Civ 200

200 Soils, Foundations and Concrete
Abstract
This section includes guidelines for planning and administering soil investigations; information on foundation design, including shallow and piled foundations, foundations for high-temperature equipment and vibrating machinery; retaining walls; deadman anchors and anchor bolts; concrete and grouting, and concrete repair. Abstracts of the Companys computer programs for foundation design are also given. A detailed design procedure, followed by a design example, is given for spread footings, cantilever walls, cast-in-place anchor bolts, and deadman anchors. The section also refers to Company specifications, standard drawings and engineering forms that relate to foundations and concrete work. See also ACI 301-96, in the specifications section, as well as two design practices, Appendices A and B of the manual. The guidelines are written for entry-level engineers or experienced engineers working outside their discipline or area of expertise. For design of tank foundations, see the Companys Tank Manual.
Contents
210 211 220 221 222 223 224 230 231 232 233 234 235 Introduction Industry Codes and Practices Soil Investigations Introduction Phases of Soil Investigation Checklist of Services Available Administering Soil Investigation Contracts Foundations Foundation Types Foundation Design Shallow Foundations Piles and Piled Foundations Foundations for High-temperature Equipment
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ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Co.
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Civil and Structural Manual
236 237 238 240 241 242 250 251 252 260 270 271 272 273 280 281 282 283 290
Foundations for Vibrating Machinery Retaining Walls Deadman Anchors Anchor Bolts Cast-In-Place Anchor Bolts Post-installed Anchors Concrete and Grouting Concrete Mix Selection Grouting Concrete Repair Computer Program Abstracts OCTFNDDesign of Reinforced Concrete Octagonal Foundations PLSUPFNDDesign of Reinforced Concrete Pile-supported Octagonal Foundations ENGR 389Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations for Horizontal Vessels Model Specifications, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms Specifications Standard Drawings Engineering Forms References 200-79 200-78 200-72 200-77 200-65 200-52
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210 Introduction
Many engineering structures, such as road pavements, containment berms, embankments, and dams use soil as a construction material. Ultimately, all structures, regardless of the material of which they are constructed, rest upon the soil. Therefore, the foundation design and settlement behavior of the completed structure depend on the characteristics of the underlying soil. Soil mechanics deal with the action of forces on soil masses and involve engineering study to obtain soil properties used in foundations design. Foundation engineering deals with the application of soil mechanics and the resulting soil-structure interaction. The foundation engineer must keep in mind that any foundation must be designed to satisfy two essential requirements: 1. 2. The foundation must have an adequate factor of safety against ultimate failure. The foundation settlement under allowable soil bearing pressure must not exceed the allowable settlement.
Proper design of an adequate but not wasteful foundation requires engineering judgments and evaluations of: Bearing capacity of soil Settlement amount and rate Earth pressures Pore water pressures and dewatering quantities
211 Industry Codes and Practices

The following industry codes are most commonly referenced when dealing with soil and reinforced concrete foundations: American Concrete Institute (ACI). ACI maintains and publishes the Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318). This code covers the design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings, foundations, walls, slabs, etc. The American Concrete Institute also publishes annually the ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. This manual is a compilation of current ACI standards and technical committee reports. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). AISC publishes the Manual of Steel Construction. This manual contains structural steel dimensions and properties, specifications and codes, and other miscellaneous design aids. Steel piles and anchor bolts should be designed in accordance with AISC. Portland Cement Association (PCA). PCA publishes the Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, which is an excellent reference for the design of concrete mixes for all applications. Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (CRSI). CRSI publishes design handbooks which contain complete designs of common reinforced concrete elements, including
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designs for Square Footings for Individual Columns, Pile Caps for Individual Columns, Drilled Pier (Caisson) Foundations, and Cantilevered Retaining Walls. Uniform Building Code (UBC). UBC is published by the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) and is a comprehensive code on building construction. This code provides minimum standards for the design, construction, quality of materials, use and occupancy, and location and maintenance of all buildings and structures. Local Governing Codes. Local governing codes supplement national codes. You are responsible to ensure that your designs, drawings, specifications, and construction practices comply with local governing codes before final design.
220 Soil Investigations

221 Introduction
This section discusses soil investigations and related engineering. The possible phases of a soil investigation are described along with the type of services available from a soil consultant. The selection and evaluation of consultant services are discussed along with guidelines for administration and control of contracts for soil consulting services. Soil mechanics and foundation engineering are usually part of planning work on plant facilities. Soil mechanics and foundation engineering services are usually directed toward one or both of two prime objectives: 1. 2. Saving money by decreasing the overall cost of the project either in construction or in maintenance over the life of the project. Avoiding costly project delays during construction or repairs after completion.
Soil engineering provides a basis for comparative cost studies and behavior for different types of foundations, and for other soil aspects of design and construction. It is possible to effect cost savings through comprehensive analysis, but the costs of soil engineering must be carefully weighed against the expected savings in the cost of foundation construction. Use existing data for adding on buildings in existing plants wherever possible.
222 Phases of Soil Investigation

One or more of the soil investigation phases listed below may be appropriate for a given project. The extent of services required may vary from recommendations based upon review of available data or visual inspection of site conditions, through a rough estimate based upon limited data, to a comprehensive engineering study and recommendations based upon thorough exploration, test programs, and detailed calculations. Only selected portions of the phases described below would ordinarily be needed on any specific job or project. For large projects, it is not always possible to accurately
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outline the complete investigative program. However, good planning will produce a more efficient program and more effective results.
Preliminary Investigation or Reconnaissance and Design Studies

This phase aids in site selection from an earthwork and foundation cost standpoint. It includes review of available topographic, geological, and other specific soil information.
Soil Boring and Testing

This phase helps to determine the engineering properties of soil to be used in the design of foundations. This phase includes recommendations for foundation types, allowable soil bearing and pile capacities, factors of safety, and estimated settlements. It is impractical to make detailed studies of all possible foundation types for every structure. Therefore, it is desirable that these analyses be done in steps to answer specific design questions as they arise for particular structures.
Final Soil Report

This phase incorporates all soil data and recommendations for use in the final foundation design.
Consultation During Construction

This phase usually includes inspection by and consultation with the soil consultant regarding unexpected variations in subsurface conditions at locations where no explorations were made. Such conditions may require modifications in foundation details, pier depths, pile lengths, etc. Consultation may also involve evaluating construction tools or equipment, quality and placement of fill materials, and shoring or underpinning procedures.
Post-Construction Consultations
This phase includes observations of settlement and analyzing structure behavior characteristics. Such studies may reduce costs or improve behavior of future additions to the project.
223 Checklist of Services Available

The following is a checklist of the types of services and recommendations that can be provided during phases of the soil investigation and related engineering. The types of services, and the number of soil borings and laboratory tests should be appropriate to the magnitude of the project and to the importance of the structures involved. Significant cost savings will be realized by holding the soil consultant to the scope of work as defined in the contract documents and by rejecting additional unnecessary soil borings and laboratory tests. 1. 2. 3. Site Exploration Evaluation of Project Sites Soil Borings and Sampling
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4.
Laboratory Tests and Test Properties a. b. c. d. e. Soil classification and index properties, such as moisture content, unit weight, etc. Permeability Consolidation Shear strength, including liquefaction potential Compaction
5.
Field Tests and Measurements a. b. c. d. Soil properties in situ Pile load tests Plate bearing Seismic reflection survey
6.
Settlement Analysis a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Soil stress conditions, both existing and from applied loads Total settlement Differential settlement Time rate of settlement Allowable settlement Methods of reducing or accelerating settlement (surcharge, sand drains, wellpoints) Magnitude of swell or volume expansion and rebound
7.
Stability Analysis a. b. c. d. Natural slopes Embankments Foundations Slope and soil stabilization methods
8.
Seepage and Drainage a. b. c. Seepage analysis Seepage control Dewatering
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9.
Compaction a. b. c. d. Embankments Earth dikes Compaction procedures and compaction control Slope protection
10. Bearing Capacity a. b. c. d. Spread foundations Mat foundations Caissons Pile load capacity both individual piles and pile groups
11. Retaining Walls and Retaining Structures a. b. c. d. Earth pressure coefficients (active, passive, at rest) Crib walls, reinforced earth, other proprietary types Sheet piles Braced cuts
12. Buried Structures a. b. c. d. e. Concrete pipes Steel pipes Culverts Tunnels Electrical conduits
13. Soil Stabilization 14. Shoring and Underpinning 15. Vibration Problems a. Dynamic soil properties (modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, Poissons ratio) for use in design of foundations for compressors and other vibratory equipment. Seismic reflection survey
b.
16. Response Spectra
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17. Construction Support a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. Evaluation of methods and equipment for placing compacted fills Verification of density and compliance with compaction and placement criteria Advice on subsurface drainage or special stabilization problems Evaluation of quality, stability, and probable behavior of fill and materials beneath the fill Consultation and inspection of piling, caissons, or footings placement Evaluation of field loading tests on footings, piling, or caissons Instrumentation in slope stability problems or underpinning problems, such as strain gages, settlement readings, or inclinometer installations Advice on operating conditions for earthmoving, including trafficability, striping arrangements and possible weather considerations Evaluation of criteria for control of pile-driving operations, with provisions for adapting to possible variations in subsurface condition Evaluation of criteria for installation of piers or caissons Evaluation of stability of construction excavations and possible risks to adjacent structures Consultation on subsurface construction problems
224 Administering Soil Investigation Contracts

