wasim A. Jweihan has extensive industrial experience in engineering and manufacturing and many years of experience in commercial management. Working at SOGEC Engineering for 1 year, he has designed the cathodic protection system for pipelines and steel structure. Wasim then moved at Zamil Group Holding Company, selling technology and products. For 3 years he helped develop nonintrusive corrosion monitoring technology from FOX-TEK ranging from fiber optics to PinPoint technology. Wasim then changed job roles, to handle more international accounts, continuing to develop more products and technologies, such cooling towers, plate heat exchangers, multiphase flow meters, and crude and fuel chemical additives. He is now a unit manager with Zamil. In 2006, Wasim received his B.S. degree in Mechatronics Engineering from Philadelphia University, Trevose, PA. He is a registered professional engineer in the Jordanian Engineering Association.

Thierry Cherpillod is the Vice President of Operations at FOX-TEK Canada. He is responsible for the management of operations, engineering, research and development, and project management. Thierry is also one of the founding members. Prior to assuming this position, Thierry worked for 11 years as a Research Engineer with the Space Dynamics, Controls and Robotics Group at the Institute for Aerospace Studies, at the University of Toronto. There, he was responsible for the custom design of a wide variety of advanced sensor systems, and embedded control systems for a number of robotics projects and satellite simulation systems. In the past, Thierry has also been involved in industrial engineering projects for Aventech Research (aircraft mounted meteorological systems), ElectroPhotonics Corp. (fiber optic measurement systems), York Universitys Human Performance lad (zero-g neural feedback measuring systems) and Dynacon Enterprises (robotics position sensing technologies). He received his B.S. degree in Electronics Technology from Ryerson Polytechnic Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

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Application of a Newly Developed Workflow to Design and Optimize MRC and Smart Well Completions
Authors: Dr. Shamsuddin H. Shenawi, Wahyu Hidayat, M. Methgal Al-Shammari, Khalid A. Nasser, Abdulhamed A. Al-Faleh, Dr. Umar A. Al-Nahdi, Yahya A. Ghuwaidi and Nabil Mekki

ABSTRACT
It is challenging to arrive at an optimal well placement and completion design for maximum reservoir contact (MRC) wells in heterogeneous oil and gas reservoirs. Saudi Aramco initiated a new workflow, in collaboration with a service company, to determine an optimal design based on the integrated software packages of PetrelTM and Saudi Aramcos POWERSTM simulator. Applying sensitivity and optimization algorithms, this workflow can conduct simulation runs optimizing well architecture, smart completions with inflow control devices/inflow control valves (ICDs/ICVs), and lateral and vertical shifts of the well to obtain maximum oil and gas recovery. The new workflow proved to have robust functionality and provided both significant cost savings and optimal oil and gas recovery. Three case studies are discussed in this article. The first case involved a trilateral wells optimization in an oil field that is under development. Based on the sensitivity analysis, a shifting of the wells location was required. The most significant impact of the workflow was to provide higher oil recovery and delayed water breakthrough for several years. In the second case, the new workflow assessed a proposed sidetrack and concluded that it was not a good option, due to fast water influx from the west flank. This workflow moved the sidetrack lateral 207 m to the east, and the completion was designed to equip the well with an ICD and blank pipes. Simulations showed that the optimized sidetrack provided 50% more oil recovery than the well that was not moved. The third case was to propose the best location and well design for a complex dual-lateral maintain potential (MP) well. The most sensitive parameters were movement of the well to the north and the vertical locations, its motherbore length and the flow rate of the oil. In simulations, shifting the dual-laterals 750 m north and designing a completion with optimized ICDs for flow control and a 1,750 m motherbore length provided double the cumulative oil production of the single well that was manually designed and completed.

INTRODUCTION
In the mid-1990s, Saudi Aramco developed an oil field with an original gas cap using a 1 km single lateral to delay, and minimize the potential for, early gas breakthrough and/or water coning, and to produce at well rates in excess of critical coning
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rates in vertically completed wells1. Following the fields initial development with single lateral wells, the reservoir contact was gradually increased by drilling 2 km and using 3+ km lateral wells. From 1998 to 2001, significant improvements in well performance, demonstrated in increased productivity index (PI), lower drawdown and further delays in gas coning, led to the evolution of maximum reservoir contact (MRC) wells. In early 2002, the first MRC well was drilled with a total reservoir contact of 8.5 km using an open hole completion. Drilling experience and production performance of this well were presented in previous papers2, 3. With the ability to contact more reservoir volumes with a single horizontal well, either in a single lateral or with multiple laterals, came the need for much more sophisticated flow control. The main driver for developing advanced well completions (AWCs) has been the desire to increase the well performance from horizontal and MRC wells. The main advantage of AWCs is their ability to improve oil recovery through better flow management from the different sections of reservoir contact. With this increased complexity in well configuration, the AWCs drilling, completion and operating costs rose. This greater investment must be justified by significant improvements in recovery from all contacted areas, and a reduction in the number of development wells and in the need for well interventions. The evolution of a more complex well and AWC architecture pushed the limit of the existing numerical reservoir simulations capability to design and optimize these types of MRC wells. Modeling and optimization are the two key challenges in the performance evaluation of a complex well equipped with an AWC. Saudi Aramco grasped the situation clearly: as the complexity of well configurations increases, new challenges to modeling their performances arises, such as the need for a detailed description of pressure gradients along the lateral wellbore, taking into account slip, friction and gravity acceleration, as well as a detailed representation of the well path and a corresponding numerical calculation of the grid-cell connection factors4. Other important issues are cross flow among laterals and the ability to model advanced control devices, such as inflow control devices (ICDs), inflow control valves (ICVs), chokes, downhole separators, etc. The increased complexity of the numerical modeling is compounded by the lack of appropriate visualization tools to enable a production performance

analysis of the complex MRC well with AWC. Saudi Aramco developed a new well equation to incorporate a pressure drop across equalizers with the pressure drop caused by reservoir drawdown in its proprietary simulator POWERSTM. The new well equation for ICD/ICV performance can be solved simultaneously with reservoir mass balance equations to yield a stable solution in a numerically efficient manner5.

MODELING OF COMPLEX MRC WELLS WITH AWC

Although several attempts have been made to establish methodologies for the evaluation of a complex well with an AWC, there is no standard process available in the petroleum industry that offers a comprehensive numerical modeling capability and a visualization tool. Saudi Aramco initiated a study to develop a new workflow4 that was easy to use, efficient and able to model ICDs using advanced reservoir simulation methodology. The developed workflow is illustrated in Fig. 1. In this workflow, a small sector model was extracted from a full-field reservoir simulation model. The near wellbore modeling was applied to design and model possible complex well architectures. A neural network and a genetic optimization algorithm were used to determine the optimum well architecture, one that provided the maximum oil production considering the geological uncertainty. The most likely geological realization and the optimum well architecture were used to specify the placement and number of ICDs in an AWC design that provided the optimum oil production.

Fig. 1. Developed workflow to design and optimize complex MRC wells4.

NEW WORKFLOW FOR SIMULATION OF COMPLEX MRC WELLS WITH AWC

After successful development of the workflow to simulate complex MRC wells with AWC, Saudi Aramco initiated a project in 2008 to automate the design and placement of complex architecture wells in the best possible areas and in productive zones, and to optimize the design of ICDs in multilateral wells. Figure 2 illustrates the new workflow. The MRC optimization workflow processes consist of three main stages: (1) building the initial simulation case, (2) performing the optimization, and (3) analyzing the results. The following steps were developed to complete the new workflow.
Define the Area in Which to Place the Complex MRC Well

Fig. 2. New workflow to design and optimize complex MRC wells.

Fig. 3. Possible scenarios of MRC well architecture and selected infill well area.

Build the Simulation Model

In this new workflow, the proposed region of interest (ROI) where the new complex MRC well is to be placed is selected in a full-field reservoir simulation model. The placement of the complex architecture MRC well in the selected area is determined using the PetrelTM workflow. The possible scenarios for the architecture of the MRC wells is illustrated in Fig. 3, along with the selected area. The selected area is refined with finer grid blocks, whereas grid blocks outside of the selected area are kept as original. This type of grid block system is called a tartan grid system, and it provides a more accurate simulated solution around the new complex MRC well.

A reservoir simulation case is developed with the initial MRC well architecture, which uses a uniform placement of ICDs/ ICVs along each lateral. Following the selection of the ROI, a new well, either a sidetrack well or a maintain potential (MP) well, is completed in the identified ROI. In addition, the trajectories of the wells laterals are defined, if needed, to cover additional space. Once the initial well trajectory is determined, an initial completion strategy is implemented. A tartan grid system or a refined sector model in the original simulation model is then used to enhance the accuracy and the speed of the simulation. An initial development strategy for the field and the
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wells is established, including production and injection constraints, conditional actions of the wells and the group, and field level constraints. The preceding steps provide the needed data for creating the initial simulation case. This simulation case represents the base case with the initial well architecture and AWC design. The initial case is run for 25 years and the production performance is analyzed.
Uncertainty and Optimization

Many possible parameters can affect well performance, due to the various well architecture design and placement strategies in the proposed area. The first step is to conduct a sensitivity analysis to identify those parameters that will have the most significant impact on well production performance. This important step serves to narrow down the search space for the later optimization. A tornado chart is provided by the workflow to identify the most sensitive parameters impacting the well production performance after running tens of reservoir simulation cases. Generally, the most sensitive parameters are a shift of well placement (from north to south, from east to west, and vertically), the number of laterals, the lengths of the motherbore and laterals, the azimuths of the laterals, the angle or dip of the laterals, targeted production rates and the number of ICDs/ICVs in each lateral segment. The workflow can assess the geological uncertainty in the distributed geological and petrophysical parameters. In this workflow, the objective function is defined; this could be achieving the highest cumulative oil production, the longest plateau or the net present value. The objective can be designed also for a full field, a group of wells or a single well. In this workflow, Saudi Aramcos simulator POWERSTM is used to assess various combinations of parameters and different ranges of uncertainties. Using the optimization algorithms available (simplex optimizer or neural network), the workflow builds and tests different designs in well architecture and completion until it finds the optimum solutions. This processs turnaround time is mainly dictated by the time needed for tens of simulation runs with various combinations of parameters. Another faster but less reliable solution is to build proxy models that can optimize the sensitivity parameters without running the actual simulation models. These results must be reevaluated using the simulator to ensure the accuracy of the results.

the various well design and placement strategies. The first step is to conduct a sensitivity analysis to identify those parameters that will have the most significant impact on well performance. The next step is to select the most important parameters for further optimization by incorporating combinations of optimized parameters, which are selected based on the central composite design. This approach allows the selection of enough combination values to represent all possible combinations. In this particular case, seven sensitivity parameters were considered. Table 1 shows the sensitized parameters and their ranges of minimum and maximum values. As a base case, all parameters are set up at their mid-values. Sensitivity simulation runs for the combinations of the optimized parameters were done by varying minimum and maximum values, and applying the Experimental Design Artificial Intelligence algorithm. The cumulative oil production and water cut of the well were used as sensitivity parameter indicators. Tornado charts were used to compare the sensitivity of all parameters. The tornado charts in Fig. 4 show that the most sensitive parameters are shifting the well location in the east to west (X) and north to south (Y) directions. The other parameters are less sensitive, such as shifting the well toward the vertical (Z), the number of laterals, the motherbore length and the laterals azimuth. The next step is to proceed with well optimization. The well configuration that was selected for optimization is a dual-lateral well configuration. Based on the sensitivity result, three parameters were selected for further well placement optimization; these were shifting the wells in the X and Y directions,
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Variables Well Length (ft) Well Shift, X (m) Well Shift, Y (m) Well Shift, Z (ft) Number of Lateral Lateral Length (ft) Lateral Azimuth (degree) Minimum 3,000 -750 -750 -25 1 2,000 30 Maximum 5,000 750 750 25 3 4,000 60

Table 1. Sensitized parameters of well design and placement

RESULTS
Case 1: A New Multilateral Well Assessment

This section presents the case of a single well design and placement optimization for a field that is under development. The well is located at the northern region of the field, surrounded by peripheral injectors and its offset producers. Even though it is a single well optimization at a particular region, a full-field simulation model with multimillion cells was used. Many possible parameters can affect well performance, due to
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Fig. 4. Tornado charts: Sensitivity of optimization parameters.

No. 1 2 3

Variables Well Length (ft) Well Shift, X (m) Well Shift, Y (m)

Minimum 3,000 -750 -750

Maximum 5,000 750 750

Table 2. Optimized parameters of well design and placement

Fig. 7. Water cut of all optimization cases (Case 1).

Fig. 5. Cumulative oil production of all optimization cases (Case 1).

Fig. 8. Well location: base vs. optimized (Case 1).

Fig. 6. Oil production rate of all optimization cases (Case 1).

and the motherbore length, Table 2. Each optimization case consisted of combinations of these three parameter values within the minimum and maximum range. More than 30 simulation runs were conducted to find the optimum parameters. Figures 5 to 7 show the cumulative oil production, oil production rate and water cut, respectively, for all optimization simulation runs. Each graph shows the performances of an optimized well alone and an optimized well plus its offset wells for 22 years of prediction. The optimized case resulted in better oil production and significant delay of water breakthrough. There was performance consistency between the optimized well alone and the optimized well plus its offset wells. This shows that the performance improvement at the well of interest does not significantly affect its offset wells performance. Figure 8

shows the optimum well location, one achieved by shifting the well in an eastern direction. Further steps were taken to attempt to create a response surface proxy of the three optimized parameters, and then a Montecarlo simulation was used to obtain the highest value from the objective function, which is cumulative oil production in this case. The best optimized cases from the response surface proxy are generally in agreement with those from multiple realization simulation cases if the number of runs is more than 30. The advantage of using an uncertainty and optimization workflow is that the simulation model input preparation for various well designs and placements can be done automatically and quickly. Traditionally, preparing simulation input manually may take days. For this type of case, one cycle of optimization takes three to four days to complete. Most of the time is consumed running the simulation cases.
Case 2: Sidetrack of a Vertical Producer Assessment

The vertical oil well producer in this case experienced water invasion from the nearby aquifer. The well needed to be sidetracked to continue producing oil. The proposed sidetrack area and the initial assessment well, running in the north to south
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Fig. 9. Sidetrack of a vertical producer near an aquifer (Case 2).

Fig. 12. Movement of the well 207 m to the east provided the highest oil recovery (Case 2).

shown in Fig. 11. Blank pipes were installed to prevent water fingering from the aquifer in some sections of the lateral. Further optimization to improve productivity was carried out by the new workflow, which determined that moving the well 207 m eastward provided the highest oil production, Fig. 12.
Case 3: New MP Horizontal Well Assessment

Fig. 10. Simulation of the new sidetrack well using the tartan grid system (Case 2).

The same reservoir simulation model used in Case 2 was used to design and assess the production performance of a proposed new dual-lateral horizontal well. The proposed new drilling area and the initial dual-horizontal well are defined in a tartan grid system, Fig. 13. The initial motherbore length was 9,000 ft, covering the drilling area defined in the workflow. The other lateral length was 1,250 ft. The following parameters were sensitized, using the experimental design, to determine the optimized combination of parameters that would provide the highest cumulative oil recovery in a 25-year simulation period: Motherbore length. Lateral length. Offset length for the lateral from the heel of the motherbore. Lateral azimuth where the lateral is kicked off from the motherbore.

Fig. 11. Optimized design and placement of ICDs (Case 2).

direction, were defined in the reservoir simulation model, Fig. 9. Two sidetrack scenarios were assessed by the simulator, with ICDs placed at uniform intervals. Both sidetracks experienced high water cut very quickly due to the nearby aquifer. The proposed sidetrack area needed to be moved to the east, away from the aquifer. Figure 10 illustrates the new sidetrack area with a hybrid tartan grid system imposed on the sidetrack of the simulation model. The north-to-south sidetrack well was placed in the middle of the new sidetrack area. The new workflow optimized the design and placement of ICDs (equalizers) along the sidetracked horizontal well. The optimized ICD locations are
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Fig. 13. Proposed new drilling area and initial dual-horizontal well, defined in the tartan grid system (Case 3).

CONCLUSIONS
The new workflow, the first in the petroleum industry, was successfully developed and tested in three oil fields and one gas field of Saudi Arabia. This workflow seamlessly conjoins the geological model in PetrelTM with the reservoir simulation model in POWERSTM to run tens to hundreds of simulation runs using various combinations of sensitive parameters related to complex multilateral well architecture and AWC devices. The following conclusions can be drawn: The industrys first new workflow has been developed to design and optimize the complex architecture of multilateral wells that are equipped with AWC devices such as ICDs or ICVs. The new workflow seamlessly developed and conducted tens to hundreds of reservoir simulation runs with various combinations of geological, petrophysical and complex ar chitecture parameters impacting multilateral wells equipped with AWC devices. In all cases, this workflow provided the optimum combi nation of parameters that achieves the highest oil recovery. This new workflow could prevent the failed or inefficient design of well architecture, well placement and AWCs, thereby preventing the loss of such wells high capital investment. The advantage of using uncertainty and optimization in the new workflow is that the simulation model input preparation for various well design and placement can be done automatically and quickly. Traditionally, preparing simulation runs manually may take days to weeks. In this study, one cycle of optimization takes three to four days to complete. Most of the time is consumed in running the tens to hundreds of simulation cases.

Fig. 14. Tornado chart showing the impacts of sensitized parameters on cumulative oil produced in simulation cases (Case 3).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article. This article was presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section Technical Symposium and Exhibition, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April 8-11, 2012.

Fig. 15. Parameters providing the highest oil recovery (Case 3).

Shift of both laterals in a north to south direction. Compartment lengths along both laterals. Number of ICDs per compartment. Initial maximum oil production rate. Figure 14 shows the tornado chart depicting the positive and negative impacts of the sensitized parameters on the cumulative oil produced. Figure 15 illustrates the cumulative oil produced by a different combination of these same parameters and shows values for those parameters that provided the highest oil recovery. The motherbore was reduced from 9,000 ft to 1,750 ft, and the well was moved northward 750 ft. The best case provided the highest oil recovery without ICDs since the well is far away from the aquifer and no significant water invasion was observed during the simulation period.

REFERENCES
1. Salamy, S.P., Al-Mubarak, H.K., Hembling, D.E. and AlGhamdi, M.S.: Deployed Smart Technologies Enablers for Improving Well Performance in Tight Reservoirs Case: Shaybah Field, Saudi Arabia, SPE paper 99281, presented at the Intelligent Energy Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, April 11-13, 2006. 2. Dossary, A.S. and Mahgroub, A.A.: Challenges and Achievements of Drilling Maximum Reservoir Contact (MRC) Wells in Shaybah Field, SPE paper 85307, presented at the SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference and Exhibition, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., October 20-22, 2003.
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3. Saleri, N.G., Salamy, S.P., Al-Mubarak, H.K., Sadler, R.K., Dossary, A.S. and Muraikhi, A.J.: Shaybah-220: A Maximum Reservoir Contact (MRC) Well and Its Implications for Developing Tight Facies Reservoirs, SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering Journal, Vol. 7, No. 4, August 2004, pp. 316-320. 4. Moreno, J.C., Bradley, D., Gurpinar, O., et al.: Optimized Workflow for Designing Complex Wells, SPE paper 99999, presented at the SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria, June 12-15, 2006. 5. Su, H. and Dogru, A.H.: Modeling of Equalizer Production System and Smart Well Applications in FullField Studies, SPE paper 111288, presented at the SPE/EAGE Reservoir Characterization and Simulation Conference, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., October 28-31, 2007.

BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Shamsuddin H. Shenawi is a Reservoir Simulation Specialist in the Reservoir Simulation Division of Saudi Aramco. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in July 2005, he was a Reservoir Simulation Advisor in the Worldwide Technical Services of the Occidental Oil Company in Houston. Shamsuddin mentors and trains young professionals in the Simulation Division and in the Upstream Professional Development Center (UPDC) in Saudi Aramco. He received his B.Eng. degree from the Rangoon Institute of Technology in Burma (Myanmar) and his M.S. degree from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, both in Petroleum Engineering. In 1994, Shamsuddin obtained his Ph.D. in Petroleum Engineering from Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. He has published several Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) papers on fractured reservoir simulation, tight gas reservoirs, hydraulic unit rock typing and smart wells simulation. Wahyu Hidayat is a Reservoir Simulation Engineer in the Reservoir Simulation and Description Department of Saudi Aramco. He is currently working on the Manifa field increment project. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in 2007, Wahyu worked for Chevron Indonesia for 14 years. In 1989, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia, and in 1992, he received his M.E. degree in Petroleum Engineering from Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. 28
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M. Methgal Al-Shammari joined Saudi Aramco in 1984 and has worked in diverse technical and supervisory positions in the companys E&P business areas. Beginning in 1994, he joined the Reservoir Simulation Division (RSD), where he worked on various projects involving carbonate field modeling studies for oil and gas. Methgal led the Simulation Support Department from 1998 to 1999. Then he was put in charge of the Abqaiq Reservoir Simulation Unit in RSD for 7 years. In 2007, Methgal became the General Supervisor for the Southern Area fields of RSD for 2 years. He is currently working as a Petroleum Engineering Consultant for various innovative technical projects, including the maximum reservoir contact (MRC) optimization project, where he is the coordinator. Methgal served as Chairman of the 1999 Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Technical Symposium in Dhahran. In 1984, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. In 1990, Methgal received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, CA. Khalid A. Nasser is a Petroleum Engineer Systems Analyst in the Reservoir Simulation Support Division of Saudi Aramco. He has more than six years of experience in supporting reservoir simulation engineers with applications to help them build, quality check and visualize their simulation models in 2D and 3D. For the last three years, Khalid has been developing a stateof-the-art, one-of-a-kind software platform for maximum reservoir contact (MRC) wells that streamlines, automates and optimizes the workflow of designing well trajectory and smart well completion configurations in collaboration with Schlumberger SIS Abingdon Technology Center. He received his B.S. degree in Software Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Abdulhamed A. Al-Faleh is a Petroleum Engineering Systems Analyst. He has 3 years of experience in reservoir simulation, ranging from development and support of reservoir simulation applications to conducting reservoir simulation studies. Abdulhamed was a key member in the development of the maximum reservoir contact (MRC) wells optimization workflow that streamlines, automates and optimizes the process of designing well trajectory and smart completion configurations. He received his B.S. degree (with first class honors) in Software Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.

Dr. Umar A. Al-Nahdi is the team lead for the Advanced Reservoir Technology team. For the past 12 years, he has worked in several different departments, including the Drilling and Workover Systems Division, Simulation Systems Division and EXPEC Advanced Research Center. Umar has also participated in the development of Saudi Aramcos in-house reservoir simulator (POWERS), the MRC/Complex Wells optimization workflow, a well approval package and several other major projects. His areas of specialty include high performance computing, mathematical computation, reservoir simulation and modeling. Umar received his B.S. degree in Computer Science from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He also has a M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, U.K., and a Ph.D. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO. Yahya A. Ghuwaidi is a Senior Reservoir Engineer who is currently the Lead Engineer for day-to-day integration of reservoir models for all fields in the Northern Area. He started his oil field career in 2002 with Schlumberger in Saudi Arabia as a Reservoir Simulation Engineer dealing with all mature oil and gas fields in the region. Yahya then worked as a Reservoir Simulation Engineer and field study leader for Schlumberger SIS Kuwait. His last position before joining Saudi Aramco was as a Senior Reservoir Engineer in Schlumberger SIS Saudi Arabia. Yahya received his B.Eng. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, in 2002. He has been a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) since 1998.

Nabil Mekki is a Senior Reservoir Engineer with Schlumberger working in al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. He joined Schlumberger Information Solution (SIS) in 2004 as a Reservoir Simulation Engineer and was involved in various projects in North Africa. Nabil also worked for a period of 2 years in Angola as an independent consultant responsible for advising on field performance optimization and for producing field performance profiles for the asset team located in Luanda. In 2010, he began working in Saudi Arabia with the MRC/Complex Wells collaboration project between Saudi Aramco and SIS to develop and deploy complex well optimization workflows in PetrelTM software and the POWERSTM simulator. Nabil also delivered several reservoir engineering training courses in Algeria, Tunisia and Mauritania. In 2001, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Faculty of Hydrocarbon and Chemistry at the University of Boumerdes, Boumerdes, Algeria.

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Black Powder Inhibitors Performance Study

Authors: Dr. Abdelmounam M. Al-Sherik, Dr. Arnold L. Lewis, Abduljalil H. Rasheed and Ali A. Al-Jabran

ABSTRACT
Sales gas pipeline systems with large diameters and long pipeline lengths can experience the formation of large quantities of corrosion products commonly known as black powder. A variety of iron oxides, iron carbonates, iron sulfides and other contaminants comprise black powder. Black powder formation can be caused by the presence of corrosive gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide, dissolved in condensed water in the lines. Generally, pipeline companies practice various methods to manage and control black powder in their gas networks. These methods can be divided into three broad categories: (1) removal, (2) mitigation, and (3) prevention. Although mitigation with corrosion inhibitors is typically practiced in lines transporting wet sour gas, it is not normally practiced in sales gas lines. This article describes a research study conducted to assess the performance of 14 commercial and specially formulated inhibitors proposed to mitigate the formation of iron oxide based black powder under simulated sales gas conditions. Special test methods developed in-house were used to evaluate these inhibitors. Two inhibitors passed the tests, showing a corrosion inhibition effectiveness of approximately 90% and no pitting attack under the simulated sales gas environment.

Fig. 1. Fine black powder collected at a scraper door receiver in a sales gas pipeline.

INTRODUCTION
Black powder is a worldwide phenomenon experienced by most, if not all, sales gas pipeline operators with internal uncoated lines1-6. Black powder can have a serious impact on customer satisfaction and pipeline operations, namely delays in instrument scraping, reduced in-line inspection accuracy, and control valve and pipe erosion. It is found in several forms, such as wet, with a tar-like appearance, or dry, in the form of a very fine powder. Figure 1 shows typical dry black powder. Black powder has been reported in recently commissioned as well as older sales gas transmission pipelines1-6. Black powder comprises various forms of corrosion products, namely iron sulfide, iron oxide or iron carbonate. It is mixed or chemically combined with any number of contaminants, such as salts, sand, liquid hydrocarbons and metal debris. Different gas pipeline operators report different compositions for the black
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powder removed from their pipelines. For example, whereas some studies report black powder as being predominately iron sulfides1-3, others report the complete absence of iron sulfides but the presence of iron oxides and hydroxides, such as Fe3O4 and FeOOH4, 6, while still others report a combination of all of these products (iron sulfides, iron carbonates and iron oxides)5. In the Middle East, with its large unburied onshore networks, the main composition of black powder is Fe3O4 mixed with smaller amounts of FeOOH and iron carbonates7-10. These products have one common source: they are formed inside natural gas pipelines because of the corrosion of their internal walls1-10. More specifically, they are formed by reactions of the iron (Fe) present in the ferrous pipeline steel with condensed moisture containing carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or oxygen (O2). Corrosion due to CO2, H2S or O2 in sales gas pipelines has well-established mechanisms. The following are simplified electrochemical reactions that describe these corrosion processes and their respective corrosion products. It is important to note that in all of these electrochemical reactions, condensed water is a necessary condition for these reactions to proceed.
Siderite-FeCO3 (CO2 Corrosion)

Siderite-FeCO3 corrosion products are formed when CO2, a naturally occurring constituent in some natural gas, is dis-

solved in condensed water, thereby producing carbonic acid, which in turn reacts directly with steel to produce FeCO3, in accordance with these reactions11: H2O (condensed water) + CO2 (in gas) H2CO3 (carbonic acid) (1) H2CO3 + Fe (pipeline steel) FeCO3 + H2 (2)
Iron Sulfides (H2S Corrosion)

Iron sulfide (FeS) corrosion products are formed when H2S, a naturally occurring constituent in some natural gas, though it is sometimes produced by sulfate-reducing bacteria, is dissolved in condensed water, thereby producing hydrosulfuric acid, which in turn reacts with the steel wall of the pipeline as per the following reactions1, 2: H2O (condensed water) + H2S (in gas) H3O+ + HS- (3) HS- + H3O+ + Fe (pipeline steel) FeS + H2 + H2O (4)
Iron Oxides (O2 Corrosion)

Oxygen ingress in gas lines can cause significant corrosion in small concentrations and even lead to combustion in larger amounts12, 13. A 1988 survey of 44 natural gas transmission pipeline companies in North America indicated that their gas quality specifications allowed maximum O2 concentrations ranging from 0.01 mol% to 0.1 mol% with a typical value of 0.02 mol%12, 13. It has been shown that the oxygen content of approximately 0.01 mol% has little effect on steel corrosion in the presence of stagnant water inside sales gas transmission pipelines, while the oxygen content of 0.1 mol% produces fairly high corrosion rates. As a general rule of thumb, it has been recommended that transmission pipelines should consider limiting oxygen concentration to a maximum of 10 ppmv (0.01 mol%)12, 13. In cyclical wet-dry environments with low dissolved oxygen, iron oxides are usually formed by the direct oxidation of pipeline steel walls, in accordance with the following reaction11: 4Fe + 2H2O (condensed water) + 3O2 4 -, - or FeO(OH) (5) In water containing low concentrations of dissolved oxygen, as is the case in a sales gas environment, -FeO(OH) is unstable and will quickly transform to magnetite-Fe3O4 and water by the following reaction11: 3Fe3O4 + 4H2O (condensed water) (6) Subsequently, if the water is saturated with dissolved oxygen, then hematite (Fe2O3) is often present11. 8-FeO(OH) + Fe

specifically, chemical inhibition through the batch treatment application of corrosion inhibitors will be presented and discussed. Chemical inhibition is an effective corrosion control method that is commonly used in untreated wet sour gas lines. In those lines, a batch treatment chemical is applied periodically to the internal walls of the pipeline between scrapings. The concentration of the chemical is typically one part inhibitor diluted in four parts diesel, producing a mixture that is 20% inhibitor by volume. The inhibitor is reapplied periodically on an as-needed basis. In contrast, corrosion inhibition of pipelines transporting dry sales gas is not typically practiced. One reason could be that the expected corrosion rate in these dry lines is very low; thereby not affecting the integrity of the pipelines, so mitigation of corrosion through chemical inhibition is unwarranted. Even though this reasoning appears logical, the large surface area of internally uncoated pipelines in the Middle East means the amount of black powder generated in dry lines can be tremendous, causing major operational and environmental problems as well as erosion failures of pressure control valves. As mentioned earlier, in the Middle East, the prevalent black powder composition is iron oxide with smaller amounts of iron carbonate; FeS is seldom found as a constituent in Middle East black powder. For this reason, in the work presented here, 14 commercially available and specially formulated corrosion inhibitors for only the inhibition of an oxygen based corrosion mechanism were studied in a simulated sales gas environment.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Corrosion testing of carbon steel coupons under a simulated sales gas environment was conducted to evaluate 14 commercially available and specially formulated corrosion inhibitors for their potential use in batch treating sales gas pipelines. A gas bulk mixture was prepared such that, when used under the laboratory test conditions, the gas would contain 16.5 psia CO2 + 0.23 psia O2 + 0.002 psia H2S. This gas composition was designed to simulate the partial pressures of the active components that do occur in typical sales gas lines with a maximum of 2 ppm H2S gas. Several of the chemicals tested in this study could also be applied continuously in the vapor phase; however, application of vapor phase inhibitors in sales gas pipelines was deemed to not be a cost-effective field solution. Therefore, all testing in this study was conducted assuming that the chemicals would be used in batch treatment mode. The original test matrix consisted of 14 corrosion inhibitors. Two inhibitor diesel ratios were tested: 1:99 and 1:4. The 1:4 ratio is the normal starting concentration used in the field when treating wet sour gas pipelines, and it typically provides acceptable inhibition effectiveness for a period of six months. In contrast, the 1:99 ratio represents an assumed field situation where only 1% of the originally applied inhibitor remains.
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BLACK POWDER MANAGEMENT METHODS

Generally, pipeline companies practice several methods to manage and control black powder in their gas pipeline grid. These methods can be divided into three broad categories: (1) removal methods, (2) mitigation methods and (3) prevention methods. For the purpose of this article, only mitigation

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Corrosion Inhibitor A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
Table 1. Corrosion inhibitors tested in this study

Comments Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Full testing conducted Removed from further testing due to incompatibility with diesel Removed from further testing due to incompatibility with diesel Removed from further testing due to incompatibility with diesel Removed from further testing due to incompatibility with diesel Removed from further testing due to incompatibility with diesel

Five of the 14 chemicals formed two separate phases when mixed with the diesel in both test ratios. After discussions with field personnel, these five inhibitors were removed from additional testing. Because a chemical that forms two separate phases with diesel cannot be applied effectively by batch treatment, additional performance testing was not warranted, therefore, these five were not tested. Table 1 notes the 14 studied inhibitors, including those five that were removed from further testing.
Corrosion Test Coupon Preparation

Fig. 2. Photograph showing the dip-and-drip procedure used to form an inhibitor film on the coupons prior to corrosion testing.

Rectangular UNS G10100 carbon steel shim stock coupons of 120 m thickness with a total exposed surface area of 10 cm2 were used throughout this study. These cut-to-size steel coupons were immersed in 50% (v/v) hydrochloric (HCl) acid and sonicated for 20 minutes to remove the as-received mill pattern. Following this treatment, the coupons were ground in succession using 400, 600 and 800 grit silicon carbide paper. The coupons were immediately rinsed thoroughly with distilled water, followed by an acetone rinse. All cleaned and dried coupons were then weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg and this weight was recorded. The coupons used in this testing were treated with the corrosion inhibitors shown in Table 1 by the standard dip-anddrip procedure in the two inhibitor-diesel ratios of 1:99 and 1:4. For replication purposes, three coupons were placed in each bottle using a magnetic rod. The bottle was turned on its side and continuously rotated to ensure that the three coupons were fully immersed in the inhibitor solution, Fig. 2. After 60 seconds of immersion in the inhibitor-diesel mixtures, the coupons underwent two separate procedures: one for the 1:99 ratio and the other for the 1:4 ratio. For the 1:99 inhibitor-diesel ratio, the coupons were removed from their respective bottles and held vertically, so that the excess inhibitor-diesel solution was allowed to drain away, and then they were immediately immersed in the corrosion test bottle.
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To evaluate the inhibitor film persistency provided by the 1:4 inhibitor-diesel ratio mixtures, after the coupons were removed from the 60-second immersion, they were placed vertically under a high flow rate stream of distilled water for 30 seconds. Following this, they were immediately placed into their corrosion test bottles. Coupon treatment by the high flow rate stream of distilled water was done to simulate a worst case scenario, such as water condensation and gas flow in the lines, causing the films partial removal. Immediately after completion of the test, the samples were removed and air dried by holding them in a vertical position with the bottom edge resting on a paper towel to allow liquids to drain away. Each set of three coupons was then placed into inhibited HCl acid and sonicated for 3 minutes to remove any corrosion products that had formed on the coupons surfaces. Finally, the samples were photographed to show the degree of corrosion attack on their surfaces.
Corrosion Test Procedure

Immersion tests were performed in 1 liter sealed glass bottles with gas inlet and exit connectors. Figure 3 shows the test arrangement used for these experiments. Three coupons were placed at the bottom of each test bottle. For replication purposes, three separate test bottles for each condition were used. Each test bottle contained 15 ml of deionized water. This volume of liquid resulted in a low liquid

Fig. 3. Photograph showing the arrangement used throughout the experiment.

volume to sample surface area ratio, which was thought important for simulation of the expected corrosion conditions in an actual sales gas pipeline (corrosion in a thin liquid film). The bottles were then sealed and purged with nitrogen gas for 30 minutes to remove oxygen. Following the nitrogen purge, a purge with the test gas was conducted for 15 minutes to ensure saturation of the headspace with the test gas. As mentioned, the test gas used throughout this work resulted in 16.5 psia CO2 + 0.23 psia O2 + 0.002 psia H2S in each test bottle. Following this initial purge of test gas, the gas inlet valve for each bottle was left open for the entire 33 day test. The exit valve for each bottle, however, was kept closed most of the time. The pressure of the test gas in each bottle was fixed at 2 psig, which allowed a constant gas pressure of 2 psig to be established and maintained in the headspace of each bottle. Each day, to replenish the gas mixture in the headspace of the bottles, the exit valve for each bottle was opened for a few minutes, allowing gas to flow through the bottles. The closure of the exit valves and parallel connection of the bottles to the gas source were important steps to ensure that the desired dieselinhibitor ratio remained constant throughout the test and that the gas pressure and composition remained consistent throughout the test. All tests were carried out at ambient room temperature approximately 22 C. The corrosion rates were determined by measurement of coupon mass loss and subsequent calculation.

Fig. 4. Corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for nine inhibitors tested in deionized water, after dip-and-drip procedure in 1:99 inhibitor-diesel solutions, exposed to a simulated sales gas environment for 33 days. Corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for deionized water are also included as a blank.

Fig. 5. Photograph showing typical post-test coupons with general corrosion only and no pitting.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 4 shows the average corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for the nine tested inhibitors, A to I, conducted at the 1:99 inhibitor-diesel ratio. A control bottle with no inhibition treatment, marked in the figure as Blank, was also included to provide a comparison value against which inhibition effectiveness was assessed. Inhibition effectiveness measured as percent protection was defined from 0.0 to 100, where 100% protection implies 100% inhibition and 0.0% protection implies no inhibition. It is clear from Fig. 4 that inhibitor B is not

an effective inhibitor in this environment. While examining Fig. 4 alone would lead to the conclusion that the other eight tested inhibitors provide excellent (72% to 96%) overall protection, looking closely at the Observations column in Table 2 shows that this conclusion is misleading. Corrosion rate calculations done by means of weight loss methodology, by default, provide only general corrosion rate values. Pitting corrosion is not determined by weight loss means. A detailed visual post-test examination of the coupons confirmed that many of the coupons exhibited pits, as described in Table 2. Although the general corrosion protection from these chemicals appears excellent, the presence of pits suggests corrosion that would be detrimental in field applications. Figure 5 shows a typical example of post-test coupons that do not exhibit pitting, and Fig. 6 shows an example of post-test coupons that do exhibit pitting. Examining Fig. 4 and Table 2 led to the conclusion that
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Corrosion Inhibitor Blank A B C D E F G H I

Average Corrosion Rate, mpy 2.25 0.47 1.87 0.58 0.1 0.12 0.37 0.18 0.29 0.63

Inhibition Effectiveness, % Protection 0.0 78 17 74 96 95 84 92 87 72

Observations General corrosion Pitting attack General corrosion Small deep pits, non-perforating Through-thickness perforations Through-thickness perforations General corrosion Through-thickness perforations General corrosion Small deep pits, non-perforating

Table 2. Inhibitor performance of samples in 1:99 inhibitor-diesel solutions exposed to a simulated sales gas environment for 33 days. Corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for deionized water are also included as a blank.

Corrosion Inhibitor Blank A B

Fig. 6. Photograph showing post-test coupon with typical through-thickness pitting.

Average Corrosion Rate, mpy 1.42 0.19 0.43 0.43 0.2 0.5 0.22 0.21 0.24 1.15

Inhibition Effectiveness, % Protection 0.0 87 70 70 86 65 85 85 83 19

Observations General corrosion Throughthickness perforations General corrosion General corrosion General corrosion General corrosion General corrosion General corrosion General corrosion General corrosion

C D E F G H I
Fig. 7. Corrosion rate and inhibtion effectiveness for nine inhibitors tested in deionized water, after dip-and-drip and flush procedure in 1:4 inhibitor-diesel solutions, exposed to a simulated sales gas environment for 33 days. Corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for deionized water are also included as a blank.

Table 3. Inhibitor performance of samples in 1:4 inhibitor-diesel solutions exposed to a simulated sales gas environment for 33 days. Corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for deionized water are also included as a blank.

only two chemicals (F and H), out of the nine inhibitors tested, provide excellent general corrosion protection and do not promote pitting. As previously mentioned, a second test series was performed to obtain a measure of the film persistency of the chemical inhibitors. This testing was done using the chemicals at the concentration at which they would be applied to a pipeline in the field, which is the 1:4 inhibitor-diesel ratio. After dipping
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and dripping in the inhibitor mixtures, the coupons were subjected to flushing in a stream of deionized water for 30 seconds to simulate film removal. Figure 7 shows the corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for the nine tested inhibitors at the 1:4 inhibitor-diesel ratio in deionized water exposed to the simulated sales gas environment for 33 days. Corrosion rate and inhibition effectiveness for untreated steel samples in deionized water are also included as a blank.

It is clear from Fig. 7 that inhibitor I is not effective in this environment because of its poor film persistency. This is in agreement with the results shown in Table 2, where inhibitor I was also at the lower end of inhibition effectiveness at the 1:99 ratio. Similar to the earlier discussion, examining Fig. 7 alone suggests that the other seven tested inhibitors show good film persistency, as manifested by their inhibition effectiveness in the range 70% to 87%, but the Observations column in Table 3 indicates that this good inhibition effectiveness is misleading. A detailed visual post-test examination of the coupons confirmed that inhibitor A, with the highest inhibition effectiveness and therefore best film persistency, exhibited perforating pits. This is consistent with the observation made when inhibitor A was tested at the 1:99 ratio. By examining the results obtained from both the 1:99 and the 1:4 ratio mixtures, it was concluded that inhibitors F and H are expected to provide the best film persistency and inhibition effectiveness for a period of six months.