The need for soil and foundation engineering consulting services on any project must be recognized by the responsible Company engineers, and steps should be initiated to define the services needed for each project. The Civil/Structural team in CRTC can provide input at this stage. Since the program for a soil or foundation investigation can range from a very limited to a very involved study, the appropriate extent of study depends on a number of factors. The most important aspect of planning a study for a particular project is to reach a complete and mutual understanding of the exact problems for which answers are desired. It is imperative that the specific purposes of the studies be clearly understood by all participants and that the contractor be held to the agreed scope of work.
Soil Consultant Selection

The consultant must be selected to provide the desired engineering services. The consultant is usually selected in one of the following ways: 1. 2. Solicit competitively-bid proposals from qualified consultants Negotiate a contract with the preferred consultant
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3.
Prepare an authorization to an existing standing contract with the preferred consultant
Review the Companys Construction Contracts and Services Manual for procedures on bidding, negotiating, and authorizing professional services contracts. For large projects in areas where little or no previous soil investigation work has been performed, competitive bidding for the soil investigation and engineering is recommended. In order to prepare a proposal for a soil investigation program, the consultants will need to know the major facilities that are considered. For work in areas where significant soil investigation work has been done, it is often beneficial to retain the services of the consultant who performed the previous work. This can frequently be done by negotiating a contract or supplementing an existing contract with the consultant. Contact the Civil/Structural team in CRTC for information on soil consultants with whom the Company has had prior satisfactory experience.
Establish Scope of Services and Prepare Cost Estimate

Request an initial proposal for a foundation investigation which describes the purposes and detailed services which the soil consultant will provide. The consultant should include an estimate of the costs to perform the proposed services. The evolution of some projects may require changes by either increasing or decreasing the initial scope of work. During the initial planning of a soil investigation, the total program should be anticipated and at least tentatively outlined, with the understanding that the scope and details of future portions will be influenced by developments during the successive steps.
Clarify Division of Responsibilities

The Company will always maintain overall administrative responsibility of direct contracts with the consultant. Where technical responsibilities are divided between the Company and the consultant, the division should be very clear. The division of responsibilities, as well as the scope, timing and presentation of a soil investigation, will be influenced by the manner in which the design and construction work is contracted. When work is contracted on a turnkey basis, responsibility for detailed foundation design and construction may be placed on the contractor. In this case, the soil investigation program might be limited to general site information for planning purposes, with the contractor later handling the detailed soil investigation. The preferred method is for the Company to be responsible for the entire soil investigation program and to furnish such data (or a design basis) to the contractor. Accordingly, it is necessary that the soil consultant be aware of the contracting plan and the division of Company-Contractor responsibilities. When parts of the engineering design are carried out by design, or design and construction contractors, additional problems of communication and division of responsibility must be considered. For example, if a soil consultant is retained by a design and construction contractor directly, the consultants primary responsibility may be to help save the contractor the maximum amount of construction costs. This
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situation may involve difficult decisions about whether to approve construction which is acceptable in performance at a minimum cost, or to select slightly safer or more desirable construction having a higher margin of safety at slightly greater construction cost.
Maintain Open Communications

Communications between the soil consultant and Company must always be open and it is essential that all concerned be kept informed of plans which affect their work or which may be affected by their work. Some knowledge of the project as a whole and of the functional demands of equipment to be supported may permit the soil consultant to suggest an attractive alternate design, rather than simply to answer specific questions. Also, if you have a good understanding of the reasons and basis for the foundation recommendation, you may be able to modify designs to take best advantage of site conditions.
Request Complete Reports

Reports should be prompt, concise, should point out specific objectives and conclusions, and may often need to be presented in stages to meet the timing needs of the projects development. A complete report should: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Call attention to unresolved problems which may need further study. Evaluate areas of uncertainty due to variability of soil or unknown conditions. Indicate the range of accuracy in the results presented. Address any anticipated special construction problems. List detailed data, such as boring logs and test results.
A draft soil report should be reviewed with the consultant before issuing the final report to ensure that all questions have been satisfactorily covered in the report. During the course of all phases of a soil investigation program (field, lab, and office), a continuing review between you and the soil consultant of results to date, current status of work, outlook for completions, and preliminary conclusions will help ensure that the results are adequate and timely.
Prepare Cost Estimates Early

An estimate of the cost of the services to be performed by the soil consultant should be prepared as soon as the program is defined and before starting the program in order that the work be properly authorized. The soil consultant should prepare a detailed cost estimate which should be reviewed and approved by you. In case of a stepwise approach to the investigation, an approximate overall cost should be estimated, with detailed estimates made as each step is defined.
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The estimate should include as applicable: 1. Field Costs a. b. c. d. 2. 3. 4. 5. Field engineering including expenses Testing or sampling equipment charges Drilling subcontract costs Access assistance (clearing, roads, barges, surveying).
Laboratory costs including number and types of various tests proposed. Office costs including manhours estimates for performing analyses and preparing recommendations. Report Preparation and printing costs. Design and construction consultation.
During the course of the work, the soil consultant should keep you currently advised of expenditures, preferably through weekly reports. Further authorization is usually needed if the final expenditures exceed those previously authorized.
230 Foundations
This section of the manual presents design guidelines and discusses other considerations for commonly used foundations.
231 Foundation Types

Foundations can be separated into two broad categories, shallow and deep. Retaining walls can also be considered as foundations.
Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations transfer superstructure loads to the soil directly underneath the foundation. Shallow foundations are categorized as spread footings or wall footings. Spread footings are the most commonly used type of foundation because they are usually more economical than other types. From a design point of view they are classified as spread footings, combined footings and mat foundations. The choice among these types depends primarily upon the relative cost. Spread Footings. A spread footing supports one column or one piece of equipment. Spread footings can be square, rectangular, circular, or octagonal in shape. A pedestal is often used with spread footings in order to reduce the thickness of the footing and to develop the full strength of dowels or anchor bolts. Examples of spread footings are shown in Figure 200-1. Design of spread footings is discussed in Section 233 of this manual. Combined Footings. Combined footings are used to support two or more column loads in a row or when two or more spread footings would overlap. A combined
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Fig. 200-1
Spread Footings
footing is recommended when minimizing differential settlement between columns is important. Combined footings are limited to rectangular, trapezoidal and other simple shapes. Trapezoidal shapes are used to create equal soil bearing pressure under unequal applied loads. Examples of combined footings are shown in Figure 200-2. Strap Footings. A strap footing is comprised of two or more spread footings connected by a beam called a strap. Figure 200-2 shows an example of a strap footing. Mat Foundations. Mat foundations (Figure 200-3) are large concrete slab foundations which transmit the loads from several columns in two or more rows or pieces of equipment to the soil. Mat foundations are used in locations where the soil bearing capacity is low and foundation settlements, particularly differential settlements, may be a problem. By combining individual footings into a mat the bearing capacity is often increased. Wall Footings. Wall footings are used to support building walls. They are shaped like spread footings except that they are continuous for the entire length of the wall.
Deep Foundations
Pile Foundations are the most common deep foundations. Piles can be made of timber, concrete, steel, and combinations of each to transmit surface loads to firm strata at greater depths. Figure 200-4 shows the usual types of piles and the
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Fig. 200-2
Combined and Strap Footings
optimum load and length range. Further discussion of pile foundation types, materials, and design is continued in Section 234 of this manual. Retaining Walls. Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability for earth or other materials where conditions prevent the soil or material mass from assuming its natural slope. The different types of retaining walls are shown in Figure 200-5. Gravity Walls. Gravity walls are plain concrete walls with no tensile stresses on any portion of the wall. The gravity wall depends upon its own weight for stability. Because of the large volume of concrete required they are not very economical for high walls. Semigravity Walls. Semigravity walls use small amounts of reinforcing steel in order to reduce the volume of concrete. Like gravity walls they are not very economical for high walls. Cantilever Walls. Cantilever walls are the most common type used. They are made of reinforced concrete. They are suitable and economical for moderate heights (2025 feet). A key may sometimes be required to prevent sliding.
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Fig. 200-3
Mat Foundations
Fig. 200-4
Pile Foundations
Fig. 200-5
Retaining Walls
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Counterfort Walls. Counterfort walls are also made of reinforced concrete. Both the base slab and wall span horizontally between vertical brackets known as counterforts. This type of wall is suitable for retaining high fills (greater than 20 feet). Sheet Piling Walls. Sheet piling walls are commonly used for large and small marine structures and also for slope stability and erosion control. The two common types of sheetpiling walls are cantilevered sheetpiling and anchored sheetpiling. Braced sheetpiling is also shown in Figure 200-6.
Fig. 200-6 Sheet Piling Structures
Proprietary Walls. Proprietary walls can be very economical in certain applications. The most widely used are prefabricated steel crib walls and reinforced earth walls. Reinforced earth walls have precast concrete wall panels with clips for connecting steel ties which extend into the retained earth behind the wall. Reinforced earth walls have been used to retain fills as high as 50 feet. Crib walls are suitable for fills to 20 feet high.
232 Foundation Design