5. Arrington, S.: Pipeline Debris Removal Requires Extensive Planning, Pipeline & Gas Journal, Vol. 233, No. 11, November 1, 2006, pp. 77-87. 6. Godoy, J.M., Carvalho, F., Cordilha, A., Matta, L.E. and Godoy, M.L.: (210)Pb Content in Natural Gas Pipeline Residues (Black Powder) and Its Correlation with the Chemical Composition, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, Vol. 83, No. 1, 2005, pp. 101-111. 7. Sherik, A.M.: Black Powder: Study Examines Sources, Makeup in Dry Gas System, Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 106, No. 30, August 1, 2008, pp. 54-59. 8. Sherik, A.M.: Black Powder: Management Requires Multiple Approaches, Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 106, No. 31, August 18, 2008, pp. 66-70. 9. Sherik, A.M., Zaidi, S.R., Tuzan, E.V. and Perez, J.P.: Black Powder in Gas Transmission Systems, paper 08415, presented at CORROSION 2008, NACE International, New Orleans, Louisiana, March 16-20, 2008. 10. Sherik, A.M., Perez, J.P., Abdulhadi, A. and Jutaily, S.: Composition, Source and Formations Mechanisms of Black Powder in Sales Gas Pipelines, paper presented at EUROCORR 2007, Freiburg, Germany, September 9-13, 2007. 11. Craig, B.: Corrosion Product Analysis A Road Map to Corrosion in Oil and Gas Production, Materials Performance, August 2002, pp. 56-58. 12. Sridhar, N., Dunn, D.S., Anderko, A.M., Lencka, M.M. and Schutt, H.U.: Effects of Water and Gas Compositions on the Internal Corrosion of Gas Pipelines Modeling and Experimental Studies, Corrosion, Vol. 57, No. 3, 2001, pp. 221-235. 13. Lyle, F.F.: Carbon Dioxide/Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion Under Wet Low-Flow Gas Pipeline Conditions in the Presence of Bicarbonate, Chloride and Oxygen, PRCI Final Report PR-15-9313.

CONCLUSIONS
1. Batch treatment corrosion inhibitors were found in laboratory testing to provide a technically feasible means to mitigate the carbon steel corrosion that creates black powder. 2. Two batch treatment corrosion inhibitors were found in the laboratory to be very effective in mitigating the carbon steel corrosion that creates black powder. 3. Corrosion inhibitors that yield the highest inhibition effectiveness, as calculated from weight loss measurements, are not necessarily always the best. Visual inspection of the corrosion morphology could be important in ruling out a pitting attack, which cannot be detected through weight loss measurement alone.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article.

REFERENCES
1. Baldwin, R.M.: Black Powder in the Gas Industry Sources, Characteristics and Treatment, Gas Machinery Research Council Report No. TA97-4, May 1998. 2. Baldwin, R.M.: Here Are Procedures for Handling Persistent Black Powder Contamination, Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 96, No. 43, October 26, 1998, pp. 51-58. 3. Baldwin, R.M.: Black Powder Control Starts Locally, Works Back to Source, Pipeline & Gas Industry, April 1998, pp. 81-87. 4. Tsochatzidis, N.A. and Maroullis, K.E.: Methods Help Remove Black Powder from Gas Pipelines, Oil & Gas Journal, March 12, 2007, pp. 52-58.
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BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Abdelmounam M. Sherik joined Saudi Aramco in 2004 and is currently working for Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC) as a Science Specialist with the Materials Performance Group of the Technical Services Division. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, he worked in Canada for over 15 years in several research positions in university, government and industrial research centers. Abdelmounam has over 23 years of professional experience in the areas of materials and corrosion. He received his B.S. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from Tripoli University, Tripoli, Libya, and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Materials and Metallurgical Engineering from Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Abdelmounam has authored or coauthored more than 60 journal and international conference publications in corrosion of sales gas pipelines and nano-structured coatings. He is an active member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), where he has chaired and vice chaired several technical symposia. Abdelmounam is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE). Dr. Arnold L. Lewis joined Saudi Aramco in 1988 and is a Research Science Consultant with Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC). He has 30 years of professional experience in scientific research and development. Arnolds current research focus is atomic hydrogen permeation studies in hydrogen sulfide environments. His other research interests are corrosion and corrosion inhibition technology, and cathodic protection processes. In 1975 Arnold received a B.A. in Chemistry from Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, WA, and in 1981, he received a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. Arnold has authored or coauthored numerous publications in his areas of expertise and has four U.S. patents with Saudi Aramco.

Abduljalil H. Al-Rasheed joined Saudi Aramco in 1981 and is currently a Senior Lab Technician Specialist with the Modeling & Prediction Group of the Research and Development Center (R&DC) Network Integrity Team. He has strong hands-on experience and knowledge in many electrochemical techniques, and his current activities focus mainly on designing experimental systems and data analysis. Abduljalil conducts experimental work on the corrosion simulation process, materials evaluation and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. One of his key accomplishments includes building a new Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) monitoring system from instruments deemed obsolete. Ali A. Al-Jabran joined Saudi Aramco in July 1983 and is currently working in the Materials Performance Unit of the Research and Development Center (R&DC) as a Senior Technician. During the past 28 years, he has specialized in high-pressure/high temperature (HP/HT) operations and specifically in flow accelerated corrosion, electrochemistry and process control of HP/HT equipment. Ali has accumulated a great amount of knowledge in all aspects of corrosion and material testing. He has demonstrated several initiatives through participation in the design of new equipment as well as renovation of existing ones. In addition, Ali was involved in developing new competencies in HP/HT testing by completing six months of specialized training with CC Technology, Lafayette, LA.

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Representative Prediction of Geological Facies and Rock-Type Proportion Distributions with Novel Beta Field Characterization
Authors: Dr. Jose A. Vargas-Guzman and Dr. K. Daniel Khan

ABSTRACT
Successful drilling of new wells in carbonate and clastic reservoirs must maximize the probability of intercepting the target rocks. Wells are planned on 3D cellular computer models where each cell represents a rocks 3D element and its petrophysical properties. Geocellular modeling of rock categories is based on the prior 3D depiction of facies proportions. The proportions are a measure of probability, and they are uncertain at nonsampled locations. Therefore, proportions must be modeled as random variables p(x) at each location x. Experience shows that proportions do not appear to follow the Gaussian, power or lognormal distribution; instead, numerical experiments on real geological phenomena led to the discovery that conditional proportions behave as Beta distributed variables. The theoretical implications of Beta distributions are not discussed in this article, but one finding is that classical geostatistics cannot be directly used on the proportions. Therefore, a novel transform was devised to project the proportion random variables to a Gaussian domain. This enables the use of classical spatial statistical methods. The correct conditional means and variances of the Beta variables are recovered after the transformation back to proportions through Riemann integration. Obtaining a theoretically correct estimate of the uncertainty in the local facies proportions allows risk analysis with high confidence for such activities as drilling infill development wells. Some complementary examples are presented with discussions. In addition, Beta distributed rock proportions allow geological modelers to explore the uncertainty in facies trends from mapping or seismic attribute interpretation in a quantitatively correct way that is straightforward, yet avoids the restriction of a multivariate Gaussian model.

INTRODUCTION
Successful placement of wells for hydrocarbon reservoir development must maximize the proportion of target rocks intercepted by the wells. The critical problem of well placement is that carbonate or clastic rock categories are uncertain at undrilled locations; therefore, the unknown proportions of rocks (i.e., geological heterogeneity) must be treated as a probability of rock occurrences. Proportions can be measured at a single well; for example, the vertical proportion is the ratio of permeable

target rock thickness and the total thickness of the formation penetrated by a vertical well. Some information about the proportions of rocks at undrilled locations also may be available from seismic facies1, 2. The main limitation is the vertical resolution; as a consequence, thinner beds and heterogeneity due to small rock bodies are not visible from seismic. Reconstructions of the depositional facies environments with sequence stratigraphy3, 4 may allow for soft information about the probabilities of finding certain facies with new wells. Sequence stratigraphy identifies key bounding surfaces as maximum flooding surfaces and sequence boundaries, typically delineating rock bodies of predictable grain size trends in three dimensions. Sediment supply, accommodation space and the boundary conditions of basin paleo-topography and sea level, however, are highly uncertain, resulting in nonunique and subjective mapping, which is unreliable at higher resolution due to the sparse data constraints. Dynamic modeling, based on flow mechanics, considers the sources of sediment supply, depositional constraints, subsidence and tectonics5, e.g., the Sedsim approach, and also yields highly nonunique solutions due to uncertainties in the boundary conditions6. In addition, facies bodies cannot be simulated to match the high resolution data of the current wells. These limitations necessarily result in insufficient local precision for detailed field development decisions. Direct interpolation of proportions from the wells is unrealistic because the geometry of rock bodies is usually complex and produces nonlinear relations between proportions. Consequently, the quantitative integration of seismic, sequence stratigraphy and current well data is necessary to gain information about facies distributions and rocks expected in the subsurface. The prediction of rock proportions from seismic and sequence stratigraphy depends on realistic probability distributions of such proportions and the spatial variations inferred from contemporary trend analogs. Facies trends are nonstationary constraints used to control the local, prior probability distribution of facies proportions in geostatistical indicator simulations7, 8. A rarely recognized aspect of facies modeling is that a trend constraint often has the largest impact on the outcome of indicator facies simulations and the resultant flow simulations9. In addition, decisions that depend on localized risk cannot be made on the basis of a realization of the facies assemblage; the variable of interest is the local proportion or probability of the target facies.
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Predicting the probability of the occurrence of specific geologic facies at undrilled locations is equivalent to predicting conditional proportions from indicators, which are the typical random variables used for representing the occurrence of a specific category at a given location

experiments, explained next. It is well-known that indicator statistics are defined for any continuous attribute by counting the frequency of samples below a cutoff value,

for K categories. The mean indicator for each category, taken over some volume of interest (e.g., a wellbore), is a propotion, Eqn. 1: (1) This proportion can be interpreted as a probability in the sense that it describes the frequency of occurrence of elements of a given size (e.g., well log or core samples) over the volume or thickness of interest. The variance of the facies proportions is written as: (2) Equations 1 and 2 are summary statistics of the distribution of the facies indicator. The random variable of interest here is the facies indicator proportion pk at each spatial location x conditional to the surrounding data. At drilled locations, the probability pk is known, within measurement error, while at undrilled locations, operators must estimate the probability density function (pdf) of pk to predict the most likely rock distribution in any new planned well. If such a probability distribution is fairly represented by the first two moments, then estimating the mean E(pk) and variance var(pk) is critical for any risk assessment of drilling due to the uncertainty in the geological heterogeneity. The Beta distribution has been presented in the geostatistical literature as a means for modeling the global uncertainty in categorical facies proportions10, 11 and for modeling change-ofsupport effects in categorical facies proportions12. The objective of this article is to show practical evidence demonstrating that the distribution of the proportions of facies over a field corresponds to a field of correlated Beta distributed random variables. The importance of this finding is that an understanding of the probability distribution law governing the spatially correlated proportions of rocks allows construction of more realistic models for facies proportions. The article also proposes a practical methodology to model facies proportions while accounting for closure constraints, and it provides a sound tool to study proportions in facies analogs and outcrops.

For example, the proportion of rock samples having porosity less than or equal to a specified cutoff defines the cumulative proportion for that indicator class. The collection of all such indicator proportions defines the global or unconditional cumulative probability distribution for the attribute, Fg(z). A conditional cumulative distribution function (ccdf) of the attribute, say, at a specific location in the field is denoted Fc(z| .). The conditional mean and variance are a function of the surrounding information (.). In the simplest case, all of the conditional distributions are the same shape as the global distribution. Consider a standard, normally distributed variable z. We project the z values corresponding to a ccdf, Fc(z| .), onto the uniform [0,1] cumulative probability axis of the z cdf, Fg(z), Fig. 1. For the unconditional variate z, the result is, of course, the uniform [0,1] distribution; however, for any conditional distribution Fc(z| .), it yields the conditional random variable of the conditional cumulative proportions, p (x)=Fg(z|(x) .). The result is a set of conditional histograms of the [0,1] valued probability, or the cumulative proportion random variable p (x), one for each conditional random variable projected, Fig. 1. These density functions have nonuniform shapes ranging systematically from a symmetric function about the median skewed distributions towards the extremes. The conditional distributions in Fig. 1 are all a perfect fit with Beta pdfs, which have the following form: (3) where r(.) is the gamma function, p is the proportion, () and ( ) are shape parameters.

EVIDENCE FOR BETA DISTRIBUTED FACIES PROPORTIONS

Gaussian Projection Experiment
Fig. 1a. Distributions of conditional probability are generated by projection onto the unconditional uniform [0,1] axis of the standard normal Gaussian CDF. Fig. 1b. Distribution of proportions from eight conditional Gaussian distributions with mean values (-2.5, - 1.64, -1.27, -0.67, 0, 0.67, 1.27, 1.64) and variance (0.9, 0.9, 0.9, 0.9, 0.9, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5), read from top left.

The original insight that conditional proportions are Beta distributed variables was obtained from straightforward
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The shape parameters and of the Beta distribution are related to the mean and variance of proportions by the following well-known relations: (4) The exercise shows evidence that conditional distributions of proportions, or probability random variables, are not uniform. This result is not confined to the Gaussian distribution model; the same result is observed when the global and conditional z-cdfs are lognormal distributed or when they follow the F-distribution. The possibility of conditional proportions being Beta distributed variables needs to be tested with real physical phenomena. Such an experiment is described next.
Analog Image Analysis Experiment

Fig. 3. Reference facies indicator proportion maps for the (a) grainy and (b) reef facies, as generated by simulated annealing perturbations of the classified image in Fig. 2.

To test whether the facies proportions in a real complex geological field are Beta distributed, the experiment utilized an image of a carbonate tidal flat environment. The satellite image is available from NASAs Earth Observatory website as photograph ISS026-E-5121. A small area of the image was selected for the experiment, Fig. 2. Sampling local proportion distributions in a realistic geological field can be accomplished in a model-based setting with images generated through an objectbased geostatistical model or a forward process rules-based, pseudo-physical model. Alternatively, to avoid model-based constraints on the analysis, simulated annealing can be used to generate multiple subtly different versions of the reference image while retaining the overall character of the original image, as was done here. The satellite image, Fig. 2, was first classified into three categories based on its red, green and blue spectrum; truncations on the first two principal components of the spectrum were sufficient for this classification. The image classifications plausibly correspond to (1) grainy facies, (2) reef facies, and (3) tidal flat facies, Fig. 2. Although the image classification is not perfect, likely having some misclassification errors and lacking in facies discrimination, it suffices for the purposes of the experiment. The simulated annealing program SASIM13 was used to perturb the pixel maps of the principal components, subject to constraints on the variograms, histograms and smoothed versions of the reference pixel maps. Each pair of realizations of the principal components pixel maps was truncated accord-

Fig. 4. Annealing results on reference facies proportion map of Fig. 3a provides empirical evidence that local distributions of uncertainty in facies proportions are Beta distributed.

Fig. 2. NASA Earth Observatory photograph ISS026-E-5121, Bahamas, with a small cutout classified into three facies categories for image analysis.

ing to the same criteria and assembled into a single realization of the categorical facies assemblage. A total of 500 indicator maps were processed. Taking the average indicator for each facies class yielded three facies proportion maps, which served as the reference proportion maps, Fig. 3. These proportion maps were then perturbed using SASIM to generate multiple equiprobable realizations of the facies proportions. It is these final facies proportion realizations that we were interested in sampling at specific locations to observe the distributions of local conditional proportions. The frequency histograms of the local proportions at four
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different locations, ranging from low to high valued proportions for Facies 1, is shown in Fig. 4. As before, these histograms are fit well by Beta distributions: no other distribution family provides a better fit. These results, taken together with the results from the analytical experiments, provide convincing empirical evidence that spatial conditional proportion fields are comprised of correlated Beta distributed random variables. Figure 4 is consistent with the geologists intuition, as deposition of facies is affected by distance to the sea, topography and physical and chemical gradients, meaning that facies conform to nonstationary geological heterogeneity, which cannot have uniform frequency.

from solving Eqn. 6, and the closure condition q+p=1 is automatically granted. Because this nonlinear transformation cannot be applied to expected values without introducing a strong bias, the expected values for the moments must be evaluated using Riemanns integral for power random variables15. This yields (7) The corrected mean, , and variance, , are used to compute the Beta parameters, as indicated in Eqn. 4. The transformation of Eqn. 5 is exactly Gaussian for any symmetric Beta distribution, ( = ) , for integer Beta parameters. For asymmetric Beta distributions, ( ) , the transformation is approximate, but yields results that are very close to Gaussian14. The estimated Beta parameters based on the approximate Gaussian transformation are therefore not exact, because Eqn. 7 considers a true Gaussian variable while the random variable given by the transformation of Eqn. 5 is not exactly Gaussian. In practice, the errors in the estimated Beta parameters are sufficiently small that they can be neglected, since they do not result in a large change in the shape of the Beta distribution.
Estimation and Simulation Workflow

MODELING BETA DISTRIBUTED FACIES PROPORTIONS

Transforming Correlated Beta Proportions

The finding that a Beta random variable comprises the conditional facies proportion in the likelihood distribution determined in analog satellite images is a powerful one for hydrocarbon exploration and for the probability of finding selected rocks in the subsurface. One can now obtain a robust, possibly nonsymmetric, conditional pdf at each unsampled location in the field. Note that the shape of each pdf depends on the proportion mean p and variance var(p ). Therefore, all that is needed is an estimate of the local mean and variance, which can be obtained by kriging. A significant complication, however, is that the variable shapes of the local Beta distributions entail nonlinear correlations between the proportion random variables at any two locations14. This means that a stationary covariance model, or variogram, cannot account for the spatial correlation underlying the proportion field. Dealing with such nonlinear and nonstationary correlations is highly impractical at best and would require sophisticated estimation programs. A practical solution is to find a transformation function that converts the Beta random variables to random variables that follow a symmetric distribution function, regardless of the conditional moments. A simple and novel transformation was devised. The logic leading to the proposed transform is based on basic principles of indicators. In summary, it was found that the logarithm of the variance of indicators, , is a squared Gaussian. Note that the variance of indicators is a second order measure. The linearization transformation, (p), is

The first step in a practical workflow is to average the facies indicator well logs by zone for the proportion data, pk(x), at each well location. In 3D averaging, one can use moving windows and transform these pk(x) data to y(x) data via Eqn. 5. One then computes the experimental variogram of the y(x) data and fits a combination of valid nested models13. Optionally, one can transform any secondary constraints on the local seismic facies and facies maps, or other secondary data, to y-scores to make use of collocated cokriging or kriging with a locally varying mean7, 13. Simulation of conditional Beta probability fields (P-fields) proceeds via the conventional sequential simulation approach, with the Riemann back transformation of parameters, Eqn. 7, and Gaussian forward transformation of simulated proportions, Eqn. 5, as embedded steps. 1. Initialize a path through the nodes. 2. Compute a kriging mean y(x) and variance 2y(x) at an unsampled location. 3. Back transform the estimates, y(x) and 2y(x), with the Riemann integration, Eqn. 7, to obtain the Beta ccdf parameters and , Eqn. 4. 4. Draw a random number, up [0,1], from the uniform pdf and obtain the inverse of the local Beta distribution as a simulated realization, p(x), of the random variable p (x). 5. Transform the simulated value p(x) to y(x) using Eqn. 5, and return to step 2 to iterate on the estimation of parameters for the next location. Repeat steps 2-5 until all nodes have been visited. The public domain software SGSIM13 is easily modified to

(5) From Eqn. 5, a back transformation is constructed after solving the quadratic relation between the proportion and the Gaussian random variable. This is (6) Note that p is the target Beta distributed proportion random variable, and q=(1-p) is the proportion random variable for the complementary event. Both results are directly obtained
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accommodate the proposed algorithm. The inverse of the local Beta ccdf is obtained by implementing the algorithm16. After the proportion data are transformed into the pseudo-Gaussian variables, nonlinear relations will have vanished, but nonstationary relations may still be present and need proper handling with known workflows. The goal of the typical workflow is to decompose the deterministic trend and stochastic residuals as separate components17.

DISCUSSION OF PRACTICAL EXAMPLES

Risk Quantification in Development Well Drilling

Consider the grainstone facies proportion map of Fig. 4 and a corresponding dataset sampling from the reference map, Fig. 5. The proportion data have been transformed via Eqn. 5, and the sample variogram of the y-scores is fit by an anisotropic model. We identified two proposed well locations, Fig. 5, for evaluation. Suppose a minimum thickness criterion for an economic well requires that no less than 50% of the reservoir thickness be the grainstone facies. A direct kriging and simulation approach to the facies proportions should be avoided because of the nonstationary and nonlinear correlations between Beta distributed random variables, as pointed out in previous sections. The recommended approach is to simulate with transformations a reasonably large number of facies proportion

Fig. 6. Distributions of local facies proportions for proposed infill drill locations 1 and 2 of Fig. 5. The probability of encountering less than the minimum facies thickness criterion of 0.5 of total reservoir thickness is 42% at location 1 and 31% at location 2.

realizations, since we are estimating the local Beta distribution parameters sequentially; one such realization is shown in Fig. 5. The ensemble mean (E-type) and the conditional variance map for proportions of the target facies provide an estimate of the local Beta distributions at each unsampled location, including our proposed well locations, Fig. 6. Location 1 has a conditional mean and facies proportion variance of 0.55 and 0.06, respectively, while location 2 has a conditional mean and facies proportion variance of 0.60 and 0.08, respectively. While the estimated expected proportion and the uncertainty are not very different between the two locations, it is clear that the distribution shape will affect the risk, as estimated from a given cutoff on the ccdf. The proposed Beta simulation methodology can be expected to accurately characterize the local uncertainty distributions. A traditional Gaussian simulation technique would easily yield incorrect results. This is because the underlying conditional proportion field comprises a nonlinear Beta P-field that does not respond to a stationary variogram model. In addition, a conventional normal scores transformation and simulation under a multivariate Gaussian model would not be equivalent to the proposed approach. The multivariate Gaussian model forces the necessary limitations of asymptotic independence of the extremes, or maximum entropy. In comparison, a correlated field of Beta distributed random variables does not correspond to such behavior and appears to be much closer to reality, as inferred from empirical results.
Uncertainty of the Facies Trend Model

Fig. 5. Simulated facies proportions (top), expected value map (center) and conditional variance map (bottom), summarizing the local distributions of uncertainty in facies proportions based on a sparse sample dataset of the reference facies map of Fig. 3a. Proposed infill drill locations are shown as boxes 1 and 2.

Most reservoirs are nonstationary in the local facies proportions. All geostatistical algorithms for facies modeling require the specification of the nonstationary facies trend models (i.e., hand drawn facies maps from sequence stratigraphy and/or
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seismic). The facies trend model is typically considered a prior, low frequency constraint, yet the trend model tends to dominate the character of the simulated facies, and it may over-constrain the variability between realizations, which may unrealistically reduce the uncertainty in the geology. Therefore, there is arguably strong motivation to introduce a realistic level of uncertainty in the facies proportion map or model. In this example, Beta fields enable a more realistic uncertainty evaluation. Probabilistic inverse calibration techniques for iterative conditioning to nonlinear response variables in this example make use of correlated Beta proportion fields. Consider a

Fig. 9. Three realizations of the facies proportion map generated by correlated field of probability perturbations from control node locations. These proportion maps have a dominant impact on the simulated facies model.

Fig. 7. Facies proportion trend map of a key reservoir quality indicator facies (top) and the example indicator simulation constrained by this map (bottom).

reservoir quality indicator variable that has a significant impact on production response, Fig. 7. The proportion map of this facies is simulated as previously described, and the ensemble average and conditional variance maps yield the local Beta probability distributions, Fig. 8. We selected a vector of seed or master locations from which to propagate perturbations to the local proportions (e.g., as per the method of Capilla, Rodrigo and Gmez-Hernndez18). The impact of the propagations is a function of the shape of the correlated local Beta distributions. Convergence to a set of optimal perturbations to the reference facies proportion map that minimize the mismatch between observation data and reservoir simulation response yields a trend realization that may be considered the best prior constraint for a 3D indicator realization of the facies model, Fig. 9. The proposed novel idea here is to consider a field of correlated Beta variables as a robust, nonlinear probabilistic model for exploring the geological uncertainty in inversion problems. The same approach is applicable to blind tests or can be used to cross-validate the goodness of trend facies maps, with new wells compared to multiple facies models with the same prior facies maps. Errors detected with new wells can be utilized to modify the stratigraphic interpretation. More generally, this example offers evidence that a statistically correct way to handle correlated local uncertainties in categorical facies proportions, or continuous P-fields with no simplifications, should be to use Beta distributions of proportions.
Comparison to Gaussian Assumption: Consequence in Terms of Risk and Cutoffs

Fig. 8a. Estimated facies proportion mean and variance maps with eight locations selected to propagate perturbations to the facies probability field. Fig. 8b. Distributions of uncertainty at the selected control nodes. Fig. 8c. Impact of probability perturbation of +0.2 units to the mean on the local facies proportion at control nodes 2 and 3.

The standard approach to solving geostatistical estimation problems of continuous attributes is to consider a rank preserving transformation (i.e., anamorphosis) of the data to normal scores, kriging and simulation in Gaussian space, followed by back transformation of the simulated values through the global cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the attribute13. Riemann integration in Eqn. 7 shows that a back trans-

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formation of the Gaussian moments to obtain the Beta moments is not the same as the transformation of the Gaussian to Beta random variables. As an analogy, lognormal geostatistics shows that the exponential of the Gaussian mean is not the mean of the lognormal. Therefore, the Beta estimation and simulation approach of conditional proportions is not equivalent to a transformation mapped or tabulated through the global CDF. In fact, the global CDF has no practical utility in nonstationary fields, such as facies proportions. Consider that the distributions of Fig. 8b are various local proportion distributions from specific locations in a field with a global histogram, Fig. 10. The field is assumed to be quasi-stationary in the Gaussian domain, but it is nonstationary in the Beta domain. Assume that the estimated Beta distributions, according to the proposed methodology, are very close to the true Beta distributions, as previously discussed. Now consider Gaussian modeled local proportion distributions followed by a back transformation on the global CDF, as per the classical rank transform approach. Note that the conditional means and variances of the intermediate y-scores, Eqn. 5, of the Beta simulation methodology are directly comparable to the Gaussian parameters obtained by classical Gaussian simulation before back transformation. After classical back transformation of the normal

scores is performed, the local conditional distributions of the proportions do not correspond to the expected Beta distributions, Fig. 11. The only case where the classical Gaussian approach would yield closely comparable results is where the global distribution of proportions is approximately uniform. This will most often not be the case in practice. The consequence is a potentially severe bias of the predicted risk towards the low end, or an underestimation of the net reservoir occurrence based on cutoffs, Fig. 12. This example shows that modeling Beta distributed proportions will enable a more realistic risk analysis and prediction of local proportions of net reservoir pay defined from facies, rock-type classifications, or fluid saturation and petrophysical property cutoffs. The recommendation is to avoid the standard practice of using transformations from the global distribution because facies proportions are nonstationary. In addition, the nonlinear effect on expectations, implicit in Riemanns integral, is not included in such transformations.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This article is a unique contribution on the use of the Beta probability distribution as a law for natural facies proportions. Evidence is presented to show that the conditional probability distributions of facies proportions in a geological field are actually comprised of correlated Beta random variables. This appears as a new discovery in geostatistics and opens up a more general framework for the study of correlated conditional probability. A particularly important insight leading to a new development in correlated Beta processes is that a field of correlated conditional probability is highly nonlinear and therefore cannot be directly modeled by stationary, second order Gaussian models. This addresses a long-standing gap in geostatistics pertaining to the covariance structure of a P-field19-21. Although this work is focused on categorical facies proportions, the concept applies to the P-field of continuous attributes as well11. Facies proportions are defined over a volume within which the facies indicators are distributed. To simplify the illustration, the examples here deal with 2D maps, representing the averaging of facies indicators over a reservoir horizon. The concepts and methods presented here, however, apply equally in characterizing the variability of facies proportions in 3D. For example, facies proportions inferred from 3D seismic at a coarser resolution average the underlying geological vertical heterogeneity, which needs to be restored using the proper variance and shape of pdfs for proportions. Most often we are interested in multiple facies, for K=1, ..., K facies categories. The expected proportions must sum to unity, which is known as the closure condition. One can estimate the local distributions of uncertainty in the facies proportions pairwise by lumping categories in a hierarchical estimation workflow. The multivariate modeling with closure conditions is reported separately. This contribution clarifies the nature of the distribution of conditional proportions underlying categorical geological facies attributes. Empirical evidence from annealing perturbations on
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Fig. 10. Global distribution of facies proportions used to map the transformation to normal scores and back in a classical Gaussian simulation approach.

Fig. 11. Local conditional probability distributions of proportions modeled with a classical Gaussian approach and anamorphic back transformed through the global distribution. Compare with the actual Beta distributions of Fig. 8b.

Fig. 12. Comparison of Beta-modeled (blue) and (anamorphic-back-transformed) Gaussian-modeled (red) conditional distributions of local facies proportions at the first four locations in Fig. 8b and Fig. 11. The Gaussian-modeled and backtransformed probability distributions are systematically biased low and underestimate the risk of exceeding a cutoff in facies proportion. At location 2, the example shows a difference in risk of 30%.

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real images of geology demonstrates that the random variables characterizing the uncertainty in local facies proportions appear to be Beta distributed. Analytical evidence on conditional proportions or cumulative probability gives exact results. Correlated Beta proportion fields are nonlinear, such that the correlation functions between different locations cannot be modeled by classical linear geostatistical methods. In addition, the article offers a completely novel workflow for modeling the proposed Beta fields of facies proportions. A novel transformation of the proportions was developed to transform the variance of indicators in terms of proportion random variables to approximate Gaussian distributions, which respond to a stationary covariance or variogram model. This allows kriging based estimation of the local mean and variance by standard methods, followed by an integral back transformation of the estimated mean and second order Gaussian variance to yield unbiased estimates of the moments of Beta random variables. Obtaining a theoretically correct estimate of the uncertainty in the local facies proportion allows high confidence in risk analyses for the activities, such as infill drilling of development wells, discussed in the article. In addition, it allows geological modelers to explore the uncertainty of facies trends from sequence stratigraphic mapping or seismic attribute interpretation in a quantitatively correct way that is straightforward allowing the use of Gaussian kriging, yet without the need for the often incorrect simplification of a multivariate Gaussian spatial field. The claim that the local facies distributions are truly Beta distributed is based on empirical evidence. The proposed methodology for simulating geostatistical fields of Beta random variables is practical and highly valuable in light of the improvements it makes possible over Gaussian approaches when facies or rock proportions are the attributes of interest.

Provide 3D Complex Probability Fields for Stochastic Facies Modeling, SPE paper 56652, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, October 3-6, 1999. 4. Li, D., Dai, D., Xiong, F., Xu, C., Wang, Z. and Song, Y.: Analysis of High Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy Based on Imaging Logs: A Case Study on BMM Field in W. Sichuan, China, presented at the SPWLA 43rd Annual Logging Symposium, Oiso, Japan, June 2-5, 2002. 5. Griffiths, C.M., Dit, C., Paraschivoiu, E. and Liu, K.: Sedsim in Hydrocarbon Exploration, pp. 71-87, in Geologic Modeling and Simulation, ed. D. Merriam and J.C. Davis, New York: Kluwer Academic, 2001. 6. Charvin, K., Hampson, G., Gallager, K. and Labourdette, R.: A Bayesian Approach to Inverse Modeling of Stratigraphy, Part 2: Validation Tests, Basin Research, Vol. 21, No. 1, February 2009, pp. 27-45. 7. Deutsch, C.V.: A Sequential Indicator Simulation Program for Categorical Variables with Point and Block Data: BlockSIS, Computers and Geosciences, Vol. 32, No. 10, December 2006, pp. 1669-1681. 8. Strebelle, S. and Zhang, T.: Nonstationary Multiple-Point Geostatistical Models, Quantitative Geology and Geostatistics, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2005, pp. 235-244. 9. Agbalaka, C.C. and Oliver, D.S.: Automatic History Matching of Production and Facies Data with Nonstationary Proportions Using EnKF, SPE paper 118916, presented at the SPE Reservoir Simulation Symposium, The Woodlands, Texas, February 2-4, 2009. 10. Haas, A. and Formery, P.: Uncertainties in Facies Proportion Estimation, I: Theoretical Framework: The Dirichlet Distribution, Mathematical Geology, Vol. 34, No. 6, August 2002, pp. 679-702. 11. Biver, P., Haas, A. and Bacquet, C.: Uncertainties in Facies Proportion Estimation, II: Application to Geostatistical Simulation of Facies and Assessment of Volumetric Uncertainties, Mathematical Geology, Vol. 34, No. 6, August 2002, pp. 703-714. 12. Deutsch, C.V. and Lan, Z.: The Beta Distribution for Categorical Variables at Different Support, pp. 445-456, in Progress in Geomathematics, ed. Q.C. Graeme Bonham-Carter, New York: Springer, 2008. 13. Deutsch, C.V. and Journel, A.G.: GSLIB, Geostatistical Software Library and Users Guide, 2nd ed., New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, p. 369. 14. Vargas-Guzman, J.A. and Khan, D.K.: Characterization and Modeling of Facies Proportions with Beta Probability Fields from Novel Tranforms, presented at the Challenges for Carbonate Reservoir Quality Prediction International Workshop, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 2011.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article. The supporting theory of this study was delievered by the authors at the 9th International Geostatics Congress in Oslo, Norway, June 11-15, 2012.

REFERENCES
1. Belyanushkina, M.: Determination of Facies from Seismic Data: A New and Improved Approach, SPE paper 129513, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, October 4-7, 2009. 2. Ronacrolo, F. and Grana, D.: Improved Reservoir Characterization Integrating Seismic Inversion, Rock Physics Model, and Petroelastic Log Facies Classification: A Real Case Application, SPE paper 134919, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Florence, Italy, September 19-22, 2010. 3. Massonnat, G.: Breaking of a Paradigm: Geology Can
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15. Vargas-Guzman, J.A.: Geostatistics for Power Models of Gaussian Fields, Mathematical Geology, Vol. 36, No. 3, August 2004, pp. 307-322. 16. DiDonato, A.R. and Morris, A.: Algorithm 708: Significant Digit Computation of the Incomplete Beta Function Ratios, ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS), Vol. 18, No. 3, September 1992, pp. 360-373. 17. Deutsch, C.V.: Geostatistical Reservoir Modeling, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 376. 18. Capilla, J.E., Rodrigo, J. and Gmez-Hernndez, J.J.: Simulation of non-Gaussian Transmissivity Fields Honoring Piezometric Data and Integrating Soft and Secondary Information, Mathematical Geology, Vol. 31, No. 7, 1999, pp. 907-927. 19. Srivastava, R.M.: Reservoir Characterization with Probability Field Simulation, SPE paper 24753, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Washington, D.C., October 4-7, 1992. 20. Froidevaux, R.: Probability Field Simulation, pp. 73-84, in Geostatistics Troia, ed. A. Soares, New York: Kluwer Academic, 1993. 21. Srivastava, R.M. and Froidevaux, R.: Probability Field Simulation: A Retrospective, pp. 55-64, in Geostatistics Banff 2004, Vol. 1, ed. O.L. Leuangthong and C.V. Deutsch, Banff, Canada: Springer, 2004.

in advanced geostatistics at the University of Queensland, Australia. In the 1980s, he served as a Chief Geologist for Socit Gnrale de Surveillance (SGS). Jose Antonios current interest is in higher-order petroleum systems. He proposes the inverse reconstruction of complex geological processes and the evaluation of natural resources with estimation and stochastic simulation with higher-order cumulants. Jose Antonios most outstanding inventions are 3D geological modeling algorithms, such as sequential kriging, stochastic simulation by successive residuals, conditional decompositions, transitive modeling of facies, spatial upscaling of the lognormal distribution, downscaling methods for seismic data with derivatives of the variogram, scale effect of principal component analysis, power random fields, and cumulants for higher-order spatial statistics of complex rock systems and heavy tailed distributions of permeability fields. Dr. K. Daniel Khan is a Geologist and Numerical Modeler working with the Reservoir Characterization Department in Saudi Aramco. He applies his expertise in heterogeneity modeling for petroleum reservoir characterization using geostatistical and inverse data calibration techniques on various assets within the Kingdom. Daniel has been with Saudi Aramco since June 2010. Prior to this, he worked for the Energy Technology Company of Chevron Corporation in Houston, TX. In 2001, he received his B.S. degree in Geology from the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. In 2006, Daniel received his Ph.D. degree in Hydrogeology, also from the University of Alberta. He is active in publishing original research and has coauthored an instructional book on geostatistics.

BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Jose Antonio Vargas-Guzmn joined Saudi Aramco in 2002 and works as a Senior Consultant with the Reservoir Characterization Department, Geological Modeling Division. During his career, he has been involved in mathematical applications to 3D geological modeling and evaluation, and he is the senior author of many journal papers, book reviews and book chapters; he has received numerous literature citations. The International Association for Mathematical Geology (IAMG) conferred on him the Best Paper Award from the Mathematical Geology journal for his peer-reviewed paper on successive estimation of spatial conditional distributions in 2003. The IAMG also bestowed on him the Best Reviewer Award from the Journal of Mathematical Geosciences in 2007. Jose Antonio is a former Fulbright and DAAD Scholar. In 1998, he received his Ph.D. degree from the University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, where he has also served as a research associate, instructor and full-time faculty member. He was granted a graduate scholarship and a post-doctoral fellowship with funding provided by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Department of Energy (DOE), respectively. Also, he was a research fellow

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X-ray Diffraction Technique Application in Evaluating the Damage of a Gas Turbine Blade
Authors: Dr. Shouwen Shen, Dr. Alaaeldin H. Mustafa, Dr. Gasan Alabedi, Dr. Syed R. Zaidi, Dr. Husin Sitepu and Dr. Ihsan M. Taie

ABSTRACT
X-ray diffraction (XRD) phase identification and residual stress analysis were performed on a sample from a prematurely failed gas turbine blade. XRD results show that the undesirable brittle phase of cobalt molybdenum (Co3Mo) was present in the failed blade sample. Co3Mo is a topologically closepacked (TCP) phase usually formed during heat treatment at the manufacturer. TCP phases can damage tie-up and strengthening elements and reduce creep strength. They can act as crack initiators because of their brittle nature. The residual stress analysis indicates that the longitudinal direction has a tensile stress (206.4 45.4 MPa), whereas the transversal direction has a compressive stress (-203.1 28.4 MPa). Based on the operating conditions, it is possible that the tensile stress was formed and the creep extension occurred due to the centrifugal force as a result of operation in a high temperature environment. A crack potential was found perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the blades due to the tensile stress. Based on the stress analysis, it is suggested that the turbines rotational speed and the combustors exit temperature should be reviewed at the design stage, and that the blades heat treatment process to protect the blades from failure should be reviewed as well; an alternative is to replace the current directionally solidified blades with single crystal blades for better performance.

Fig. 1. Illustration of a gas turbine and XRD sampling of a damaged blade.

INTRODUCTION
X-ray diffraction (XRD) residual stress measurement is considered a useful tool for material failure analysis. Residual stresses have been identified as an important factor contributing to some failures, particularly in cases of high performance coating or materials that are exposed to an extreme environment1, 2. The original residual stress in a component is lockedin thermal stress, which primarily comes from solution heat treatment cycles. Although it is important to cool components rapidly from a solution heat treatment cycle, the variation in cooling rate from the surface to the center results in large thermal stress, often large enough to cause plastic strains and subsequent residual stress3. The original residual stress of a component can be modified by surface treatments, such as machining, grinding, shot peening or stress relaxation (heat treat46
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ment). For gas turbine blades used in an engine, the centrifugal stress during the operation can also add to the original residual stress and change the status of the residual stress. The effects of residual stress may be beneficial or detrimental, depending on the magnitude, sign and distribution of the stress with respect to the load-induced stresses. Tensile residual stress may reduce the performance or cause the failure of manufactured products. It may also increase the rate of damage by fatigue, creep or environmental degradation. Tensile residual stress can also reduce the load capacity by contributing to the products failure by brittle fracture or cause other forms of damage, such as shape change4. XRD residual stress measurement was performed on the sample from a prematurely failed gas turbine blade, Fig. 1, of an aero-derivative engine used as a driver for a super pump. The examined blade was removed with the rest of the set after a few hundred hours of operation. The reason for removal was damage to the leading edges of the blade, which resulted when impurities in the fuel were converted into solids and deposited in the fuel nozzle or carried away later with the airflow. The purpose of the XRD stress analysis was to examine the stress status in the failed blade and help engineers to improve operation procedures and make a proper replacement. To calculate the residual stress of the blade sample, phase identification information and elemental composition data were needed. Therefore, XRD phase identification and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) elemental composition determination were included in our analytical procedure.