This section outlines the steps to follow in the design of any foundation, as well as the design considerations that accompany each stage of the design procedure. Recommendations on factors of safety and allowable settlements are also given. Determine Scope Of Work. Identify the structure or piece of equipment that needs to be supported. Also identify any special problems that are associated with supporting the particular item.
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Assemble Design Aids. Assemble all pertinent reference materials that are needed to assist you in the foundation design. These materials include: Company Model And Standard Specifications And Forms Drawing Record Books Basic Engineering Design Data (Bedd) Sheets Plot Plans Vendor Drawings Preliminary Layout Drawings Soil Report Governing Codes, Including AISC, UBC, ACI, AWS, and API
Establish Design And Loading Criteria. That is, define the following: Type and magnitude of applied loads Allowable soil bearing Allowable settlement Factors of safety against failure Material properties
Make Preliminary Calculations And Estimates. Make preliminary, but conservative calculations and estimates of structure or equipment weights, forces, and/or moments that will act on the foundation. It is important to use the best available data at this stage. If your estimates are more accurate, future revisions may be reduced or not required. Select Foundation Type. Using the design aids and loading criteria assembled, select the type of foundation to be used. The soil report will commonly provide recommendations on foundation types for large or special structures and foundations. The extent of these recommendations depends upon the scope of services requested from the soil consultant. Wherever possible, use a conventional spread footing, provided a reasonably sized footing can adequately transfer the foundation loads to the soil without overloading the soil or resulting in excessive settlement. Spread footings are commonly used and are generally considered the most economical choice of foundation. If the loads cannot be supported by a spread footing or expected settlements will exceed allowable values, then deep foundation such as piles should be considered to transfer the loads to deeper soil. At this stage, consideration should be given to the configuration and size of the foundation. In many cases, it is advantageous to combine two spread footings in order to reduce construction costs. Establish Schedule. The schedule is often an important consideration in the design of foundations or underground structures. For the majority of projects, the foundation construction follows closely after the site preparation work, and the foundation design must be as complete as possible before all of the design information is available.
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Determine Design Requirements. Special considerations must be given to vibrating equipment, frost heave, groundwater table, liquefaction, and settlementsensitive equipment or structures. Prepare Preliminary Design. Using the assembled design aids, computer programs, and codes as necessary, along with the latest design information (for example, piping layouts, equipment sizes), prepare the foundation design including size, shape, and location. Remember to develop a design that is flexible and conservative to allow for probable revisions or modifications as the design information is further developed and finalized. Confirm Design And Loading Criteria. This stage involves review of the preliminary design. The review includes coordinating and incorporating the latest design information into the preliminary design. This design information includes piping layouts, vendor drawings of equipment, preliminary and existing structural drawings, and potential underground interferences (for example, drain lines, conduit banks, and existing foundations). Complete The Final Design. After all items affecting the design have been confirmed and any problems resolved, the foundation design can be finalized. Document The Designs. Proper documentation of foundation designs should be done as with any civil engineering design. Documentation of design criteria and loads, allowable loads, governing codes, and other information will allow rapid evaluation of the foundation if future changes in loads or service are considered.
233 Shallow Foundations

This section presents the design considerations and a design procedure for the design of shallow foundations. Shallow foundations most commonly refer to footings that bear directly on the native soil, which are capable of carrying the foundation loads without piles. An example design problem is also presented.
Design Considerations
Bearing Capacity. Allowable bearing capacity recommendations will be developed during the soil investigation. The soil report will include soil bearing capacity values for the project site with appropriate factors of safety for the anticipated loading conditions. Use old reports for existing plants. In the absence of recommendations for allowable bearing capacities, 1991 Uniform Building Code Table No. 29-B which gives allowable soil pressures for different soil types may be used for preliminary design or final design for projects involving only one or two small foundations supporting static loads. Foundation Settlements. Settlement is often a controlling factor in the design of any foundation, and particularly, spread footings. The soil report should discuss estimates of the expected settlement for different foundation types and major facilities in the project area. Foundation recommendations to minimize settlement should also be included.
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Differential foundation settlements are usually more critical than the settlement of individual foundations. Special consideration must be given to the settlement of critical structures or equipment which could impose excessive stresses on other structures, connections, and piping. Differential settlement should be limited to 0.5-0.75 inches whenever possible. For adjacent equipment, foundations should be combined or tied together to avoid differential settlement. Factors of Safety. The soil report will recommend appropriate factors of safety for spread footing design. Following are recommended minimum factors of safety against ultimate bearing capacity failure. Dead loads and operating loads: Minimum factor of safety of 2.0 to 3.0 depending on the type of structure and the reliability of the condition of the soil. Temporary, wind, or seismic loading: Minimum factor of safety of 1.5 to 2.0
In some instances, lower factors of safety may be justified based on a thorough soil investigation, sound engineering principles and type of soil.
Other Considerations
The depth of shallow foundations should be selected so that the bottom of the foundation is placed below: Frost line Topsoil or other organic material Unconsolidated fill material Layers of expansive soils (clays)
Additionally, concrete should not be placed on soft, muddy, frozen, or organic subgrade. The stability ratio of the resisting moments about the edge of any foundation to the overturning moments due to wind and earthquake loads should not be less than 1.5.
Design Procedure, Spread Footings

The design procedure that follows outlines the steps for designing a spread footing supporting a single load applied at the center of the foundation. Spread footings for overturning moment in one direction only may be designed by the following procedure. The procedure has two parts: calculating the footing size (9 steps) and preparing the footings structural design (6 steps.) An example problem follows the design procedure.
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Footing Size
1. Calculate the applied vertical load, P, shear, V, and moment, M, at the top of footing or top of pedestal, whichever applies. The loads are due to one or a combination of the following. 2. Dead load Live load Wind load Thermal forces Seismic forces Equipment loads (operating, hydrotest) and associated piping
Choose the minimum depth of footing, D, below grade and the height of the pedestal, h, above grade. The bottom of footing should be below the frost line and should bear on soil with adequate bearing capacity. The top of the pedestal is normally six (6) to twelve (12) inches above grade to protect the anchor bolts from moisture, dirt, or debris. Translate the loads from top of footing or pedestal to bottom of footing. Vertical load, P, and shear, V, remain the same but the moment at the footing bottom, Mb, increases by the product of shear, V, times distance (D+h). See Figure 200-7. Mb = M + V ( D + h )
(Eq. 200-1)
3.
4.
Estimate the plan dimensions of footing (L,B) based on the allowable soil bearing qa, vertical load P, and moment Mb, but first transform the load P and moment Mb to a new location at an eccentricity, e = Mb/P, from footing centerline. The footing plan dimensions (L,B) are estimated with the aid of the soil pressure distribution as shown in Figure 200-8. For equilibrium, the summation of forces in the vertical direction must equal zero. Use a trial and error process in estimating footing plan dimensions (L,B). Select the larger initial dimensions based on a) maximum vertical load and allowable soil bearing pressure, and b) maximum vertical load with overturning moment and maximum soil bearing pressure allowed for wind and earthquake load conditions. a. Maximum vertical load only BL = P qa
(Eq. 200-2)
b.
Maximum vertical load with overturning Assume e = Mb/P > L/6 3 (L/2 - e) qaB/2 = P (L/2 - e)B = 2P/3qa
5.
Select a footing thickness, t, and pedestal dimensions (a,b). If the pedestal supports a steel column, the column base plate size and anchor bolt require-
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Fig. 200-7
Footing Force Translation
Fig. 200-8
Footing Force Transformation and Soil
ments will dictate minimum rectangular pedestal dimensions (a,b) or round pedestal radius (r). The footing thickness, t, in inches can be estimated from beam shear (V) and Figure 200-9. L t - ----- , lb ft V = 1.7q a - 2 12
(Eq. 200-3)
V c = 2 f c ( 12t )
(Eq. 200-4)
Where Vc = allowable shear in the concrete
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Fig. 200-9
Free Body Diagram for Estimating Footing Thickness t
V = Vc L t 1.7q a -- = 24t f c - ---- 2 12 1.7q a t -------------- + 24t f c = 0.85q a L 12 0.85q a L t = ----------------------------------1.7q a ------------ + 24 f c 12 where: t = thickness of footing, in. L = length of footing in direction of overturning, ft. qa = allowable soil bearing pressure, psf. fc = compressive strength of concrete, psi. 6. Compute the weight, Wt, of footing, pedestal, and of the soil over the footing. The unit weight of normal weight reinforced concrete is 150 pcf. The unit weight, , of soil will be given in the soils report. However, if not given, use 100 pcf. Be sure to use consistent units for the variables in the following equations and the submerged weights if the water table is above the bottom of the footing (from Figure 200-7, Footing Force Translation.)
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a.
Rectangular pedestal W t = [ BLt + ( D + h t ) ab ] 150 + ( BL ab ) ( D t )

(Eq. 200-5)
b.
Round pedestal W t = [ BLt + ( D + h t ) r 2 ] 150 + ( BL r 2 ) ( D t )

(Eq. 200-6)
7.
Calculate the factor of safety against overturning. The applied load P plus the footing, pedestal and soil weight, Wt, should provide a minimum factor of safety (F.S.) against overturning of 1.5. The factor of safety is often called stability ratio (S.R.). The stability ratio equals Resisting Moment (Mr) divided by Overturning Moment (Mo). Sum the moments about point zero in Figure 200-7. Mr = L ( P + Wt ) 2
(Eq. 200-7)
Mo = Mb S.R. = M r M o 1.5 For combined footings, the resisting and overturning moments are determined by considering the loads from all columns. 8. Calculate the soil-bearing pressure. Figure a new eccentricity, e, using Mo and P+Wt e = Mo ( P + Wt )
(Eq. 200-8)
From the previously estimated footing dimensions (L,B) calculate the maximum soil bearing pressure, qmax, which must be less than or equal to the allowable bearings, qa, and the minimum soil bearing pressure, qmin. The allowable soil bearing may usually be increased for seismic or wind loads. This is generally given in the soils report. Case I eL6 q max = ( P + W t ) A + M o L 2I = ( P + W t ) A + ( 6M o BL 2 ) q a
(Eq. 200-9)
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q min = ( P + W t ) A 6M o BL 2
(Eq. 200-10)
where: A = plan area of footing = BL I = moment of inertia of plan area of footing about the overturning axis = BL3/12 P = applied vertical load Wt = weight of footing plus pedestal plus weight of soil over the footing Case II e>L6 q max = 2 ( P + W t ) [ 3B ( L 2 e ) ] q a
(Eq. 200-11)
q min = 0
(Eq. 200-12)
Figure 200-10 illustrates the soil bearing pressure distribution for the two ranges of eccentricity e. In determining soil bearing pressure, first determine the gross soil pressure using the full weight of the concrete and soil above the footing. Then determine the net soil pressure by subtracting the weight of the soil above the base of the footing. The unit weight of soil will be given in the soils report. However, if it is not given use 100 pcf. 9. Detail the footing reinforcement as discussed next.
Structural Design of Footing

1. When the plan dimensions of the footing have been established the footing concrete design can proceed. The concrete design should be based on ACI 318. For this purpose the loads must be factored as prescribed in Section 9.2 of ACI 318-89. Case I D+L Pu or Mu = 1.4D + 1.7L Case II D+L+W Pu or Mu = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)
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Fig. 200-10 Soil Bearing Pressure Distribution
Case III D+W Pu or Mu = 0.9D + 1.3W Case IV D+L+E Pu or Mu = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.87E) Case V D+E Pu or Mu = 0.9D + 1.43E where: Pu = factored vertical load, lb. Mu = factored overturning moment, lb-ft. D = dead load, lb. for Pu, lb-ft. for Mu L = live load, lb. for Pu, lb-ft. for Mu W = wind load, lb. for Pu, lb-ft. for Mu E = seismic load, lb. for Pu, lb-ft. for Mu
April 2004
200-24
Note Cases III and V are intended primarily for stability against overturning of the superstructure. Do not use Case V where the live load, L, is a substantial part of the total load used in computing seismic load, E. 2. Calculate the soil bearing pressures using the factored vertical loads and or moments, and the equations in step 8 of Spread Footing Design Procedure, Footing Size above. Sketch the factored soil bearing pressures in the manner outlined in Figure 200-10. Determine the maximum factored applied vertical load, Pu, at top of footing and the maximum footing shear and moment due to the factored soil pressure. The load, Pu, is used in the design of the footing for punching shear. The footing must be designed to resist shear and bending at the critical sections illustrated in Figure 200-11. Figure 200-12 shows the free body diagrams for beam shear and moment.
3.
Fig. 200-11 Critical Sections for Shear and Moment
From Figure 200-12, Vu = [(quo + quv) / 2]B(L/2 - d - a/2)

(Eq. 200-13)
or substituting r for a/2,
200-25
April 2004
Fig. 200-12 Free Body Diagrams for Shear and Moment
Vu = [(quo + quv) / 2]B(L/2 - d- r)

(Eq. 200-14)
That is, the shear, Vu, is obtained from trapezoidal soil bearing distribution. Mu = qum(L/2 - a/2)2B/2 + (quo - qum)(L/2 - a/2)2 B/3
(Eq. 200-15)
or substituting r for a/2, Mu=qum(L/2 - r)2B/2 + (quo - qum)(L/2 - r)2 B/3

(Eq. 200-16)
That is, the moment, Mu, is composed of rectangular and triangular soil bearing distributions.
April 2004
200-26
4.
Check the preliminary footing thickness, t, to resist punching shear and beam shear at the critical sections without shear reinforcement as shown in Figure 200-11. a. Punching (two-way) shear 4- 1 f b d V c = 2 + ---c o
c
s d -------- + 2 f c b o d bo Pu 4 f c b o d V u = ----
(Eq. 200-17)
b.
Beam (one-way) shear Vu V c = 2 f c b w d -----

(Eq. 200-18)
where: s = 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns, 20 for corner columns, i.e., critical sections with 4, 3, or 2 sides respectively c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. 1) rectangular pedestal c = a/b 2) round pedestal c = 1 bo = perimeter of critical section for punching shear 1) rectangular pedestal bo = 2 (a + b + 2d), in. 2) round pedestal bo = (2r + d), in. bw = footing width for beam shear, in fc = 28-day compressive concrete strength, psi d = distance from edge of footing (compression fiber) to centroid of tension reinforcement, in. Vu = shear force at critical section due to factored soil pressure Pu = factored applied vertical load at top of pedestal = strength reduction factor for shear (0.85) 5. Design the footing to resist the bending moment due to the soil pressure resulting from factored loads. Figure 200-13 lists reinforcing steel bar properties.
200-27
April 2004
Case I Footing thickness known, amount of reinforcing steel to be determined. Use minimum footing, d, required for punching shear or beam shear, whichever is greater. Footing thickness may also be limited by underground obstructions or other considerations. f c 2 f c Mu f c - 0.85 ----- 1.7 -------------------- = 0.85 ----fy fy f y 2 bd 2
(Eq. 200-19)
where: = ratio of tension reinforcement =As/bd As = area of tension reinforcement, in.2 b = width of footing at critical section for moment, in. fy = yield strength of reinforcing steel, 60,000 psi Mu = moment due to soil pressure resulting from factored loads, lb-in. = strength reduction factor for flexure (0.9) min = 200/fy optimum 0.015
Fig. 200-13 Properties of Steel Reinforcing Bars Bar Size

#3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11 #14
(1)
Nominal Diameter, in
0.375 0.500 0.625 0.75 0.875 1.000 1.128 1.270 1.410 1.693 2.257
Weight lb/ft
0.376 0.668 1.043 1.502 2.044 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313 7.65 13.60
Cross-Sectional Area, in2

0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56 2.25 4.00
#181
(1) #14 and #18 bars are used primarily as column reinforcement and are rarely used in beams.
April 2004
200-28
Case II Amount of reinforcing steel is given or assumed; footing thickness to be determined. This situation may occur where footing thickness is not restricted but it is desirable to limit the amount of reinforcing steel by limiting the reinforcement ratio r to a value near the minimum. The minimum footing thickness should be 10 inches. Mu fy - ------- b f y 1 0.59 ---- f c
(Eq. 200-20)
d =
6.
Provide shrinkage and temperature reinforcement s, normal to flexural reinforcement on top and bottom footing faces in both directions equal to 0.0014 times gross cross-sectional concrete area. The amount of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement need not be more than 0.4 in2/ft.
At
Example Problem, Spread Footing Design Footing Size

1. Calculate applied loads. Given: a. Loads at top of pedestal Vertical, P Dead Operating Seismic Horizontal (shear), V Dead Operating Seismic Moment, M Dead Operating Seismic 15 k-ft 10 k-ft 250 k-ft 3k 2k 25 k 50 k 75 k 5k
200-29
April 2004
b.
Material Concrete, fc = 3,000 psi Reinf. steel, fy = 60,000 psi Soil - firm sand Unit weight, = 110 lb/ft3 Gross allowable bearing, qg a = 4500 psf. With 1/3 increase for wind or earthquake loading, qg a = 6000 psf. Net allowable bearing, qn a , equals 4500 minus 110D. With 1/3 increase for wind or earthquake loading, qn a = 6,000 - 146.67D.
c. 2.
Water table 10 ft. below grade
Choose minimum depth of footing (see Figure 200-14).