XRF ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION DETERMINATION

Nickel (Ni)-based superalloys are widely used in gas turbine blades since they maintain a high resistance to corrosion, fatigue, shock, creep and erosion at elevated temperatures. In

ELEMENTS Sample #1 Polished Blade Sample #2 Blade with Coating

Ni 43.0 22.8

W 13.6 3.7

Cr 9.4 2.9

Pt 7.7 54.0

Co 7.2 2.9

Al 4.0 10.5

Ti 2.8 0.6

Ta 2.2 0.6

Hf 2.0 -

Th 0.9 -

Table 1. Semi-quantitative results of the elemental composition analysis of the blade from WDXRF* *Note: Carbon content cannot be detected by our WDXRF.

bly from the PtAl type diffusion coating, whose actual formula will be Pt (Al, Cr). It is necessary to point out that Co3Mo is a topologically close-packed (TCP) phase. The TCP phase is the usual undesirable brittle phase formed during heat treatment. Usually, all TCP types have a plate structure, which has negative effects on mechanical properties, such as ductility and creeprupture. TCP phases can damage tie-up and strengthening elements and reduce creep strength. They can act as crack initiators because of their brittle nature.
Fig. 2. XRD diffractogram of the blade with identified phase patterns.

XRD RESIDUAL STRESS ANALYSIS

When a monochromatic X-ray beam interacts with a crystalline material, incident photons are subject to diffraction at the planes of the atoms and produce a strongly diffracted beam that leaves the crystal in defined and predicted directions, given by the well-known Braggs Law, 2d Sin = where is the wavelength of the incident beam, d is the interspacing between the planes in the atomic lattice, and is the angle between the incident ray and the scattering planes. Changing in interspacing, d, can be used with the Braggs equation to detect elastic strain7 through knowledge of the incident wavelength ( ) and the change in Braggs scattering angle . The most popular technique for measurement of residual stress is the sin2 method8. According to the sin2 method, the residual stress in the sample is related to the slope of the plot of strain = d/d0 vs. sin2 using the equatio = where E is Youngs modulus, is the Poissons ratio, and is the stress coefficient. In our study, the XRD instrument conditions were set at the same conditions as the phase identification except that the count time was changed to 20 seconds per step. The d spacing measurements were conducted on the high 2 peak (115.4) of the NiAl (310) plane of the blade sample at different tilting ( changes at 0, 21.41, 31.08, 39.22, 46.90, 54.72, 63.42 and 75, respectively). The d spacing against sin2 was plotted for the measurements of two directions, respectively. The calculation of the residual stress was automatically performed by the PANalytical XPert Stress software using the slopes m and the equation = . The values of Youngs modulus (E = 199.5 GPa) and Poissons ratio ( = 0.312) for nickel were used for the calculation. The results indicate that the transversal direction has a compressive residual stress (-203.1 28.4 MPa), whereas the longitudinal direction has a tensile residual stress (206.4 45.4 MPa), Figs. 3 and 4. As both tensile stress and compressive stress are of
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general, Ni-based alloys contain about 10 wt% to 20 wt% of chromium (Cr), up to 8 wt% of aluminum (Al) and titanium (Ti), and 5 wt% to 15 wt% of cobalt (Co) and iron (Fe)5. They may also contain minute controlled quantities of other refractory elements, such as tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), molybdenum (Mo), hafnium (Hf) and niobium (Nb), added to enhance their strength and oxidation properties6. To examine the chemical composition of the failed blade, a wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) spectrometry analysis was performed. As the blade sample couldnt be ground into powder, it was measured directly in the instrument (PANalyticals Axios Advanced WDXRF) using the loose powder method in a helium environment. Semi-quantitative WDXRF results, Table 1, of two samples, Fig. 1, from the failed blade indicate that the blade was made of a Nibased superalloy with significant content of W, Cr, Co and platinum (Pt) (Sample #1), whereas the surface was coated with a PtAl type diffusion coating (Sample #2).

XRD PHASE IDENTIFICATION

For phase identification, a PANalytical XPERT PRO X-ray diffractometer with Cu K radiation ( = 1.5418) was used. A 0.27 parallel plate collimator and a proportional detector were employed at the diffraction beam side in conjunction with a 8 mm polycapillary lens at the incident beam side setting with a 2 mm wide mask and a 2 mm high divergence slit. The XRD instrument was set at 45 kV and 40 mA and run from 10 to 160 2 using a step size of 0.02 and a count time of 1 second per step. The blade sample was directly mounted at an open Eulerian cradle with a manual Z translation stage. XRD results, Fig. 2 and Table 2, show that the major phases are phase (NiAl) and phase (Ni3Al) with minor phases of carbides, Co3Mo and CrPt, in which CrPt is proba-

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Phase Identied

Interpretation NiAl is a gamma (Y) phase (face-centered-cubic structure) in the alloy, in which the lattice sites are totally equivalent and the atoms constituting the solid solution are distributed randomly. Co, Fe, Cr, Mo and W can replace Ni and Al as a solid solution. The actual formula of Y phase in the failed blade will be Ni (W, Cr, Co, Al). Ni3Al is a gamma prime (Y) phase (face-centered-cubic structure) in the alloy, in which Ni atoms are at the face-centers and the Al or other atoms (Ti, Cr, Hf, Nb or Ta) are at the cube corners. The actual formula of Y phase in the failed blade will be Ni3 (Al, Ti, Cr, Hf, Ta).

Nickel Aluminum (NiAl)

Aluminum Hafnium Nickel (Al3HfNi12 or Ni3Al0.75Hf0.25)

Tantalum Titanium Tungsten Carbide (C5TaTi3W or Ti0.6Ta0.2W0.2C) Hafnium Carbide (CHf or HfC)

Both are carbide phases in the form of MC with face-centered-cubic crystal structure. The carbides usually precipitate at grain boundaries and reduce the tendency for grain boundary sliding.

Cobalt Molybdenum (Co3Mo)

Co3Mo is a TCP phase, the usual undesirable brittle phase formed during heat treatment. The structure of this phase consists of closepacked atoms in layers with relatively large interatomic distances one below the other. The characteristic topology is generated when the layers sandwich larger atoms. Usually, all TCP types have a plate structure, which has negative effects on mechanical properties, such as ductility and creep-rupture. TCP phases can damage tie-up Y and Y strengthening elements and reduce creep strength. They can act as crack initiators because of their brittle nature. CrPt is probably from the PtAl type diffusion coating. The actual formula will be Pt (Al, Cr).

Chromium Platinum (CrPt)

Table 2. XRD results of phase identification of the blade

Fig. 4. Results of the residual stress analysis in the longitudinal direction of the failed blade showing tensile stress (positive). Fig. 3. Results of the residual stress analysis in the transversal direction of the failed blade showing compressive stress (negative).

the same magnitude, it is believed that the creep extension occurred along the longitudinal direction and shrinkage present in the transversal direction of the failed blade. A micro-fracture in the failed directionally solidified blade was found in the optical microscopic photo, Fig. 5, which confirmed our assumption. Based on the operating conditions, it is possible that the tensile
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stress was formed by the centrifugal force as a result of operation in a high temperature environment.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on stress analysis and phase identification, it can be concluded that the creep extension occurred along the longitudinal direction and shrinkage present in the transversal direction of

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5. Choudhury, I.A. and El-Baradie, M.A.: Machinability of Nickel Base Superalloys: A General Review, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 77, No. 1, May 1, 1998, pp. 278-284. 6. Ezugwu, E.O., Bonney, J. and Yamane, Y.: An Overview of the Machinability of Aero Engine Alloys, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 134, No. 2, March 10, 2003, pp. 233-253. 7. Esquiel, A.L. and Evans, K.R.: X-ray Diffraction Study of Residual Macro Stresses in Shot Peened and Fatigued 4130 Steel, Experimental Mechanics, November 1968, pp. 496503. 8. Hilley, M.E., ed.: Residual Stress Measurement by X-ray Diffraction, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Technical Paper J784a, 1971, pp. 21-24.

Fig. 5. Microscopic photo of the directionally solidified blade showing a microfracture.

the failed blade. There is a crack potential perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the blades due to the tensile residual stress. The undesirable brittle TCP phase was found in the blade, which can act as a crack initiator because of its brittle nature. It is suggested that the rotational speed and the combustors exit temperature should be reviewed at the design stage, and that the blades heat treatment process to protect the blades from failure be reviewed as well; an alternative is to replace the current directionally solidified blades with single crystal blades for better performance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article. Special thanks go to Abdulelah Al-Naser and Yazeed Al-Dukhayyil for their encouragement and support in many ways. The authors would also like to thank X-ray Group members for their help in the experiments.

REFERENCES
1. Mustafa, A.H., Badairy, H.H. and Mehta, S.: Gas Turbine Aero-Engine First Stage Turbine Blade Failure Investigation, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbine and Power, Vol. 131, 2009, pp. 1-4. 2. Ezugwu, E.O., Wang, Z.M. and Machado, A.R.: The Machinability of Nickel-Based Alloys: A Review, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 86, Nos. 1-3, February 15, 1999, pp. 1-16. 3. Wallis, R.A. and Craighead, I.W.: Research Summary: Predicting Residual Stresses in Gas Turbine Components, JOM, Vol. 47, No. 10, October 1995, pp. 69-71. 4. Sridhar, B.R., Ramachandra, S. and Chandrasekar, U.: Residual Stress in Nickel Base Superalloy UDMET 720 for Different Surface Conditions, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 1, January 2011, pp. 36-43.

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BIOGRAPHIES
Dr. Shouwen Shen is a Science Specialist and X-ray Group Leader at the Materials Performance Unit of the Research & Development Center (R&DC). He has more than 25 years of experience in the petroleum industry and academe. Before joining Saudi Aramco in 2006, he worked at Southwest Petroleum University in China as an Associate Professor, at the University of Miami as a Visiting Scientist and at Core Laboratories Canada Ltd. as an X-ray Specialist. He has studied the seismic facies, sedimentary facies and sequence stratigraphy of Jurassic formations in the TurpanHami basin of China. Shouwen used piezoelectric transducers to measure the sonic velocity of various dolomites from the Madison formation of Wyoming and Montana, and developed an empirical formula to predict the sonic velocity of dolomite according to thin section description. He also developed new XRD methods in-house for quantitative mineral analysis of sandstone and successfully solved the problem caused by the Rietveld method limitation. Shouwens specialties include sequence stratigraphy, clastics diagenesis, clay mineralogy and formation damage assessment, thin section description, XRF elemental analysis, XRD phase identification and quantification, crystallite size determination, and texture and residual stress analyses. Shouwen received a B.S. degree from the China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China, in 1982 and a Ph.D. degree in Petroleum Geology from Chengdu University of Technology, Sichuan, China, in 1998. Dr. Alaaeldin H. Mustafa joined Saudi Aramco in December 2000 from Rolls-Royce Civil Aero-Engines, Derby, U.K., where he worked in various positions during his period of employment, covering design, testing, overhaul and troubleshooting. Alaaeldin works as a Specialist Gas Turbine Maintenance Engineer in the Mechanical Shops Services Department. Presently, he is assigned to the Research and Development Center (R&DC) for a period of 3 months to investigate the integrity of hot gas path components in gas turbine engines. Alaaeldin received his B.Eng. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Brighton University, Brighton, U.K., his M.S. degree in Thermal Power from Cranfield University, Cranfield, U.K., and his Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland.

Dr. Gasan Alabedi previously worked for many years as a Research Fellow and Lecturer at Manchester School of Materials in the field of Advanced Ceramics, Thermal Spray Coatings and Clay-Polymer Nano-composites. His main research interests were focused on the utilization of advanced materials and nanotechnology in the oil and gas industry. Currently, Gasan is acting sub-team leader for Reliability Enhancement Technology within the Network Integrity Team at the Research and Development Center (R&DC). He received his B.Eng. degree in Mining and Geological Engineering from the University of Tuzla, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and his M.Eng. degree from Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia. Gasan then proceeded to receive M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Materials Science from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) and the University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K., respectively. Dr. Syed R. Zaidi has been with Saudi Aramco since 1992. His specialized area of research is the mineralogical characterization of geological samples (clay and bulk rock) by using the XRD technique. Syed is also responsible for XRD method development and research work. He is familiar with other analytical techniques, such as XRF, SEM, FTIR, TGA, DSC and ICP. Syed received his B.S. degree (with honors) and M.S. degree, both in Chemistry, from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India, in 1977 and 1980, respectively. In 1986, he received his Ph.D. degree in Inorganic Chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. Syed has published more than 20 papers in peerreviewed journals. He is a member of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE).

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Dr. Husin Sitepu joined Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC), Technical Services Division, in 2008. Since then, he has contributed to several research projects by providing crystallographic information on developed materials, including black powder, nano-materials and catalysts. Before joining Saudi Aramco, Husin worked at the wellestablished national and international laboratories at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Center for Neutron Research in Gaithersburg, MD; at Virginia Tech University in Blacksburg, VA; at RuhrUniversitt Bochum in Bochum, Germany; at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) Neutrons for Science program in Grenoble, France; at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada; and at the Curtin University of Technology in Perth, Australia. He has authored and coauthored 35 papers in several peer-reviewed journals, including the International Union of Crystallographys Journal of Applied Crystallography, with the Herfindahl index of 5. Husin has a very strong background in physics at a research level, and he is a world-class expert in crystallography and diffraction science through his extensive use of powder X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction for studying materials. He received his Postgraduate Diploma, M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Physics from the Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, in 1989, 1991 and 1998, respectively. Husin is a member of the International Center for Diffraction Data (ICDD), the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) and the Neutron Scattering Society of America (NSSA).

Dr. Ihsan M. Taie joined Saudi Aramcos Research and Development Center (R&DC) in 2001. Currently, he is the team leader of the Network Integrity R&D Team. Prior to this, Ihsan worked as a Research Scientist at the Canadian Ministry of Natural Resources. He received his Ph.D. degree in High Temperature Materials and Corrosion from Manchester University, Manchester, U.K., in 1992.

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Coiled Tubing Fill Clean Out and Near Wellbore Acidizing of Plugged Stand-Alone Screens: Highly Successful Campaign in Saudi Arabian Gas Wells
Authors: Murtadha J. Al-Tammar, Khalid S. Al-Asiri, Saad M. Al-Driweesh, Mohammed A. Asiri and Nahr M. Abulhamayel

ABSTRACT
Wells in gas field MN, south of the giant Ghawar field, are completed with stand-alone screens across a pre-Khuff sandstone formation as a sand control measure. Although prolific producers, some suffered a severe decline in performance after a period of production, triggering needed diagnostic work. Consequently, screen plugging was confirmed and collected samples of present fill were analyzed. Results called for a coiled tubing (CT) clean out campaign to restore lost productivity. The objective of this article is to detail the whole operation of the fill clean out jobs, which includes the fill diagnostic process, assessment of clean out methods, initial job design, choice of fluids, CT bottom-hole assembly (BHA) tools, execution and field experience, and post-clean out performance evaluation. The CT wiper trip method used here has been implemented in previous clean outs with either milling or jetting tools. A newly developed, rate-activated circulation valve can be deployed to aid in lifting solids at high pumping rates as well as in jetting acid across the screen interval after fill removal. The fill clean out campaign was very successful in restoring well productivity, as compared to pre-clean out and initial postdrilling well performance. A total incremental gas rate of 340 million standard cubit feet per day (MMscfd) has been restored to date from 16 clean out operations. Unprecedented, interesting and valuable findings are shared in this article regarding the nature of the fill formed inside and/or above the stand-alone screens, recommended milling practices to protect the CT BHA and minimize CT fatigue, the experience of incorporating acid jetting and squeeze in the CT wiper trip method to stimulate the damaged formation pack behind the screens, and the preventive measures taken to cope with the fill accumulation issue.

distribution, sand slurry and pack retention tests, and a filter cake flow back test. The deployed stand-alone screen completions are vertical to highly deviated wells, with screen intervals ranging from 100 ft to more than 1,000 ft in length across the pay zone. These completions are mostly 4 monobores that are completed with a 7 permanent packer, 4 carbon steel tubing and 4 stand-alone screens. Figure 1 shows a common wellbore schematic in the subject field.
Deployment of Screen Completions

After drilling the 5 open hole section to total depth (TD), the following basic completion steps to deploy the screen are: 1. Make a final reaming trip in the open hole with a rotating scraper. 2. Displace the hole with conditioned mud. 3. Spot clean brine from TD to the 7 liner top.

INTRODUCTION
Stand-alone screens have been identified as the optimal completion strategy in gas field MN, which produces from a highly unconsolidated pre-Khuff sandstone formation in Saudi Arabia. Based on initial pilot testing of several cored samples from the field, stand-alone screens made of 300 micron premium mesh and 13% chromium were implemented. Performed standard tests for screen selection included sieve analysis of particle size
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Fig. 1. Common well completion configuration in gas field MN.

4. Run in hole (RIH) with the 4 screen assembly, and set the liner hanger and liner top packer. 5. RIH with a permanent packer system, a polished bore receptacle (PBR) and a ceramic disk in the tail pipe, and set the packer. 6. Make a wellbore clean out assembly trip to reach a tail pipe down to 3 ft to 5 ft above the ceramic disk. 7. RIH with a seal assembly on the 4 completion tubing string: a. Sting into the PBR and locate the neutral position. b. Determine the space out requirements. c. Pull the seals out of the PBR. 8. Perform tubing clean out and pickling. 9. Circulate clean inhibited diesel into the tubing casing annulus (TCA), leaving clean diesel in the tubing. 10. Sting back into the PBR and land the tubing hanger. 11. Pressure test the TCA to 6,000 psig. 12. Nipple up and test the production tree. 13. Make a drift run using a 3 gauge cutter on a slick line down to 3 ft to 5 ft above the ceramic disk or as deep as possible in highly deviated wells. The ceramic disk, run as part of the tail pipe assembly above the screens, is used to isolate the reservoir interval and protect the screens during well completion deployment prior to flowing back the well.
Initial Well Flow Back

Fig. 2. Productivity decline in Well-A.

Fig. 3. Pictures of fill samples collected using a sand bailer in Well-B.

Prior to production startup to feed the gas plant, a well is flowed back through a sand management system to clean up the completion fluids and fine solids left in the hole that might lead to plugging of flow lines and vessels with solids. In addition, well flow back is necessary to cure the stand-alone screen completion, which means creating a formation pack around the screens that is mechanically stable. The integrity of the screens is also confirmed upon performing this initial flow back. While the rig is on location, the practice is to break the set ceramic disk and flow back the well at low rates for a short period of time: typically, this flow back period is 12 hours after gas reaches the surface. Afterwards, a rigless completion site is moved to the location to perform a complete flow back until the target solids-free gas rate is achieved and specified cleanup criteria are met. Cleanup criteria include the following: 1. Solids content of less than 0.2 lb/MMscfd on a decreasing trend. 2. Water cut of less than 10% on a decreasing trend. 3. Chlorides content of less than 130 ppm on a decreasing trend.
Declining Well Performance

fill that might be plugging the screens was suspected. An example of one such wells decline is illustrated in Fig. 2. It can be observed from the plot that the estimated gas rate in Well-A dropped drastically below 5 MMscfd and the FWHP fell below 4,000 psig after seven months of production.

DIAGNOSTIC WORK
Once well performance decline is realized, as in this case, diagnostic work using a slick line should be performed by running different sizes of gauge cutters to the TD of the well, or to the maximum possible depth in highly deviated wells, to verify wellbore accessibility. In most cases, the gauge cutter tags well above the bottom of the screens, confirming the presence of a significant amount of fill inside and/or above the screens. Then sand bailers are run on the slick line to collect solid samples of the encountered fill, Fig. 3. The collected solids are sent to a laboratory for compositional analysis and dissolution tests to be performed. Figure 4 presents an example of the results obtained in this case. The results of the compositional X-ray analysis performed on the solid samples collected from various impacted wells indicate an average of 75% calcite, CaCO3, in addition to small proportions of dolomite, quartz, iron oxide and barite. The results of the dissolution tests show the high reactivity of the fill samples with acid; however, only partial dissolution could be achieved with acid due to the presence of insoluble components.

After being on production for less than a year, many wells suffered a severe decline in productivity, exhibiting a significant drop in gas rate as well as flowing wellhead pressure (FWHP). Consequently, screen integrity was questioned, and potential

FILL CLEAN OUT JOB DESIGN

To restore lost productivity, a fill clean out campaign was inaugurated after evaluating various potential clean out techniques.
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of 12%, above which damaging byproducts can precipitate. A surfactant was added in all used fluids to aid in liquid recovery and the regaining of relative gas permeability after the treatment.
CT Bottom-hole Assembly (BHA)

Fig. 4. Fill samples composition and solubility, Well-B.