Fig. 200-15 Load Translations
Fig. 200-14 Minimum Depth of Footing
3.
Translate loads to bottom of footing using Figure 200-15 and the values below: P V = 50D + 75op + 5E = 130 k = 3D + 2op + 25E = 30 k
April 2004
200-30
Mb
=15D + 10op + 250E +(3D + 2op + 25E) 5 = 30D + 20op + 375E = 425 k-ft
4.
Estimate the footing plan dimensions. a. Maximum vertical load only BL = P/qa = 130/4.5 = 29 ft2 L = 29/B b. Maximum vertical load with overturning e = Mb/P = 425/130 = 3.27 ft. (L/2 - e)B = 2P/3 x 1.33qa (L/2 - 3.27)B = 2 x 130/3 x 1.33 x 4.5 = 14.45 L = (14.45/B + 3.27) 2 = 28.9/B + 6.54 By inspection, method (b) controls. L = 28.9/6 + 6.54 = 11.36 ft. Try L = 11 ft, B = 6 ft. L/6 = 1.83 < e = 3.27 ft. Therefore, the assumption is okay.
5.
Select footing thickness, t, in. 0.85q a L t = ----------------------------------1.7q a ------------ + 24 f c 12 ( 0.85 ) ( 4500 ) ( 11 ) = --------------------------------------------------------( 1.7 ) ( 4500 ) ---------------------------- + 24 3000 12 = 21.6 inches. Try t = 22 in. d = t - 3 in. clr. - 1/2 rebar = 22 - 3 - (~0.5 in.) = 18.5 inches to center of rebar
200-31
April 2004
6.
Compute weight of footing, pedestal, and soil above footing. Wt = [BLt + (D + h - t) ab]150 + (BL - ab) (D - t) 110 = [6 x 11 x 22/12 + (4 + 1 - 22/12) x 1.75 x 1.333]150 + (6 x 11 - 1.75 x 1.333) (4 - 22/12)110 = 19,255 + 15,175 = 34,430 lb
7.
Calculate the factor of safety against overturning. Resisting moment, Mr = L(P + Wt)/2 Mr = 11 (130 + 34.4)/2 = 904.2 k-ft Overturning moment, Mo = Mb = 425 k-ft. S.R. = 904.2/425 = 2.13 > 1.5 The safety factor is okay.
8.
Calculate gross and net soil pressures using the values above and Figure 200-16. a. Gross pressure e = Mo/(P + Wt) = 425/(130 + 34.4) = 2.59 ft. > L/6 = 11/6 = 1.83 ft. Therefore, Case II controls. qmax = 2(P + Wt)/[3B(L/2 - e)] = 2 (164.4) / [3 x 6(11/2 - 2.59)] = 6.28 ksf > 6 ksf The result is no good. b. Net pressure qna = 6,000 - 146.67 x 4 = 5,413 psf/1,000 = 5.413 ksf Wnet = Wt - LBD = 34,432 - 11 x 6 x 4 x 110 = 5,392 lb e = 425/(130 + 5.39) = 3.14 ft. > L/6 = 1.83 ft. Therefore, Case II controls. qmax = 2(130 + 5.39)/[3 x 6(11/2 - 3.14)] = 6.37 ksf >qna = 5.413 ksf The result is no good.
April 2004
200-32
Try L = 12 ft, B = 6 ft. Wt = [6 x 12 x 22/12 + (4 + 1 - 22/12) 1.75 x 1.33]150 + (6 x 12 - 1.75 x 1.33) (4 - 22/12) 110 = 20,908 + 16,604 = 37,512 lb Wnet = 37,512 - 12 x 6 x 4 x 110 = 5,832 lb Mr = 12 x (130 + 5.832)/2 = 815.0 k-ft. S.R. = 815/425 = 1.92 > 1.5 The safety factor is okay. e = 425/(130 + 5.8) = 3.13 ft. > L/6 = 3.13 ft. > L/6 = 12/6 = 2 ft. Therefore, Case II controls. qmax = 2 x 135.8/3 x 6(12/2 - 3.13) = 5.26 ksf < qna = 5.413 ksf The result is okay. 9. Detail the footing reinforcement.
Fig. 200-16 Soil Bearing Pressure Calculation
200-33
April 2004
Structural Design of Footing

1. Factored loads By inspection it is obvious that loading Case IV controls, i.e. D + L + E Pu or Mu = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.87E) Pu = 0.75 [1.4(D + Wt) + 1.7L + 1.87E] = 0.75 [1.4(50 + 37.5) + 1.7 x 75 + 1.87 x 5] = 194.5 k Mu = 0.75(1.4 x 30 + 1.7 x 20 + 1.87 x 375) = 582.9 k-ft 2. Calculate soil pressure using factored loads (see Figure 200-17). e = Mu/Pu = 582.9/194.5 = 3 ft. > L/6 = 12/6 = 2 ft. qu = 2Pu / [3B(L/2 - e)] = 2 x 194.5 / [3 x 6(12/2 - 3)] = 7.2 ksf
Fig. 200-17 Soil Bearing Pressure Calculation Using Factored Loads
FTG 3.0' 3.0'
GRADE
194.5
7.2 ksf
3x3.0= 9.0' 12'
3.0'
3.
Determine maximum factored applied vertical load, Pu, at the top of the footing and maximum footing shear and moment (see Figures 200-18 and 200-19).
April 2004
200-34
Fig. 200-18 Free Body Diagram for Beam Shear
Fig. 200-19 Free Body Diagram for Moment
FTG 1.542' a/2 3.58'
GRADE
7.2 ksf q
uv
5.42'
9.0'
At top of pedestal Pu d a/2 = 0.75 (1.4 x 50 + 1.7 x 75 + 1.87 x 5) = 155.1 k = 18.5 in. = 1.542 ft. = (1'9")/2 = 10.5" = 0.875
L/2 - d - a/2 = 12/2 - 1.542 - 0.875 = 3.58 ft. 9 - 3.58 = 5.42 quv Vu a/2 = (5.42/9.0)7.2 = 4.34 ksf = [(7.2 + 4.34)/2] 3.58 x 6 = 123.9 k = 0.875 ft.
12/2 - 0.875 = 5.125 ft. 9 - 5.125 = 3.875 ft. qum Mu = (3.875/9.0)7.2 = 3.1 ksf = 3.1 x 5.1252 x 6/2 + (7.2 - 3.1) x 5.1252 x 6/3 = 244.3 + 215.4 = 459.7 k-ft
200-35
April 2004
4.
Check preliminary footing thickness for punching and beam shear without shear reinforcement. a. Punching Shear
Pu = 155.1 k c = a/b = 1.75/1.33 = 1.32 < 2 s d ( 40 ) ( 18.5 ) -------- = ---------------------------------------------------- = 5 > 2 bo 2 ( 21 + 16 + 2 18.5 ) V c = 4 f c b o d = 4 3000 ( 18.5 ) ( b o = 2 [ 21 + 16 + 2 ( 18.5 ) ] ) = 4 3000 ( 18.5 ) ( 148 in. ) = 599 ,900 lb Pu 155.1 - = -----------V u = ---- 0.85 = 182.5k < V c = 599.9k The result is okay. b. Beam shear Vc = 2 f c bw d = 2 3 ,000 6 12 18.5 = 145 ,900 lb V u = 123.9 0.85 = 145.8 k < 145.9 k The result is okay. 5. Design the footing for moment (see Figure 200-20)
Fig. 200-20 Footing Reinforcement
April 2004
200-36
Mu = 459.7 k-ft Case I - (t = 22"), d = 18.5"

1 f c 2 1.7f c M u -f c - 0.85 ----- -------------------- = 0.85 ----- 2 2 fy fy f bd 2 y 1 3 2 ( 1.7 ) ( 3 ) ( 459.7 ) ( 12 ) -3 - ----------------------------------------------------- 0.85 ----= 0.85 ----- 2 60 60 ( 0.9 ) 60 2 ( 6 ) ( 12 ) 18.5 2
200 - = 0.0033 = 0.00437 > min = -------------60000 Area of steel, As = bd = 0.00437 x 12 x 18.5 = 0.97 in2/ft Choose #8 bars Cross-sectional area = 0.79 in2 from Figure 200-13 Space bars at 0.79 x 12/0.97 = 9.77 in., say 10 inches o.c. Therefore, a 22-inch thick footing is okay. 6. Provide shrinkage and temperature reinforcement. Ats = 0.0014 x 12 x 22 = 0.37 in2/ft/face Choose #6 bars Cross-sectional area = 0.44 in2 Space bars at 0.44 x 12/0.37 = 14.27 in., say 14 inches o.c. perpendicular to flexular reinforcement on the bottom face.
234 Piles and Piled Foundations

The purpose of this discussion is to familiarize you with the materials and advantages and disadvantages of the different types of pile foundations. Pile foundation design considerations are summarized. Model Specification CIV-MS-4841 is included in the specification section of this manual. This specification describes the materials, equipment, and requirements for piling installation.
Types of Piles
Load-bearing piles generally can be grouped into two categories; end-bearing piles and friction piles. End-bearing piles are those where loads are transmitted to the soil through the surface area at the pile tip. Piles that are driven to bedrock are included in this category. Friction piles transfer the foundation loads to the soil through shear on the surface area along the length of the pile.
200-37
April 2004
Depending upon the soil conditions at the site, end-bearing piles can develop additional capacity from friction and friction piles can develop added capacity from endbearing.
Pile Materials
Piles are available in different materials. Figure 200-4 illustrates the different types and configurations of piles. The most common are: Timber. Timber piles are cut from tree trunks and driven with the small end down. Composite. Composite piles are a combination of timber and concrete or steel. Not as common as other types of piles because they are difficult to splice. Good for light loads. Concrete. Concrete piles are generally available in two types, (1) precast, prestressed or nonprestressed and (2) cast-in-place. Steel. Steel piles can come in a variety of shapes. The most common are pipe, pipe filled with concrete, and steel HP-shapes.
Timber Piles
Advantages. Timber piles are generally readily available on short notice, are economical and easy to handle, and their lengths can be easily altered or cut, and permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay. Disadvantages. Timber piles are difficult to obtain in long lengths: typical maximum economic lengths are 60 feet. They are difficult if not impossible to splice satisfactorily and hard to drive into or through hard formations because of brooming of the fibers at the pile tip. Consequently, they are not suitable for end bearing under heavy loads. Timber piles have shorter life than other materials unless they are treated with wood preservative.
Concrete PilesPrecast Prestressed or Nonprestressed

Advantages. Precast prestressed or nonprestressed concrete piles are high strength piles capable of carrying heavy loads and have a high resistance to chemical and biological attack. If necessary, they can be formed with a pipe in the center to facilitate jetting (see Piling Installation below). Disadvantages. The length of concrete is difficult to alter after they are manufactured. Long length concrete piles are difficult to handle and drive unless prestressed because of their weight and the care that must be taken in handling to prevent breakage. Concrete piles have relatively low tensile strength and often require a long lead time for procurement.
Concrete PilesCast-in-Place with Shell

Advantages. The shell is easily handled and a great deal of flexibility in the length of the piles is provided as the shells can be furnished in short lengths and assem-
April 2004
200-38
bled at the job site. Excess reinforcement to resist the handling and driving stresses encountered with precast piles is eliminated and it is relatively easy and inexpensive to install additional piles. Disadvantages. Very low tensile strength. If concrete not reinforced or under-reinforced, slight movement of the earth or uplift on the pile may cause breakage or failure.
Steel Piles
Advantages. Non-displacement (open-ended pipe or HP-piles) steel piles are generally considered best for driving through debris or boulder fields. Steel piles are easily spliced due to their weldability. Large diameter pipe and HP-piles, because of their high strength, can be driven to depths in excess of 200 feet. Disadvantages. Susceptible to corrosion unless protected by protective coating or cathodic protection where oxygen or acids are present in the ground.
Composite PilesTimber and Concrete

Advantages. Lower total pile cost. Timber normally totally submerged and therefore, less susceptible to decay. Disadvantages. Joining the two types of material is difficult. Joint prone to damage during driving. Pile capacity is limited by the weaker of two component materials.
Pile Foundation Design

The focus of this section is to outline the steps that can be followed and the considerations involved in the design of piling and pile-supported foundations. Initially, as with all foundation design, the design data must be assembled and the loading criteria established. There are usually two primary reasons for choosing a piled foundation: 1. 2. The bearing capacity of the near-surface soils for the anticipated loads is inadequate. Excessive or unacceptable, total and differential settlement is anticipated.
The soils report should provide recommendations of the foundation type for specific items or pieces of equipment.
Selection of Pile Type

Selection of the type of piling to be used involves consideration of many factors. These include: Type, size and weight of structure or piece of equipment Physical properties of soil at site. For instance sand vs clay Depth to supporting soil layer
200-39
April 2004
Possible variations in depth to the supporting soil (soil borings will help determine this). Concrete piles could be expensive if different lengths are required. Availability of material for piles Number of piles required Comparative costs of different types in-place Durability required Height of water table. Corrosivity of soil.
It is not practical to make specific rules for the selection of pile type as the above factors may occur in many combinations.
Pile Capacity
The geotechnical consultants soils report will provide recommendations for type of pile, pile length, and pile capacity for both single pile and pile group. The soils report will provide pile capacity curves for recommended types and sizes of piles for the given site soil conditions. Capacity curves can be prepared for compressive, tensile (uplift), and lateral loads on the piles. Typical pile capacity curves are shown in Figure 200-21. Compression. Compression capacity for friction piles increases with depth and outer surface area of piles. Maximum capacity is not developed until a certain depth is reached. Cohesive soils can create downdrag, or negative friction, which throws additional load on the pile thus decreasing pile capacity. Tension (Uplift). Uplift capacity for friction piles increases with increasing depth and with outer surface area. Lateral. Lateral capacity is limited by pile stresses or deflection of pile top which in turn depend on the section modulus of the pile section. Deflection of pile top depends on whether the pile is free to rotate (hinged) at the pile cap or restrained (fixed).
Factors of Safety
Pile capacity curves are usually prepared with built-in factors of safety recommended by the soils consultant. In the absence of recommendations the following factors of safety against the ultimate pile capacity are recommended for different loading conditions. Axial compression loads: Minimum factor of safety of 2.0 (dead load plus operating load) Axial tension (uplift) loads: Minimum factor of safety of 3.0 (static loads) Minimum factor of safety of 1.5 (short duration loads)
April 2004
200-40
Fig. 200-21 Typical Pile Capacity Curves
Temporary, wind, or seismic loading: Minimum factor of safety of 1.5
Pile Cap Design

After the pile type, lengths, and arrangement have been selected and designed, the pile cap is then designed. The pile cap is designed in accordance with ACI 318 for bending, shear, settlement, and stability. Stability refers to the stability of a group of piles versus the stability of each single pile. Pile caps are most often designed as a rigid foundation. Punching shear usually controls thickness.
Piling Equipment and Installation

Model Specification CIV-MS-4841 covers specific requirements for the equipment and installation of foundation piles on land.
200-41
April 2004
Pile Driving Evaluation

It is important to maintain driving records for each pile installed, including the pile driving equipment. The pile driving record can be used to evaluate the in-place capacity of the pile after it has been installed. Use of Standard Forms CIV-EF-627 and CIV-EF-629 is essential when installing piling.
235 Foundations for High-temperature Equipment