Fill removal using acid bullheading is time consuming and presented several concerns, as the deposited fill was not entirely soluble in acid. Therefore, this option did not guarantee a sufficient hole cleaning. Therefore, coiled tubing (CT) was utilized to mechanically clean out the fill deposited inside the screens. A CT wiper trip method with forward circulation was selected. In this method, fluids are pumped down the CT string and solids are circulated up the CT production tubing annulus while performing frequent sweeping, or wiper tripping, as the fill is penetrated.
Fluid Selection

Either 2 or 2 CT strings can be used for clean out jobs with the following BHA components, from top to bottom, Fig. 5: 1. Motorhead assembly that includes: a. Double-flapper check valves. b. Ball-activated disconnect sub. c. Ball-activated circulation sub. 2. Fixed centralizer. 3. Either a motor and mill or a jetting tool: a. 2 positive displacement, high torque, downhole motor with 3 step, tapered or flat bottom junk mill. b. Jetting tool.
Procedure

The base fluid chosen for the clean out jobs was filtered 5% potassium chloride (KCl) brine, because of its compatibility with the pre-Khuff sandstone formation, serving as a clay stabilizer to prevent formation damage caused by fines migration and clay swelling. Moreover, because reservoir pressure in the impacted wells was relatively high, around 7,000 psig to 8,500 psig, the brine had adequate hydrostatic pressure, enough to lower the surface treating pressure while performing the job and to minimize the CT snubbing force while lowering the CT string inside the well. The brine also has good carrying capacity, enough to circulate out the solids while cleaning the fill. For improved solids lifting, alternating slugs of viscous gels, e.g., 30 lb/Mgal gel, with the brine was considered. A 10% acetic acid was also selected for use as a contingency if the encountered fill could not be cleared. The acetic acid was utilized after fill clean out as well, to wash out the screens and stimulate the formation pack behind the screens in the near wellbore region by breaching the calcite-based fill deposits. Although a weaker organic acid than hydrochloric (HCl) acid, acetic acid was more compatible with the formation at the prevailing high reservoir temperature of around 300 F. The reaction of HCl acid with formation clay at high temperatures causes damage through precipitation as a result of primary, secondary and tertiary reactions. The 10% concentration of acetic acid was selected because it was below the critical value
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Fill clean out jobs should follow this basic outline: 1. RIH with a gauge cutter on a slick line to tag the fill and confirm the top of fill accumulation prior to the job. 2. Load the well with filtered 5% KCl brine. 3. RIH with CT at 60 ft per minute (fpm) with the well shutin, while performing pull tests and breaking circulation every 1,000 ft by pumping 2 bbl of brine. 4. Reduce CT speed 100 ft above the slick line tag to 15 fpm, and perform a dry tag with pumps shutoff. 5. Pick up the CT 50 ft, open the well and establish circulation. 6. RIH to the fill top, penetrate 50 ft of the fill while pumping brine, perform a 50 ft wiper trip while pumping gel, and RIH again to penetrate the next 50 ft bit with brine; an ex ample of a fill clean out schedule is shown in Table 1. 7. If no progress is achieved at penetrating the fill, spot a 10 bbl slug of acetic acid on top of the fill, allow one hour for the acid to soak, and try again.

Fig. 5. CT BHA used in fill clean out operations milling BHA.

Step No. 1 2 3

Action Penetrate 50 ft Sweep 50 ft RIH 50 ft

Start Depth (ft) 15,420 15,470 15,420

End Depth (ft) 15,470 15,420 15,470

Bite Length (ft) 50 50 50

CT Speed (fpm) 10 -10 10

Fluid at Downhole Nozzles Filtered 5% KCl Brine Viscous Gel Filtered 5% KCl Brine

Pump Rate (bpm) 2.5 2.5 2.5

Duration (min) 5 5 5

Volume (bbl) 12.5 12.5 12.5

Cumulative Volume (bbl) 12.5 25 37.5

FWHP (psig) 1,700 1,700 1,700

Table 1. Example of fill clean out schedule

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until reaching TD. 9. Pump 20 bbl to 40 bbl of viscous gel with the CT stationary at TD. 10. Perform a bottoms-up by pumping brine with the CT stationary at TD until clear returns are seen on the surface. 11. Squeeze acetic acid across the screens with the well shut-in. 12. Pull the CT out of hole to the surface at 60 fpm with the well shut-in to allow the acid to soak, breaking circulation every 1,000 ft by pumping 2 bbl of brine. 13. Flow back the well until the above mentioned cleanup criteria are met. 14. If needed, utilize CT nitrogen lifting.

out tool, carrying capacity of selected fluids, material to be cleaned and wellbore geometry. The annular velocity is much higher than the settling velocity of the fill particles once they are entrained by the clean out fluids. Any interruption of fluids circulation during fill penetration would cause unfavorable debris settling. Therefore, pumps should be on all the time while cleaning and care should be taken to avoid losing pump priming at any time that might lead to the pumps shutdown. Nevertheless, pump shutdown is inevitable in certain cases, such as motor stalls, described in the subsequent section.
Milling Operation

JOB EXECUTION AND OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

Well Loading

At the start of a clean out operation, one wellbore volume of filtered 5% KCl brine is pumped to load the well. After loading the well with filtered brine, it is kept shut-in while running in hole until starting fill clean out. Opening the well prior to that is unfavorable as it might cause natural unloading of the well. Consequently, loading the well with brine is not possible in some instances when there is no injectivity, resulting in a sharp increase in wellhead pressure after pumping a small amount of brine. In such cases, the well is kept open at a low choke size setting while running in hole, and brine is pumped continuously to load the well until reaching the fill top.
Monitoring Pressure

While cleaning out the fill, wellhead pressure is maintained at a value predetermined from the simulation software that allows the clean out to be performed in a slight pressure overbalance condition by adjusting the surface choke size setting as needed. This is helpful to avoid/minimize gas influx from the formation that might lead to very high annular velocities and possibly cause damage to surface equipment. Also, differential pressure across the CT should be reduced as much as possible to minimize CT fatigue. A positive string pressure should be maintained all the time, i.e., CT treating pressure should be kept higher than the wellhead pressure.
Annular Velocity

Simulation results predicted that a sufficient annular velocity could be achieved during the job to efficiently lift fill debris based on CT size, optimum pumping rate for the selected clean

Prior to starting fill penetration in a clean out process, the well is opened and the pumps are brought up to the optimum pumping rate of the downhole motor. Fluid returns at surface are checked to confirm good circulation. Once the pressure of the pumps stabilizes, the CT BHA is lowered slowly until a slight increase in treating pressure is seen, coupled with a slight reduction in CT weight. This marks the point when the mill is barely touching the fill. The mill is left in a stationary position on top of the fill for several minutes. Then the CT weight on the mill is slacked off very gradually and steadied, while monitoring pressure and weight responses. After that, penetration is started at a very low rate less than 0.1 fpm. The penetration rate is kept low until a reduction in pressure and/or an increase in weight are observed, indicators that the encountered fill has been milled out. After the mill breaches the encountered fill, the penetration rate can be increased very gradually no more than 10 fpm. Patience should be exercised when engaging the fill to minimize the chance of stalling the motor. If a motor stall does happen, the pumps should be shut down immediately and pressure allowed to equalize before picking up the mill off the bottom; waiting to restore normal operational parameters before resuming further milling attempts. Unexpectedly, the fill deposited in the screens of the impacted wells did not cover the whole screen interval. The encountered fill was instead composed of a couple of sand bridges near the top of the screens. The very first sand bridge encountered was usually several feet thick 10 ft to 20 ft and was the hardest and most compacted. The other bridges tended to be 1 ft to 3 ft in thickness and less compacted than the first one. While milling, filtered 5% KCl brine was circulated out of the mill with a 10 bbl to 15 bbl slug of gel when performing wiper trips, Table 1. Wiper trips were performed every 50 ft; however, once the sand bridges in the upper portion of the
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screens were cleared, wiper trips could be performed less often and CT speed was increased for the remaining interval to optimize the operation. Based on the length of the screen interval and the amount of fill encountered, the bit length taken to penetrate the fill was adjusted as the operation progressed. Acetic acid may be used as a contingency when no progress is achieved after a couple of milling attempts at the same spot. A slug of 10 bbl is pumped down the CT, and the well is shut-in once the acid reaches the tip of the CT. After allowing the acid to soak for one hour, the well is opened and milling is resumed. Usually, one slug of acid makes it possible to mill out the fill obstruction, if needed at all.
Fill Clean Out with Jetting Tools

pre-set threshold rate (3.2 bpm to 4.0 bpm), the tool shifts from milling mode to circulation mode, and vice versa when the rate drops below that rate. The valve provides the flexibility to pump at higher rates both while performing the wiper trips in the clean out job and also while pumping the bottoms-up after reaching TD, resulting in a better hole cleaning. Moreover, the valve is equipped with slightly uphole nozzles, which is advantageous in terms of lifting solids, as compared to the downward or radial nozzles of the mill or the conventional circulation sub.
Monitoring Returns and Collecting Samples

Jetting tools have also been implemented for fill removal, including fluid oscillation-based tools. A similar methodology to the milling operation is followed except that fill removal using these tools is performed by the jetting or fluid oscillation effects on the encountered fill. If fill cleanout attempts are unsuccessful using the jetting tool, after spotting acid as a first contingency, the CT can be pulled out of hole and the BHA replaced with a motor and mill as a second contingency. Given the 50% success rate among clean out jobs performed using the jetting tools, milling was deemed more feasible for the impacted wells due to the highly compacted nature of the deposited fill inside the screens.
Bottoms-up/Acid Squeeze

After reaching the TD of the well in a clean out operation, 20 bbl to 40 bbl of viscous gel are circulated out, followed by a 1.5 wellbore volume of filtered brine to clean out any remaining or settled debris, keeping the well in a slightly overbalance condition as much as possible. Then a certain quantity of acetic acid is pumped down the CT, and once it reaches the downhole nozzles, the well is shut-in to squeeze the acid evenly across the screens while moving the CT from the bottom to the top of the screen interval. The acid is then displaced by filtered brine. To achieve higher pumping rates, a proper size ball is dropped to activate the circulation sub, which is above the motor or the jetting tool, at the start of the bottoms-up part of the clean out process. Pumping the fluids through the circulation sub also prevents unnecessary passage of acid through the downhole motor, if used, while squeezing acid across the screens. Although most motors used in clean outs are resistant to acid, it is recommended to minimize the exposure of the inside parts of the motor to acid. After all the acid has been squeezed into the screens, the well is kept shut-in while pulling the CT string out of hole to the surface, allowing time for the acid to soak.
Use of the Rate-Activated Circulation Valve

Throughout a clean out job, fluid returns at the surface are continuously monitored, verifying that good circulation is achieved and solid samples are recovered at the surface after penetrating the fill. Two choke manifold systems are used because of high wellhead pressure during the operation, along with 200 micron sand filters to prevent hazardous damaging of the surface equipment. The sand filters should be bypassed when the gel is seen at the surface, because it plugs the filters very rapidly, causing high differential pressure across them. Once the slugs of gel have passed, the flow can then be diverted back to the sand filters. The filters are frequently flushed, and collected solids are sampled and sent to the laboratory for further evaluation and analysis. Figure 6 shows some sample pictures of the collected solids in Well-C. The pictures show some black greasy materials and shreds of the broken ceramic disk that were recovered in addition to the calcite-based fill.

POST-CLEAN OUT PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

At the end of a clean out process, when the CT is at the surface and rigged down partially, the well is opened to flow back and assess the need for nitrogen lifting prior to rigging down the CT equipment completely. In almost all performed jobs, the well had high enough formation pressure to unload naturally and flow back on its own without nitrogen lifting. In general, the well is flowed back for cleanup by gradually increasing the choke size from 16/64 up to a maximum of 42/64 in a stepwise manner. The flow back is continued until the solids-free rate is achieved and the aforementioned cleanup criteria are met. All wells identified as fill clean out candidates after performing the diagnostic work were successfully cleaned out, reaching down to the bottom of the screen interval. Moreover, all performed clean out jobs have been very successful in restoring the productivity of the impacted wells. To gauge this success,

In some of the performed jobs, a newly developed circulation valve was deployed for the first time in the Kingdom, which was the second place it had been used worldwide. This valve is rate activated and capable of operating in both milling mode and circulation mode, depending on pumping rate. Above a
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Fig. 6. Pictures of solids recovered from surface filters during clean out in Well-C.

Fig. 7. Well-D initial flow back for cleanup prior to production startup.

Fig. 8. Well-D post-clean out flow back for cleanup.

two comparisons were made: Pre-clean out vs. post-clean out well performances. Initial well performance when flowed back for cleanup prior to starting production vs. post-clean out well performance. As compared to the pre-clean out performance, productivity gains were significant, in some cases as extreme as turning a dead well into a prolific producer of more than 30 MMscfd. Also, the post-clean out flow back results show only a few hundred psi drop in FWHP and a 0 MMscfd to 4 MMscfd drop in estimated gas rate, as compared to the wells initial performance. A sample flow back comparison is illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8, showing that Well-D was flowed back at 26 MMscfd both initially and after the fill clean out operation on the same choke setting (34/64) with around 475 psi reduction in FWHP. The slight pressure decline can fairly be attributed to natural reservoir decline in the period over which the wells were put on production. Table 2 summarizes the results of the fill clean out campaign in the stand-alone screen completions in gas field MN. A total of 340 MMscfd estimated gas rate was successfully restored from 16 clean out operations. The long-term performance of the subject wells has yet to be monitored and evaluated, since the fill clean out campaign was only recently started in December 2010. The subsequent performance of the wells, however, has been reassuring so far, with no signs of fill reaccumulation. Figure 9 provides an example of post-clean out well performance in Well-E over a one-year production period.

Fig. 9. Well-E post-clean out production plot.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Several preventive measures have been taken to resolve the fill accumulation issue in wells completed with stand-alone screens: 1. A research study has been launched to investigate plausible causes of the fill/scale accumulation. Preliminary results point primarily to the possible incompatibility of the current Naformate-based drill-in fluids and the calcium-rich formation brine, which results in precipitating CaCO3.

Consequently, alternative drill-in fluids are to be evaluated, along with the feasibility of implementing a scale inhibition squeeze program to inhibit the precipitation of CaCO3. Detailed findings and outcomes of this research study will be discussed thoroughly in a future publication. 2. Another potential cause of the fill deposits is the high fine solids invasion into the producing formation while drilling using the current drill-in fluids. These fine solids might be produced slowly over time back into the wellbore while the well is on production, causing screen plugging. Therefore, two new drill-in fluid systems have been evaluated, and candidate wells have been selected to perform pilot tests for these new fluid systems. The systems deliver best-in-class practices for drill-in fluid management that minimize solids invasion into the pay zone. 3. Gas well completion practices have been revised with a focus on improved cleanup procedures and fluid return quality specifications while running the different components of the stand-alone screen completions. 4. The old procedure of breaking the ceramic disk while the rig is on location and flowing back the well for a short period of time has been abandoned because of the tendency
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Pre-Clean Out Well A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Gas Rate (MMscfd) 14 0 0 6 5 2 10 9 0 0 7 6 10 10 3 12 FWHP (psig) 1,600 0 0 2,000 3,400 1,600 4,700 4,110 0 0 3,660 5,980 5,400 5,300 4,250 5,690

Post-Clean Out Gas Rate (MMscfd) FWHP (psig)

Estimated Gas Rate Gain (MMscfd) 14 28 32 22 27 21 15 22 28 24 14 22 20 22 15 14 340 (MMscfd)

28 5,730 28 5,750 32 5,900 28 5,900 32 5,170 23 4,550 25 5,600 31 5,650 28 5,600 24 3,900 21 3,560 28 5,676 30 5,480 32 5,760 18 4,270 26 5,762 Total Gas Rate Gain =

Table 2. Summary of incremental gain in productivity from the fill clean out campaign

of solids to settle and gravitate down onto the screens when the well is shut-in after the short flow back and prior to performing a complete flow back. A new procedure has been implemented where a rigless site breaks the ceramic disk and performs the complete flow back until the cleanup criteria are met. 5. A more aggressive flow back schedule has been adopted, where the well is flowed back for cleanup on larger surface choke settings up to 42/64 as compared to a previous maximum of 34/64. This is to help in producing, to a greater extent, the fine drilling solids from the formation prior to production startup. 6. Production performance is being continuously monitored for any trends towards gas rate or pressure drops in the recently cleaned wells, as well as in the rest of the wells in gas field MN. Also, frequent TD tags with gauge cutters are scheduled for all wells to monitor the fill accumulation process. These measures will allow the operator to react proactively before a drastic drop in well productivity in case a fill clean out operation is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article. This article was presented at the SPE Young Professionals Technical Symposium Saudi Arabia Section, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, March 19-21, 2012, and at the SPE-SAS Annual Technical Symposium and Exhibition, al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia, April 8-11, 2012.

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BIOGRAPHIES
Murtadha J. Al-Tammar joined Saudi Aramco in 2010 as a Petroleum Engineer and spent 3 months working for the Production Technology Team in the Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC) prior to starting his assignment with the Gas Production Engineering Division in the Southern Area. In 2010, Murtadha received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO. He is an active member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE). Khalid S. Al-Asiri is a Gas Production Engineer in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED). He worked with the Ministry of Petroleum and Minerals before joining Saudi Aramco in 2002. Khalid has worked in several areas within the company, including Gas Production Engineering and Gas Well Completion and Services. In 1999, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saad M. Al-Driweesh is a Gas Production Engineering General Supervisor in the Southern Area Production Engineering Department (SAPED), where he is involved in gas production engineering, well completion, fracturing and stimulation activities. His main interest is in the field of production engineering, including production optimization, fracturing and stimulation, and new well completion applications. Saad has 24 years of experience in areas related to gas and oil production engineering. In 1988, he received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.

Mohammed A. Asiri joined Saudi Aramco in December 2005 as a Petroleum Engineer. He has worked in various positions within the company, including the Gas Production Engineering Division (GPED) and Gas Well Completion and Services. Mohammed is the GPED representative for testing multiphase flow meters (MPFM) on wet gas wells. He received a B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering in 2005 from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Mohammed is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE). Nahr M. Abulhamayel began his career in 2004 as a Petroleum Engineer working with the Gas Production Engineering Division. He has worked in various positions, such as a Reservoir Engineer and an Operation Foreman at Gas Well Services. Currently, Nahr is a Senior Engineer and is deeply involved in sandstone formation and production enhancements. In 2004, Nahr received his B.S. degree (with honors) in Petroleum Engineering from Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Butte, MT. He has participated in many Society of Petroleum Engineer (SPE) events and other oil and gas industry related events over the span of his career.

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Estimating Horizontal Well PI to Develop Giant Carbonate Reservoir with Artificial Lift
Authors: Majid H. Al-Otaibi, Cesar H. Pardo, Ronny Gunarto and Mohammed S. Kanfar

ABSTRACT
Productivity index (PI) is one of the most important well parameters when making an optimum reservoir development plan in terms of well spacing, number of wells required and assurance of the deliverability of the production target. Having a correct PI estimation is also crucial to optimizing the artificial lift system design, when required. This article discusses the methodology to estimate horizontal well PI using actual limited data from existing vertical well performances in a giant field that is still in the development phase. The vertical wells PIs were calculated based on a pressure transient analysis (PTA), taking into account the correction for stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure (Pwf) and reservoir pressure (Pr). As a means of quality control, the calculated vertical well PI was compared against the radial flow equation using the transmissibility value obtained from the well test data. PI maps for the vertical wells were constructed, and then verified against the reservoir properties distribution, which is well developed in the crest of the field. Converting PIs from vertical to horizontal well configurations involves an analytical calculation that was further tested against actual PI results. The ratio between a horizontal wells PI and a vertical wells PI is obtained by comparing Joshis and Darcys equation. Conversion factors per reservoir and area were determined and applied to generate horizontal well PI contour maps. These maps were used to assign a PI value to each of the future producers in the field. The estimated values exhibited a reasonable match with actual existing data. Notwithstanding this match, minor discrepancies between estimated and actual PI are analyzed in this article to further improve the proposed methodology. Reservoir heterogeneities and effective lateral length, which contributes to the total well flow, are the main reasons for the differences. The impact of the effective lateral length on the actual PI was evaluated and sensitized for better prediction of the well performance, whereas the reservoir heterogeneity influence was assessed using a correlation that includes the known petrophysical properties to estimate the PI of newly drilled and undrilled wells.

wells production potential and to ensure the deliverability of the forecasted oil targets. The field under study will have water injection wells, and the producers will require electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) to achieve the desired flow rates. The approach to obtain the PIs described in this article was developed to be fit for purpose, using all the information available at the time when the study is done so that results are consistently based on actual measured data. The main challenge to accomplishing this goal in the study field was that the majority of the available data from well testing corresponded to old vertical wells, except for seven horizontal producers. The PI values from the seven horizontal wells were used as a benchmark and control values for estimation of the future horizontal wells PI. Estimated values were also quality checked by analytically calculating the PIs of the wells using the known reservoir information from core and log data; PI values from both sources closely matched. The horizontal well PI values thereby calculated were used to create contour maps of horizontal well PIs per reservoir. These maps and the coordinates of the increment producers were used to assign a PI value per well. The maps generated in this study represent a useful tool for future PI estimations and are meant to be updated whenever new data become available.

PROCEDURE
The following is the procedure used to generate the horizontal well PI map using limited vertical well data: Determine the vertical well PI using pressure buildup, and quality check the data. Generate vertical well PI contour maps. Define the ratio of horizontal vs. vertical wells PI by area. Estimate the horizontal well PI. Generate horizontal well PI contour maps. Estimate future horizontal wells PI based on contour maps. Validate with actual results, and adjust the contour maps as required.

REPRESENTATIVE DATA GATHERING AND QC INTRODUCTION

Whenever a new field is in the development phase, an estimation of the productivity index (PI) is essential to calculate the
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The first step was to ensure that all data utilized are representative. All PIs obtained from well testing were adjusted according to the following considerations.

plotted in the figure in green dots, and it shows that the Pwf had not yet stabilized when the well was shut-in for buildup. Therefore, an adjustment on the drawdown was made to have a more accurate calculated PI. On average, the PI adjustment due to Pr vs. the last recorded pressure was 7%, while the correction due to the short flow period averaged 10%.
Influence of Fluid Properties on Flank Wells

Fig. 1. Adjustment on the drawdown, not established due to the short flow period.

Data from all vertical wells tested in the heavy oil zone and in the aquifer were discarded from this study, as the fluid properties are significantly different there compared to the area where most of the producers are placed. The oil viscosity can go up to 1,000 centipoises towards the flanks. Additionally, the reservoir quality observed at the flanks is noticeably poorer. So, it is not advisable to use these wells as a reference for PI calculation.
Vertical Well PI Maps

Using the corrected vertical well PI, contour maps like the one shown in Fig. 2 were generated.
Estimating Horizontal Well PIs

Fig. 2. Vertical well PI contour map.

The next step was to convert the vertical well PI maps to horizontal well PI maps. Horizontal well PIs were calculated from vertical well PIs by using a conversion factor. The factor was established by dividing the Joshis equation for the horizontal well PI by the Darcys equation for the vertical well PI. The Joshis equation was selected because the wells are expected to be under constant pressure support. The wells should perform under steady-state conditions, given the pressure maintenance provided by water injection. Therefore, the pressure can be assumed as constant in the boundaries, and PIs can be calculated accordingly. Based on observation of core data, logs and corresponding maps, the reservoirs properties are horizontally isotropic and vertically anisotropic, with significant vertical permeability variations (kv/kh assumed as 0.1):
North Flanks Center 2.0 1.8

Reservoir A Reservoir B
Table 1. Average PI conversion factors

2.2 2.3

Pr and Drawdown Adjustment

Due to the short testing periods in this field, PI calculations were based on Pr instead of on the last static measured pressure during the shut-in period. Short testing periods do not allow the shut-in reservoir pressure to stabilize, resulting in an underestimated drawdown, and thereby an overestimated PI. Additionally, the short flowing period may also lead to an overestimated PI because the drawdown for a vertical well located in the crest of the field is not completely established at the end of the flowing period before shut-in, Fig. 1. Pressure is

where and is the Joshis equation to estimate horizontal well PI. Table 1 summarizes the resulting average conversion factors per area and reservoir. Horizontal wells are expected to have a PI about 1.8 to 2.3 times that of the vertical wells, depending on the well location. The horizontal PI contour map is then generated based on the horizontal PI per well, Fig. 3.

VALIDATING RESULTS
PI maps were validated by comparing the estimated horizontal well PIs to the actual values. The estimated PIs reasonably matched the actual PIs with a difference of +/- 11 BPD/psi, Fig. 4. The actual PI is determined using either pressure transient analysis (PTA) or well models calibrated with actual results of multi-rate production tests.
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Fig. 5. Example of using PLT to determine effective lateral length. Fig. 3. Horizontal well PI contour map.

Fig. 4. Comparison between actual and estimated horizontal well PI.

The differences observed in Fig. 4 were assessed to further improve the accuracy of this methodology as follows.
Case 1: Actual PI Is Less than Estimated

After a review of the detailed actual well performance, it was concluded that one of the major reasons for a lower actual horizontal well PI compared to the estimated value is the wells effective lateral length. Effective lateral length is the fraction of the lateral that contributes to the total well flow. The effective lateral length is conventionally determined using a production log by evaluating the spinner response along the lateral section. Note that the horizontal well PI is inversely proportional to liquid viscosity and directly proportional to the effective lateral
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length. In the presence of heavy oil or significant viscosity variation vs. depth, it is important to evaluate the actual well trajectory to fairly judge the effective lateral length. Some of the lateral section could be exposed within heavy oil, which becomes inefficient and should not be included in the effective lateral length calculation. Figure 5 shows the example of using a flow meter log to determine effective lateral length. The fourth track from the left is the typical presentation of the flow meter log. It can be observed that only a certain portion of the lateral contributes to the flow, and there is no flow contribution from the lower 50% of the well. The first track shows the concentration of the heavy oil (tar and pyrobitumen), which indicates the presence of heavy oil in the lower 50% of the lateral. The formation pressure while drilling measurement confirms the low mobility at this section due to high oil viscosity. The effective lateral length is thereby calculated to be 600 ft compared to the total length above the heavy oil of 1,500 ft and also compared to the total lateral length of 2,900 ft. The other technique to determine effective lateral length is using PTA. The actual length contributing to the flow can be observed in the PTA as the period of linear flow in the derivative curve, the red line in Fig. 6. Wells with more effective lateral length will show a longer linear flow period in the PTA. Figure 7 is the comparison between the actual effective length determined from the production log and the estimated figure from PTA. This approach can be used in the absence of a flow meter log to qualify the lateral length effectiveness, especially in the screening process for acid stimulation candidate selection.
Case 2: Actual PI Is Higher than Estimated

The other factor influencing the differences in PIs between actual and estimated figures is the reservoir heterogeneity. The actual horizontal well may have better average permeability

Fig. 6. Example of using PTA to determine effective lateral length in a horizontal well.

Fig. 8. Reservoir quality difference between vertical and horizontal wells.

Fig. 7. Comparison between actual effective length determined from PLT and estimated figure from PTA.

compared to the offset vertical wells, which were used to build the PI contour maps. Illustrating this point is the horizontal well shown in Fig. 8, which has an average porosity of 26%. This well was placed at the top of the reservoir, where better reservoir quality is observed compared to the bottom layer. The offset vertical wells were completed across the whole interval with an average porosity of 23%. These porosity differences cause an underestimated horizontal well PI due to nonuniform reservoir quality across the layers observed in the vertical wells vs. the horizontal wells placed at the top layer at the best reservoir quality.

ESTIMATING PI USING ACTUAL PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES

For the wells drilled but not yet tested, actual reservoir properties, such as permeability, porosity and net lateral length, can be utilized to estimate the PI. The process normalizes the difference in the permeability and lateral length between actual and assumed figures in the PI contour mapping. The typical analytical calculation for horizontal PI estimation, like the Joshis equation, shows that the PI will be proportional to the permeability X length, assuming that the other parameters are constant for the same reservoir with a consistent development

Fig. 9. Correlations between reservoir properties and actual PI in tested wells, Reservoir A (top) and Reservoir B (bottom).

strategy and some well spacing. Since the porosity is normally in the logarithmic relationship with permeability, the PI is expected to have an exponential relationship with porosity X length. A correlation was established between these petrophysical
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properties vs. actual PIs from tested wells in each reservoir. The net lateral length is determined using a 5% porosity cutoff to exclude non-effective sections. Sections within heavy oil are also excluded. To account for the effect of initial water saturation on the relative permeability of oil and PI, the correlation includes the term of So, in addition to porosity, permeability and net lateral length. Figure 9 illustrates the correlations found in the two producing reservoirs of this field. Actual PIs of wells tested in Reservoir A exhibited a good correlation with porosity, while PIs of wells tested in Reservoir B correlated better with permeability. These correlations will be continuously updated as more wells are drilled and tested. They can also be used in undrilled wells for given estimated petrophysical properties from the geological model.

Sm o

mechanical damage, dimensionless oil viscosity, cp SQRT(Kh/Kv)

BIOGRAPHIES
Majid H. Al-Otaibi has 15 years of experience with Saudi Aramco. During this time, he has worked in a variety of disciplines, including production facilities, production engineering, drilling engineering and reservoir management. Majid has participated in multiple increments that Saudi Aramco has put onstream in recent years, including HRDH-III, KHRS and NYYM. In reservoir management, he led the upscale development of a thin oil zone in a giant mature carbonate reservoir in Saudi Arabia. Majid now works as the Upstream Team Leader for the Manifa Increment. He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. Cesar H. Pardo has 22 years of experience with E&P companies. He joined Saudi Aramco in 2006 and worked for 1 year for the Gas Reservoir Management Department (GRMD) as a Senior Reservoir Engineer. In April 2007, Cesar was moved to the Manifa Reservoir Management Division (MRMD), where he currently works as a Petroleum Engineer Specialist. In 1987, he began working at Ecopetrol (the Colombian state company), where he worked for 4 years in drilling, workover and production technology engineering. In 1990, Cesar joined Shell Colombia (Hocol) as a Workover Engineer. In 1992, he was promoted to Production Technology Engineer and successfully designed and implemented a fracturing campaign for 30 producer wells, and an ESP and gas lift campaign for over 70 wells. In 1996, Cesar was promoted to Reservoir Engineer, working in classical reservoir engineering and numerical reservoir simulation with Eclipse; he performed an OFM study, identifying new infill drilling and workover opportunities. In 2002, he was promoted to Senior Reservoir Engineer and given the additional responsibility as a Team Leader (Asset Manager Deputy); he prepared and coordinated the Field Development Plan (FDP) for a heavy oil field. In 2004, Cesar was promoted to Reservoir Engineering Network Leader for the whole company in Colombia; he coordinated and prepared the new Hocol books for forecast and reserves, coordinated calculation procedures, and coordinated the annual reserves review and auditing for 2 years. Cesar received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the Universidad de America, Bogot, Colombia.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The PI is a major parameter for making an optimum reservoir development plan. It dictates the number of wells required and the spacing needed to meet the production target. Additionally, the PI information is critical to achieving an optimum artificial lift design. The practical approach outlined in this article provides an alternative method to reliably estimate the PI in an undeveloped field, especially in the absence of a simulation model and limited dynamic data. Further enhancement should be made to improve the estimation process and the accuracy of the estimated PIs. This enhancement includes a factor to take into account possible differences in the average permeability between the vertical wells interval and the target interval for the horizontal wells placement. Additionally, other factors, such as effective lateral length, should be considered in determining horizontal well PI to avoid overestimating the figures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article.

NOMENCLATURE
a Bo h Jh Jv K Kh Kv L re rw reh rev
64

half the major axis of drainage ellipse, ft oil formation volume factor, RB/STB reservoir thickness, ft horizontal well productivity index, BPD/psi vertical well productivity index, BPD/psi average well permeability, md horizontal permeability, md vertical permeability, md horizontal well length, ft drainage radius, ft wellbore radius, ft effective horizontal drainage radius, ft effective vertical drainage radius, ft

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Ronny Gunarto joined Chevron Indonesia in 1997 as a Production Engineer in charge of workover design and the supervision of several oil fields. He was involved in detailing the well intervention program and its execution, including hydraulic fracturing, acidizing, logging, perforation jobs and artificial lift installation. Starting in 2000, Ronny worked as a Reservoir Engineer on the Asset Team assigned to lead the field development plan for both primary and secondary recovery oil fields, including an infill drilling proposal, simulation study and asset management plan. He managed both peripheral and pattern waterflood projects and successfully improved the fields performance. Ronny was assigned to various fields within Chevron Indonesia, including a shortterm assignment at Chevron headquarters in San Ramon, California. In 2004, he moved to Total Indonesia as Head of Reservoir Engineering for a major gas field in Balikpapan, Indonesia. Ronny was responsible for managing the reservoir surveillance and development plan of a 700 MMscfd gas field in a challenging environment with multilayered reservoirs. He led the drilling initiative for new wells and the well intervention campaign, which successfully increased the field rate more than 50% in 2 years. In 2006, he decided to take on a new challenge in Petronas Malaysia as the Staff Reservoir Engineer in charge of all producing oil and gas fields in Malaysia. Ronny worked closely with all international oil and gas companies, i.e., Shell, ExxonMobil, Murphy, Nippon, and others, to ensure optimum reservoir development and implementation of the production strategy in all fields. Then in 2008, he joined Saudi Aramco as Senior Reservoir Engineer in the AFK fields. Ronny led the reservoir management of both Abu Hadriya and Khursaniyah fields. Recently he was transferred to the Manifa Development Project, which currently is the biggest increment in Saudi Aramco. Ronny has written and published a number of technical papers, both in Production and Reservoir Engineering, and presented papers in local and international forums. He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering in 1992 from the Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia.

Mohammed S. Kanfar joined Saudi Aramco in 2009. He is a Petroleum Engineer working for the Northern Area Reservoir Management Department. In 2010, Mohammed joined the Society of Petroleum Engineers - Saudi Arabia Section (SPESAS), serving on the SPE Young Professionals and Student Outreach Committee. He received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, and is currently pursuing his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.

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Moving Toward Intelligent Field Applications: MPFM for Production Rate Testing and Beyond
Authors: Karam S. Al-Yateem and Nami A. Al-Amri

ABSTRACT
Prior to the broad implementation and utilization of multiphase flow meters (MPFMs) in Saudi Arabian offshore oil fields, rigorous in-series testing was performed utilizing MPFM systems in conjunction with Saudi Aramcos testing fleet equipped with conventional separator testing traps. For about a year, sets of data were collected simultaneously from different wells through different MPFMs implemented in different reservoirs to compare and validate MPFM results against those of conventional traps. The accuracy of the MPFM proved to be within engineerings acceptable margin of error for all parameters, and in most cases, its results matched those of conventional methods. Offshore platforms are now being retrofitted with MPFMs to enable operators to test all the wells on the platform by selectively switching them one at a time through a test line, physically and remotely. Since its pioneer implementation almost a decade ago, MPFM testing has improved considerably in accuracy and the technology. The use of the MPFM has many advantages in testing operations, especially during periods where demand is high. Accurate and frequent well testing becomes decisive in times of maximum production rates, since the results from well tests facilitate determining which wells are experiencing significant decline and which have increasing water cut in a real time fashion, especially in fields with a large number of wells. The quick identification of these problems leads to taking immediate action to restore the wells productivity and to maintain optimal production rates. The MPFM, which offers real time well performance monitoring through the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA), has an added benefit of shorter test rate stabilization times. Additionally, the recent induction of the remotely operated selector switch in the units has allowed full automation of the process of switching remotely among different wells for well testing on a multi-well platform; this minimizes human involvement and provides operational flexibility. Finally, MPFMs reduce the waiting time for well switching due to natural limitation factors, such as bad weather offshore. This article largely addresses the reliability and accuracy of MPFMs as compared to a conventional separator using electrical submersible pump (ESP) optimization applications to identify what method gives more accurate testing. The article notes
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how further optimization of ESP well performance with frequent testing is also accomplished with MPFMs, which in turn improves the sweep efficiency of the reservoir, accelerates the production of recoverable reserves and environmentally helps to improve pump run life. It also elaborates on the benefits attained from installing MPFMs in mature offshore oil fields, with a focus on special cases like MPFM in-series testing and testing of artificially lifted wells, smart well completions and newly completed wells exhibiting an indirect support in achieving the production targets. Different principles and theories behind MPFMs are highlighted, along with their advantages and a vision of the way forward. To further the benefits of installing MPFMs, this article also discusses lessons learned and improved guidelines imposed over wellhead sampling (WHS) that benefits from the success of the MPFM; these guidelines effectively minimize sampling in wells equipped with MPFMs.

INTRODUCTION
Well testing provides an effective way to evaluate and monitor the performance of a producer by measuring the flow rates of each individual phase. The traditional approach to the measurement of produced effluent required the separation and independent measurement of the oil, water and gas. In complex development environments, however, like those offshore or close to residential areas, where space and weight are of a major concern, the large size and weight of the conventional separators made testing, in most cases, physically infeasible. One method used to overcome this situation was the installation of the conventional separator on a test barge, which could be mobilized from one platform to another to facilitate the necessary testing of each well on multiple platforms. As this kind of well testing, involving mobilization from one platform to another, was available only during favorable weather conditions, considerable nonworking (standby) time accrued each year (about a third of a year) due to bad weather conditions. Therefore, a new testing method for offshore wells had to be established. Multiphase measurement is the quantification of oil, water and gas phases in a production stream without the separation of the phases before the stream enters the meter1-5. A multiphase flow meter (MPFM), compact and lightweight compared to conventional separators, can generate accurate flow meas-

urements and operate in a wide range of flow regimes and changing fluid conditions5. Initially, the driving force behind MPFM development was primarily the need for subsea multiphase metering to enable development of marginal fields at acceptable and economically justified costs. Another important motivation for MPFMs was the attractiveness of topside use of the technology. Over the last decade, MPFM technology has improved significantly, and its test results are becoming increasingly accurate and repeatable. One offshore field in Saudi Arabia has more than 150 platforms with over 500 producers. These platforms differ in physical size and vary from a single well to 10-well configurations. The majority of the wells are equipped with two-gauge permanent downhole monitoring systems (PDHMSs). This provides an excellent opportunity for data integration that will be addressed with futuristic views. Therefore, the field has been elevated from a brown field (conventional) to a green field (intelligent). It is equipped with measurement, communication, control and software enabling real time and automated asset management and field rate optimization. It is all about information, whether improved downhole data that can unlock reservoir secrets with cutting edge exploration techniques or ways to enhance production.

MULTIPHASE FLOW METER OBJECTIVES AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE

MPFM measurement accuracy has evolved through the years. With many different MPFM techniques employed by various providers, the user must carefully evaluate the pros and cons and field applicability of each technology. The application environment (onshore vs. offshore) and the produced fluid pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) data, including salinity, viscosity and density, are all parameters that should be considered. Gas volume fraction (GVF), content of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and water cut, among others, are also key parameters in selecting a design and method of operation. Ideally, the output will be the exact measurement of oil flow rate, along with the associated gas and/or water production, if any, to engineerings acceptable range of accuracy2. A device that can provide such a measurement in a direct manner, without dependence on other measurements, is unfortunately not available yet. Therefore, most of the efforts in tackling this challenge have been oriented towards the utilization of instant velocity and cross-sectional fractions in estimating volume fractions with the identical velocity of each flow stream6. Consequently, the effect of gas and/or water over oil must be measured and identified. Some meters utilize the Coriolis flow meter methodology, combined with a microwave that can measure water cut in the range of 0%-100%2. Using this meter on production at a low gas-oil ratio (GOR) does not require separation to make the oil, water and gas rate measurements. Such MPFMs consist of a Coriolis mass flow meter, a pressure transmitter and a differential pressure transmitter2. The transmission of the raw data

from incessantly measured mass flow, pressure, density and temperature, along with the dielectric properties of the flow stream, enables the determination of the gas, water and oil flow rates in real time for the subject test flow path. The meter first computes the water volume fraction (WVF) measured through the water cut meter, articulating the actual liquid density with the utilization of provided PVT data; for this reason, it is of paramount importance to provide the meter with as much accurate PVT data as feasible. The Coriolis measures the mass flow rate and fluid density. From the combination of the measured fluid density and the calculated liquid density, the gas fraction is estimated, and consequently the flow rates are determined in accordance to three governing flow equations5. cw wc = 1- pm = pl (1-a) + pg * a pl = po (1-wc) + pw * wc The MPFM further includes a venture meter, a differential pressure device that calculates the velocity of the mixture flowing through the pipe. It also has a capacitance and inductive sensor that determines the water-oil ratio of the fluid. The gamma densitometer calculates the density of the fluid. Data from the meters sensors are sent to a computer, where complex algorithms determine the three phases flowing through the pipe. The data can then be downloaded or accessed through the SCADA system. The meter therefore consists of a venture section, a gamma source and a detector. Fluid flow should be in the upward direction, which allows the meter to differentiate the three phases (oil, water and gas). The basic principle of the meter is fairly simple: the total flow is multiplied by the oil volume fraction (OVF), the WVF and the GVF to give the three different fluid component rates. To get the OVF, WVF and GVF, the differential pressure determines the total flow for the meter across the venture section. The three components of the fluid are determined by the high and low energy level count rates from the gamma source. The high and low energy count rates are cross-plotted to form a solution triangle. Every test point must fall within the solution triangle (operational envelope), which gives the OVF, WVF and GVF of the liquid. The OVF, WVF and GVF can then be multiplied by the total flow rate to give the rates for oil, water and gas.