Special considerations should be taken when designing foundations for hightemperature equipment. When furnaces are mounted on concrete slabs at grade or concrete slabs supported by piles, overheating of the slab and piles is a potential problem. These high temperatures may extend to a significant depth. Similarly, high temperatures in tanks may result in general heating of concrete slabs and piles. For hot tank foundations, additional information may be found in the Tank Manual.
Concrete Slabs
Concrete shows a considerable loss in strength at high temperatures. It will lose 40% of its modulus of elasticity when heated to 500F. Therefore, floors of furnaces at grade and slabs supporting hot tanks or stacks must be insulated or ventilated to prevent excessively high temperatures in concrete foundations. For temperatures up to about 400F, high quality ordinary concrete should be adequate. If the concrete is exposed to higher temperatures, the above special design considerations are required.
Timber Piles
If the foundation slab must be pile-supported, as is common at many refinery locations, the additional problem of overheating wood piles must be considered. Wood will char if exposed to temperatures above 150F for prolonged periods. The resulting damage to the timber piles may cause failure of the foundation.
Examples
Piling under crude unit furnaces F-1 and F-2 at Salt Lake showed severe charring and reduction of cross-section at the butts as well as signs of delignification. This caused loads from the slab to be transmitted directly to the ground and resulted in soil settlements up to 4-1/2 inches. A similar problem developed with a pile-supported stack foundation at Richmond after several years, resulting in settling and tipping of the stack. A 125,000-barrel residuum tank in Mobile, Alabama, was supported by 729 timber piles. The top 6 inches of the piles were cast into the concrete slab and, thus, were directly in contact with temperatures as high as 212F, causing serious charring type degradation and subsequent loss of compressive strength. The pile sections from just below the charred top section down to 10 feet suffered significant loss of strength due to being immersed in water heated above 150F for extended periods of time. Fifty piles collapsed because of loss in pile strength. The tank bottom developed a tear over 20 feet, dumping 100,000 barrels of residuum.
April 2004
200-42
Design Recommendations
Special consideration must be given to all pile supported furnaces, stacks and tanks where the foundations may be subjected to temperatures above 150F. The following alternatives should be considered: Where soil conditions permit, use a mat foundation to avoid the use of piles. Where piling is required: a. For small diameter tanks (i.e., diameters less than 30 feet) or stacks and furnaces with similar areas, composite piles with 10 to 12 foot followers may be used. The limiting area may be increased if it can be demonstrated (through soil studies, heat transfer calculations, field measurements, experience, etc.) that timber piles will not be subjected to temperatures above 150F. For hot foundations with large areas, use only steel or concrete piles. Timber piles should not be used under large hot tanks.
b.
Avoid direct contact of piles with concrete when the temperature is greater than 400F.
236 Foundations for Vibrating Machinery

All stationary rotating or reciprocating machinery requires a foundation. These include pumps, turbines, large fans, reciprocating compressors and rotary compressors. Foundations provide firm support for machines and serve to isolate them from surrounding structures and to absorb or inhibit vibration. The design of machinery foundations is complex and a knowledgeable civil engineer should be consulted.
Design Considerations
Several special design considerations should be given to the design of foundations for vibrating machinery to improve the dynamic behavior of the foundation. Some of the more important factors are: Use as large a foundation-soil contact area as practical, but the soil bearing pressure should not exceed 50 percent of the allowable soil bearing for static loads. For piled foundations, no reduction in allowable pile capacity is required. The horizontal eccentricity, in the transverse direction, between the centroid of the soil contact area and the center of gravity of the foundation plus machine from a vertical plane through the centroid of the soil contact area, should not exceed 0.05 times foundation width. See Figure 200-22. The horizontal eccentricity, in the longitudinal direction, between the centroid of the soil contact area and the center of gravity of the foundation plus machine from a vertical plane through the centroid of the soil contact area, should not exceed 0.1 times the foundation length. See Figure 200-22.
200-43
April 2004
Fig. 200-22 Vibrating Equipment FoundationsAllowable Eccentricities
Size the foundation block to minimize the mass moment of inertia of the machine-foundation system about a horizontal axis through the centroid of the soil contact area. This can be accomplished by using minimum pedestal height. Foundations for vibrating machinery should be independent of adjacent foundations and buildings. Foundations for vibrating machinery, such as reciprocating compressors, should bear on undisturbed soil as much as possible. Multiple machinery foundations are sometimes unavoidable. Ideally each vibrating machine should have its own independent foundation. When space is limited or operating considerations dictate otherwise, several machines may be installed on a common foundation. The Company has installed multiple machines on a common mat with no known adverse effects. However, there is a risk that future foundations could have vibration problems because eccentricities were not included in the design. Appendix A, Design of Foundations for Vibrating Machinery, makes the following recommendations for multiple engine foundations: a. b. c. Use a common mat. Design the mat to be rigid. Compute the dynamic parameters for each pedestal as if they were not connected by a common mat.
April 2004
200-44
Design the foundation to resist unbalanced forces calculated in accordance with guidelines in the Compressor Manual or the General Machinery Manual. Proportion the foundation to limit the allowable amplitude of vibration for any point on the foundation to the smaller of the maximum value specified by the machine manufacturer or that allowed by Appendix A of the manual.
For smaller machinery not subject to severe vibration, the following guidelines can be used to select the foundation size: Width of the foundation should exceed the width of the machine base by 12 inches. Length of the foundation should exceed the length of the machine base by 12 inches. Foundation depth should be selected to provide foundation weight not less than 4 times the machine weight including machine skid.
For detailed design, please refer to Appendix A of this manual, Design of Foundations for Vibrating Machinery.
237 Retaining Walls

Retaining Wall Types
The most common types of retaining walls were illustrated in Figure 200-5. They are: Gravity Semigravity Cantilever Counterfort Proprietary (not illustrated)
Calculate Earth Pressures

The properties of the soil to be retained must be known to determine the magnitude of the loads that a retaining wall or structure must be designed to resist. In addition to vertical forces from the weight of the retaining wall and the backfill material, lateral soil pressures exert loads on a retaining wall. There are two kinds of lateral soil pressure: active and passive. Active soil pressure is the pressure exerted by the soil against the wall caused by the soils tendency to slip and seek its natural slope (angle of repose). Passive soil pressure is that pressure which develops in the soil in response to the wall moving toward the soil mass. Figure 200-23 shows how active and passive soil pressures are calculated.
200-45
April 2004
Fig. 200-23 Computation of Simple Active and Passive Pressures
In the absence of soil property data determined by the soils consultant, the ranges of values in Figure 200-24 may be used for cohesive and cohesionless soils.
Fig. 200-24 Properties of Cohesive and Cohesionless Cohesive Soils
Unit weight, pcf Angle of internal friction, , degrees Cohesion, psf 100 - 115 0 - 20 200 - 2000
Cohesionless Soils
115 - 135 28 - 34 0
April 2004
200-46
Design Procedure, Cantilever Walls

The following steps may be used to design a cantilever retaining wall. Refer to the Figure 200-25 for principal terms used with retaining walls.
Fig. 200-25 Retaining Wall Terms Fig. 200-26 Tentative Design Dimensions for Cantilever Retaining Wall
1. 2. 3.
Select tentative dimensions of retaining wall in accordance with guidelines shown in Figure 200-26. Determine active soil pressure as shown in Figure 200-23. Determine passive soil pressure where appropriate. Passive resistance is often disregarded in evaluating retaining wall stability on the assumption that the backfill is already in place behind the wall prior to placement of the front fill. Find the vertical forces against the base. Calculate moments about the toe of the retaining wall of the vertical forces and the active soil pressure. Calculate the location and eccentricity of the vertical force resultant on the base. If the eccentricity, e, of the vertical force is less than B/6, the pressure distribution is trapezoidal. If e is greater than B/6, the pressure distribution is triangular. Calculate the maximum (at the toe) and minimum (at the heel) soil pressures acting on the base of the foundation. To calculate these pressures take moments of the vertical forces and active soil pressure about the toe of the retaining wall. The maximum pressure should not exceed the allowable soil bearing pressure.
4. 5. 6.
7.
200-47
April 2004
8.
Check stability of the retaining wall about the toe against overturning. The factor of safety against overturning should be a minimum of 1.5 for cohesionless soils and 2.0 for cohesive soils. Check sliding resistance of the retaining wall. Sliding resistance is developed by: a. b. Passive resistance of soil in front of wall Coefficient of friction between the base and the soil. The coefficient can be taken as 0.55 for sands and gravels, 0.45 for silty sands and gravels, and 0.35 for silt. A shear key beneath the base of the wall.
9.
c.
The factor of safety against sliding should also be a minimum of 1.5 for cohesionless soils and 2.0 for cohesive soils. References 3, 4, and 10 provide detailed design procedures for retaining walls.
238 Deadman Anchors

Deadman anchors are commonly used to anchor guys for stacks or towers. They are also used to anchor tie rods for sheet piling anchorage. Deadman anchors are large concrete blocks or beams buried beneath the ground surface. Standard Form CIVEF-336 shows typical details for guys and deadmen. The capacity of concrete deadman anchors is developed from: Weight of the concrete anchor block Weight of soil above the anchor block Net passive soil pressure
Concrete deadman anchors should be designed with a factor of safety of not less than 2.0 against the working anchorage load. Figure 200-27 shows a typical cross-section of a concrete deadman anchor.
Design Procedure, Deadman Anchors