MPFM ACCURACY VALIDATION AND ASSESSMENTS

Saudi Aramco launched a number of comprehensive testing programs to evaluate the performance and suitability of various types of compact MPFMs7. These trial tests showed that the accuracy of the testing data from some types of MPFMs is within acceptable marginal errors when compared to data from testing separators7. This initial testing was followed by extensive testing of various MPFMs through a three-month period in one offshore field. The test was conducted utilizing over 160 wells under different operating conditions4. A MPFM was installed on a test barge with a conventional separater so that individual
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offshore wells could be tested in-series with traditional separator methods. For the subject trial, tested wells had a total liquid rate ranging from about 300 to over 12,000 barrels per day (bpd), and a water cut from 0% to 70%. The trial showed that over 93% of the well test results using MPFMs were within +/10% of test barge separator results for all liquid, oil and water cut measurements. For measurements of the GOR, the comparison was made between the measured values and the historical GOR data from field PVT data, since the field under testing produces from an undersaturated reservoir with no free gas, so the produced gas is equal to the solution gas. The three-month trial was followed by a longer test. For almost a year, the meters were tested in the field utilizing the test barge, which essentially meant that two sets of data were collected simultaneously. As a result, the accuracy of the meter could be directly compared against the test barge separator data. This approach was also beneficial in reducing the time required for the initial profile (envelope) setup of the MPFMs during the installation process. Over 350 well tests were analyzed to determine their accuracy. The meter results, when compared against the test barge separator values, proved extremely accurate over wide production ranges. For this extended trial period, the total liquid rate ranged from around 1,300 bpd to over 12,000 bpd, water cut ranged from 0% to 50%, and GOR fluctuated between 150 to 350 standard cubic feet/stock tank barrel. The MPFM accuracy was proven to be quite good for all four essential parameters: (1) liquid rate, (2) oil rate, (3) water cut, and (4) GOR. Data evaluation indicated that both the liquid and oil rates were within +/-10% and the water cut measurement was within +/-5%. To date, two main types of MPFMs have been widely installed in large numbers in Saudi Arabian offshore fields, since these types satisfied the companys qualification criteria in addition to their light weight and small size. In recent years, more than 3,000 flow rate tests have been conducted by MPFMs. In addition to providing data, tremendous economic savings have been realized due to a significant reduction in operating expenditure (OPEX) associated with well testing activities. Comparisons of production rate and water cut for newly tested wells are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. These encouraging results led to a certain level of trust and comfort when dealing with MPFMs in Saudi Aramco, enough so that the separator testing units on platforms equipped with MPFMs are used to conduct tests only once a year as a quality assurance measure. More visits by the testing barges are considered when the questionable performance of a well suggests the need for a reevaluation of the well performance to verify if a MPFM needs calibration and to cross-check the performance of the subject well. Well rate testing using the conventional separators on testing barges is widely considered to be relatively more accurate and so is used to benchmark the performance of the MPFMs. This cross-check is especially important for producers during a peak production period. From over the recent five years of experience in utilizing different types of MPFMs to
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Fig. 1. Total liquid rate comparison plot of two different MPFM readings compared to the separator reading.

Fig. 2. Water cut comparison plot of two different MPFM readings compared to the separator reading.

test oil wells, it was found that MPFMs need calibration on an annual basis in most cases. From the corporate testing database, a set of testing data was selected for this analysis. The testing data results exhibited a very good coverage of the locations and the flow rates of wells in the entire field. The flow rates covered wide ranges of fluid flow rates, with water cut ranging from zero up to 55%. Comparison of the testing data obtained from the testing barge/separator with that from the MPFM reveals that a high percentage of testing data from the MPFM either matched the testing data from the testing barges separators or fell within acceptable engineering marginal error. Further investigation into those testing data that did not match well led to the finding that the majority of those testing data from the MPFMs had actually been requested by engineers to cross-check the questionable performances of meters they suspected needed calibration. Excluding the test data obtained from MPFMs requiring calibration, over 80% of the testing data fell in a range of 10% difference in flow rates and water cuts. As confidence in the MPFMs grew larger, a MPFM was installed in-series with a test separator on one of the test barges. This installation was thought to increase the test

barges efficiency, due to the shorter stabilization and testing time required, and was supported by the encouraging results of the MPFMs over the years. Having a MPFM aboard the testing barge not only has achieved its main goal of increasing testing efficiency, but has also led to shortening the calibration time for newly commissioned MPFMs and to discover when calibration is needed in other MPFMs. A few rate tests were conducted using the three testing meters at once: i.e., platform MPFM, test barge MPFM and test barge separator. The plots in Figs. 1 and 2 exhibit the results from testing with the different MPFMs compared to the separator as a reference measurement. Another accuracy validation came from the wells artificially lifted with an electrical submersible pump (ESP), where the performances of wells and pumps are closely monitored using specialized ESP monitoring software applications. The application compares actual vs. modeled parameters to optimize ESP well performance and is used to validate different rate testings. In the validation process, while all other variables are checked and kept constant, water cut and the GOR measurements from the separator testing or from the MPFM readings are entered into the model, then the model simulates the total fluid rate expected based on the values entered. When there were discrepancies between the readings of the MPFM and of the separator, it was noticed that fluid rates were more accurate from separator testing, Fig. 3, but water cut and GOR readings were more accurate using the MPFM reading. The water cut measurement discrepancies may have resulted from the emulsion phases that came into existence after the installation of the ESP. Emulsion results from the mixing of oil and water at higher velocities to create a dispersion of droplets of one liquid in another. Thermal and chemical treatments are required to account properly for this emulsion effect, which renders basic sampling with a centrifuge machine inaccurate. Therefore, proper measurement of water cut in the presence of emulsion would happen only when using a fraction meter that is capable of interacting with elements smaller than the scale of the emulsion, i.e., the length of investigation should be smaller

than the diameter of the smallest inclusion of the emulsion6. This is the case for the gamma ray meters, as they interact at the atomic level, much smaller than the inclusion diameter, which is why MPMFs are more accurate than the separator when making water cut measurements in ESP wells.

MULTIPHASE METER BENEFITS

The benefits of multiphase metering of well production have been well documented for both naturally flowing and artificially lifted wells1, 3-5, 8. Multiphase measurement allows the elimination of test lines to the platform, the test separators infrastructure and potentially even the expense of slug catchers. This is extremely important when the economic justification of offshore and marginal projects is evaluated: MPFMs will reduce capital expenditures in mature fields increments through the elimination of expensive conventional testing requirements, and it is more effective in new field developments by eliminating the need for installing test lines. MPFMs are also low maintenance, and that will reduce OPEX. Moreover, the meter supports the improvement of well testing efficiency by providing acceptable accuracy in flow measurements without the need for fluid separations, while data are transmitted to SCADA in real time, availing continuous real time monitoring opportunities. In an offshore environment, MPFM installations minimize the need for test barges to travel from one platform to another, and therefore, reduce offshore traffic, decrease the probabilities of accidents, and allow better resource utilization, thereby augmenting work in a safer environment. Another benefit to health, safety, security and environment is that installing a MPFM on a production platform will reduce human interaction, which becomes more important with live wells having high H2S concentrations. The use of the MPFM has many advantages in testing operations, especially during periods where the demand is high. Accurate and frequent well testing can sound the alarm for early water breakthrough or unexpected gas cusping, if coning effects are carefully noted. This rather intangible benefit of rigorous installation and use of MPFMs mounts up to considerable earnings, especially if the right action is taken to mitigate such scenarios. More optimization benefits can be attained from collecting real time rate testing, such as ensuring adherence to the field production strategy. Target rates are set based on comprehensive modeling of all the different facets of the reservoir; the simple act of following the production plan can prolong the life of the wells and assure better asset management. Additionally, the recent induction of the remotely operated selector switch in the units has allowed full automation of the process of remotely switching different wells for well testing on a multi-well platform. It both minimizes human involvement and provides operational flexibility. Adding to the MPFMs advantage is their small size, as these meters take up much less space and weigh much less, which is important for offshore environments where space is limited. In addition, using MPFMs reduces the waiting time for switching wells due to
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Fig. 3. Total liquid rate comparison plot of MPFM and separator readings for ESP wells.

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natural limitation factors, such as bad weather in the offshore area. Further optimization of the ESP wells performance with frequent testing is also accomplished with MPFMs, which in turn improves the sweep efficiency of the reservoir, accelerating the production of recoverable reserves. The existence of MPFM facilitated flow rate testing enabled inflow performance determination of all laterals of a smart well completion. This was conducted in real time and provided an opportunity to make instant rate modification by using the inflow control valves (ICVs) to restore the optimal rate setting. Moreover, the existence of archived historical data in SCADA made it easy to back allocate and simulate the results that supported an overall evaluation of two of the first horizontal multilateral smart well completions6. The test was run for two different wells with two different completion configurations. This practice helped optimize the completion design (tubing size, number of multilaterals, etc.) of the dual-lateral wells with ICVs to maximize their production9.

Fig. 4. Water cut measurements obtained from WHS vs. those attained from MPFMs against time.

WELLHEAD SAMPLING (WHS) OPTIMIZATION

Through a comprehensive reconciliation of the existing WHS guidelines, MPFMs have supported the establishment and adoption of new guidelines for data acquisition and WHS practices in 10 onshore and offshore fields, resulting in a major cost saving, operational avoidance and utilization of optimal resources. This optimization led to a significant reduction in production engineering requirements, from over 18,000 to around 8,000 samples per year10. Assessments of salt, sand content, basic sediments and water, and geochemical samples are basic tools used by production engineering to carry out key responsibilities and assist in implementing fundamental production engineering strategies. These data are also beneficial for close monitoring of field water conformance and floodfront salinity for fields under water injection and will assist in wide-scale field development strategies. WHS optimization was carried out by focusing on the fiscal responsibility to take over all of the inherited requirements while utilizing practices based on an individual fields specifications. It should be noted that WHS enhancement was successfully achieved with the help of new technology utilizations, MPFM in particular. For instance, the MPFM installations have drastically reduced most of the WHS to detect water cut, replacing that sampling with reliance on the MPFMs attractive real time water cut measurements, Fig. 4. For example, in one deliverable from the study, the number of water samples required for wells with water cut above 5% decreased to none, due to the continuous good MPFM test data. As indicated, it was found that almost all of the MPFMs are showing accurate water cut measurements for wells producing water cut above the 5%. Therefore, over 1,000 instances of WHS were eliminated from offshore fields alone.

THE WAY FORWARD

The second-generation multiphase meters introduced the dual70
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velocity method (gas and liquid traveling at different speeds), and phase fractions now were calculated based on capacitance and conductivity measurements in combination with a single energy gamma densitometer and venture section. The newer meter does not require mixers to homogenize the flow or separators to split the flow before measurement, providing a wider operating range10. This change dramatically improved the accuracy of multiphase metering. Other key improvements of the second-generation meter include long-life parts, so that they can operate in harsh environments, and reduced power consumption. For all its improvement and benefits, however, some limitations to the second-generation multiphase meters remain. It still provides a simplification of complex flow patterns; the nucleonic gamma source continues to pose environmental concerns; and the integration of MPFM with other sources is still required for real time monitoring. Even newer MPFMs, the so-called next generation MPFMs, will address all the issues previously mentioned, with better accuracy to provide more detailed knowledge on flow rates and complex flow patterns and a wider operating envelope. A radioactive source is one optional component in the second-generation MPFMs; although the radiation levels are very low, managing the radioactive source is still complicated. Another feature needed from the new MPFMs is remote access to virtually all functions of the meter, including software upgrades. This can benefit the operator, allowing expert operators onshore to download data for analysis and to provide expert assistance in configuration/analysis or troubleshooting, irrespective of weather conditions, the availability of local personnel and other operational constraints. In addition to the cost-saving benefits, downtime would be reduced to a minimum in case reconfiguration/setup is necessary. The MPFM data logger has a large data storage capacity that is capable of receiving sensor signals every second and storing running averages. Data logger information can later be downloaded to a computer and analyzed. Nowadays, the MPFM has been recognized as one important element of intelligent field management. One obvious application of a downhole MPFM is for multi-zone production through a single string, where the only alternative method of zonal allocation is

by intervention and production logging on a regular basis. In Saudi Arabias offshore fields, more and more multilateral wells are being drilled. Downhole flow monitoring and metering will play a more and more important role in lateral production optimization and measurement.

paper 80502, presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Jakarta, Indonesia, September 9-11, 2003. 2. Mehdizadeh, P., Farchy, D. and Suarez, J.: Multiphase Meter Production Well Testing Applied to Low GOR Mature Fields, SPE paper 120578, presented at SPE Production and Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, April 4-8, 2009. 3. Warren, P.B., Hussain, S. and Ghamdi, S.: Background and Operational Experience of Multiphase Metering in the Safaniya Field Offshore Saudi Arabia, SPE paper 71534, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 30 October 3, 2001. 4. Warren, P.B., Al-Dusari, K.H., Zabihi, M. and AlAbduljabbar, J.M.: Field-Testing a Compact Multiphase Flow Meter Offshore Saudi Arabia, SPE paper 81560, presented at the Middle East Oil Show, Manama, Bahrain, June 9-12, 2003. 5. Mohamed, P.G., Al-Saif, K.H. and Mohamed, A.: Field Evaluation of Different Multiphase Flow Measurement Systems, SPE paper 56585, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, October 3-6, 1999. 6. Handbook of Multiphase Flow Metering, Norwegian Society for Oil and Gas Measurement and the Norwegian Society of Chartered Technical and Scientific Professionals. 7. Al-Taweel, A.B. and Barlow, S.G.: Field Testing of Multiphase Meters, SPE paper 56583, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, October 3-6, 1999. 8. Busaidi, K. and Bhaskaran, H.: Multiphase Flow Meters: Experience and Assessment in PDO, SPE paper 84505, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, October 5-8, 2003. 9. Alysed, S. and Yateem, K.S.: Testing Methodologies for Smart Wells Completion Optimization and Production Rate Setting for Maximum Hydrocarbon Recovery, SPE paper 150014, presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy International, Utrecht, The Netherlands, March 27-29, 2012. 10. Makki, Z., Jose, V. and Nasir, S.: Wellhead Sampling Optimization Study, Saudi Aramco internal technical evaluation report.

CONCLUSIONS
In summary, MPFM technology has proven beneficial at various scales in the industry. Some of the major benefits are: More flexible operational logistics are available with remote control and monitoring capabilities; artificial lift wells can be monitored and controlled without visiting the site. This is associated with a reduction in manning requirements. Well performance diagnostics and optimization in a real time fashion can provide alerts for the first time the well be comes wet, there is a sudden increase in water cut, etc. The ability to perform well test analyses and achieve performance trends is another advantage. Through SCADA, the integration of other intelligent field equipment, such as PDHMS, is valuable, especially in measuring the effectiveness of chemical treatment in real time. Operation expenditure in the case of developed fields, and capital expenditure and operational expenditure for new developments, is minimized, mainly in lowering the equipment installation attended for similar objectives and in the reduction of site visits. Therefore, it brings a dramatic reduction in nonproductive time for field services personnel.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco management for their permission to present and publish this article. A special thank you goes to the technical review committee of the Northern Production Engineering & Well Services Department (NAPE&WSD) for their comments, Wenrong Mei for his insightful addition and contribution, Reja Khaldi for his close follow-up and recommendations, Ahmed A. Almutairi for his valuable input and assistance, and Konstantinos Zormpalas for his technical and overall review. Appreciation is also due to those who participated in the work. This article was presented at the SPE Intelligent Energy Intenational 2012, Utrecht, The Netherlands, March 27-29, 2012.

NOMENCLATURE
| Cw w,o,g calculated gas void fraction fluid density measured by the Coriolis meter water concentration in the fluid measured by the water cut meter density of water, oil and gas at the meter conditions

REFERENCES
1. Frantzen, K.H., Brandt, M. and Olsvik, K: Multiphase Meters Operational Experience in the Asia-Pacific, SPE
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BIOGRAPHIES
Karam S. Al-Yateem started his professional career with Saudi Aramco immediately after graduation. Since then, he has completed several assignments in various onshore and offshore field locations. Karam has worked as a Reservoir Engineer, Field Engineer, Testing Engineer and Production Engineer. He worked with the Computational Modeling Technology Team as a summer student trainee. Karam later worked on the 3D Well Planning and Analysis System Project and was a mentor to many newly hired young professionals. He has authored and coauthored several technical papers. Karam has represented Saudi Aramco in various international forums and conferences, and he chaired the first Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Young Professionals Technical Symposium (YPTS) in 2007. He is the recipient of the 2008 Young Member Outstanding Service Award. Karam is an active SPE member and currently serves as a member of the Young Professionals Task Force of Production & Operation, as an executive board member of the Saudi Arabia Section of SPE and as a board member of the Saudi Oil and Gas and Brazil Oil and Gas magazines. Karam is also an executive board member of the University of Southern California (USC) Alumni Club of Arabia. He is a member of the Arabian Society for Human Resource Management (ASHRM), Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) and Saudi Council of Engineers. Karam received his SPE Petroleum Engineering Certification in 2012. In 2005, Karam received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. In 2010, he received his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, CA, specializing in Smart Oil Field Technologies and Management.

Nami A. Al-Amri is a Production Engineer working at the Safaniya field in the North Area Production Engineering Department. His experience includes working with reservoir management, production engineering and field operations. Nami is also enrolled in the corporate Production Engineering Specialist Program (PESP) working on an artificial lift specialty with a primary focus on ESP applications. He received his Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Petroleum Engineering Certification in 2012. In 2003, Nami received his B.S. degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK. He also received two M.S. degrees in Petroleum Engineering and in Engineering & Technology Management (ETM) from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, in 2010.

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Abstract submission deadline

December 1, 2012 February 27, 2013 June 1, 2013 September 1, 2013

Release date
March 31, 2013 June 30, 2013 September 30, 2013 December 31, 2013

Use only when essential. Use author/date citation method in the main body. Numbered footnotes or endnotes will be converted. Include complete publication information. Standard is The Associated Press Stylebook, 46th ed.

74

FALL 2012 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

Additional Content Available Online at! !!! ! ! audiaramco! com! ! ot

Nonmetallics and Their Role in Shaping the Future of Saudi Aramco

Mauyed S. Mehdi and Hussain A. Bunaiyan

A! STRACT
In 2006, Saudi Aramco embarked on an ambitious Nonmetallic Program to help control corrosion, to encourage the conversion of oil into petrochemicals and to enhance the supply chain. This article demonstrates the role of nonmetallics in shaping the future of Saudi Aramco.
Triazine!! ased Scavengers! Can They ! e a Potential for Formation Damage!
Yasser K. Al-Duailej, Dr. Mohammed H. Al-Khaldi and Saleh A. Al-Kulaibi

A! STRACT
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) scavengers have been used extensively in different field operations, such as drilling and acid stimulation treatments. Typically, H2S scavengers are preliminarily designed to react effectively at different in-situ conditions. For example, triazine-based scavengers are designed for neutral to high pH conditions, while aldehyde-based scavengers are intended for low pH conditions.
Real!Time !ntegrated Petrophysics! ! eosteering in Challenging ! eology and Fluid Systems
Majed F. Kanfar

A! STRACT
Since the advent of horizontal wells, the oil and gas industry has come a long way to ensure optimal drilling and well placement practices. The proper placement of these wells has meant that measurement while drilling (MWD) and logging while drilling (LWD) have come to play a primary role in geosteering, placement and evaluation of highly deviated or horizontal wells.
! igh Rate Sour ! as Wells! Solids!Free Clean Out
Abdulrahman S. Ahmari, Elio A. Uzcategui, Samih M. Alsyed and Abdulrahman A. Ghamdi

A! STRACT
Saudi Arabias first offshore high rate dry gas field has an overpressured reservoir. Successful pressure control during drilling required the use of barite in the water-based drilling mud. Barite is very abrasive and is insoluble in any acid or solvent. Any barite left in the reservoir due to mud losses has to be produced back to the surface after completing the wells.