The design procedure for deadman anchors is one of trial and error. Once the anchor dimensions are selected and a burial depth established, it is not difficult to deter-
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Fig. 200-27 Concrete Deadman Anchors
mine the capacity of the tentative design. Refer to Figures 200-23 and 200-28 for identification of the following terms used in the deadman anchor design. P Pv Ph = = = resultant of the maximum guy forces vertical component of maximum guy force P horizontal component of maximum guy force P weight of the concrete anchor block weight of the soil above the anchor block W c + Ws width of concrete anchor block height of concrete anchor block length of concrete anchor block unit weight of soil, pcf buoyant unit weight of soil, pcf passive soil pressure active soil pressure angle of internal friction cohesion, psf dimension from ground surface to bottom of anchor block dimension from ground surface to top of anchor block dimension from ground surface to top of water table
Wc = Ws = Wt = x y L Pp Pa C H h = = = = = = = = = = =
hwt =
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The resistance to vertical force is provided by the weight of the anchor block and the weight of soil above the anchor block. Be sure to use total unit weights of the soil and concrete above the water table and buoyant unit weights below the water table. The resistance to horizontal force is the net passive soil pressure acting on the face of the concrete block. Determination of the net passive pressure acting on the anchor should be done as shown earlier in Figure 200-23. As in the design of retaining walls, the design and capacity of the deadman anchor is heavily influenced by the properties of the backfill material surrounding the anchor. Refer to Figure 200-24 for soil property values to be used in case actual values are not available.
Example Problem, Deadman Anchor Design

Determine the adequacy of the concrete deadman anchor shown in Figure 200-28 for the given tension in the guys.
Fig. 200-28 Concrete Deadman Anchor Design Example Dimensions Designation
Given: Soil Conditions: = 30 C = 0 psf = 110 pcf Water table at 6 ft. depth (hwt = 6 ft)
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Loads: P = 65 k Pv = 43 k Ph = 48 k Solution: Try block with dimensions: x = 8 ft y = 7 ft L = 10 ft h = 2 ft 1. Check resistance to vertical force (see Figure 200-29): Wc (above water table) = 8' x 10' x 4' x 150 pcf = 48,000 lb Wc (below water table) = 8' x 10' x 3' x (150 -62.4) = 21,000 lb Wc = 69,000 lb Ws = 8' x 10' x 2' x 110 pcf = 17,600 lb Total weight Wt = Wc + Ws = 69,000 + 17,600 = 86,600 lb 2. Check safety factors: Wt/Pv = 86.6/43 = 2.0 2.0 Wc/Pv = 69/43 = 1.6 Therefore, the safety factor is okay. 3. Check resistance to horizontal force: From Figure 200-23, for = 30 and C = 0, the coefficient of passive soil pressure Kp = 3.0. p (at z = 2') = KpZ = 3.0 x 110 pcf x 2' = 660 psf p (at z = 6') = 3.0 x 110 pcf x 6' = 1980 psf p (at z = H) = Kp [(H - hwt) '+ hwt ] = 3 [(9 - 6)(110-62.4) + 6(110)] = 2,408 psf Pp = (.5' x 4')(660 + 1980)L + (.5' x 3')(1980 + 2,408) L = 11,860 L If L = 10', Pp = 118,600 lb or 119 k 4. Check safety factor: Pp/Ph = 119/48 = 2.5 > 2.0 Therefore, the safety factor is okay.
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Fig. 200-29 Concrete Deadman Anchor Design Example, Soil Pressures
240 Anchor Bolts

The purpose of this section is to identify the types of anchor bolts commonly available and to describe their applications in foundation design and construction.
Types and Uses of Anchor Bolts

The two types of anchor bolts readily available and commonly used are discussed below. Cast-in-place Anchors. The most desirable and strongest type of anchor bolt, castin-place anchors should be specified whenever possible for new construction. The bolts are fabricated to ASTM A307 or A36 specifications and are set or placed in the concrete forms, with or without reinforcement, prior to placing the concrete. Post-installed Anchors. These anchors come in two types; expansion anchors and epoxy anchors. Expansion anchors are used most often to fasten equipment and structures to existing concrete or masonry walls, slabs and columns; epoxy anchors can substitute for expansion anchors.
241 Cast-In-Place Anchor Bolts

Cast-in-place anchor bolts are shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q68922. This section describes the design procedure and use of the standard drawing for the selection and layout of cast-in-place anchor bolts. An example illustrates the application of the standard drawing.
Introduction
Anchor bolts embedded in concrete foundations should be placed and sized so that the tension and shear capacities of an anchorage system are governed by the
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strength of the anchor bolts rather than by the strength of the concrete foundation. This approach results in a ductile connection that prevents sudden failure by allowing the anchor bolts to yield and gradually deform plastically before the concrete approaches its tensile capacity and fails suddenly. Ductile behavior is particularly important for connections designed to resist earthquake or other dynamic loads.
Standard Drawing GD-Q68922

Standard Drawing GD-Q68922 lists allowable anchor bolt loads and placement dimensions for various bolt diameters which are placed according to the two boltlayout cases shown. Case A: Anchor bolts placed in concrete foundations where reinforcement is parallel to the anchor bolt. In this case, loads are transferred from the bolt to the main reinforcement of the foundation. Case B: Anchor bolts are placed in concrete foundations where reinforcement is perpendicular to the anchor bolt. In this case, bolt loads must be resisted by the concrete strength alone. Concrete slabs, floors, and mat foundations are typical Case B examples. The standard drawings allowable loads are based on ASTM A-307 or A 36 bolts and concrete with a specified compressive strength, fc of 3,000 psi. High-strength bolts are not recommended because they require more embedment, spacing, and edge distance than A307 or A36 bolts. The standard anchor bolt drawing is not valid for high-strength bolts. See Appendix B for the design of highstrength bolts. The embedment length, edge distance, and bolt spacing listed on Standard Drawing GD-Q68922 are as follows: L E B B = = = = 12d 6d 13d for d < 1" 16d for 1" d < 2"
The bolt embedment length of twelve times the bolt diameter was used because (with the edge distance and bolt spacing shown on the standard drawing) the resistance to concrete failure increases very little with embedment depths beyond twelve bolt diameters. The edge distance of six times the bolt diameter is from the Uniform Building Code and will also meet the minimum edge distance needed to prevent lateral bursting failure (blowout) at the bolt head. The bolt spacing used is that needed to meet the required safety factors listed in Appendix B, given the edge distance and embedment lengths shown on the standard drawing. The tension capacities with parallel reinforcing and the allowable shear loads were determined according to the AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (1989 Edition), using the tensile stress area for tension and the root area for shear instead of the nominal area.
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The allowable shear loads for bolts larger than 1" diameter were limited by the concrete properties and were determined using the safety factor listed in Appendix B and the edge distance and bolt spacing listed on the standard drawing. The tension capacities for corner bolts and bolts without parallel reinforcing were based on concrete failure using the embedment depth, edge distance, and bolt spacing listed on the standard drawing. The factor of safety against concrete failure is that required for a ductile connection as listed in Appendix B. There are two graphs shown on the standard drawing: 1. An interaction graph (Figure 1) is given for a concrete failure or a combination concrete-and-bolt failure. This graph applies in all cases with the allowable forces shown on the standard drawing. Load combinations which fall within the curve are acceptable. A concrete strength adjustment graph (Figure 2) is given for concrete compressive strengths other than 3,000 psi. For the corner, and tension with Case B reinforcement values, this scaling graph is used by simply multiplying the allowable load values by the factor corresponding to the specified design concrete compressive strength. Since the allowable loads for the tension with parallel reinforcing and most of the shear values are based upon the steel strength of the bolt, these values cannot be increased beyond those shown on the standard drawing. They can, however, be decreased for concrete strengths below 3000 psi.
2.
The required reinforcement for the tension capacity with parallel reinforcing and the corner bolt values can be omitted by increasing PCR, the strength of the tension failure cone. The easiest way to satisfy this is to increase the edge distance. Therefore, if the edge distance used is 1/3 greater than that listed on the standard drawing, parallel reinforcing is not needed when using the tension capacity with parallel reinforcing and the corner bolt values. For example, with a 1" diameter bolt, if the edge distance (E) is greater than 8", then the allowable loads of 12,100 lbs and 8,400 lbs may be used without the parallel reinforcing typically required for the tension with parallel reinforcing and the corner bolt values. Anchor bolt sleeves may be used for anchor bolts greater than 5/8 inch diameter to allow for minor adjustment by bending. After installation, the sleeves are filled with grout, except in the case of vibrating equipment. The sleeves for vibrating equipment are filled with a pliable material other than grout. See Specification MAC-MS3907, Grouting of Machinery, for specific recommendations about fill material.
Anchor Bolt Nomenclature

The terms below appear on the standard drawing, within the text, or in Appendix B, and are defined as follows: ABT where: d = nominal bolt diameter (in) = = Tensile stress area of bolt (in2) 0.7854 (d-0.9743/N)2
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N ASR B E L P PA
= = = = = = =
number of threads per inch total area of reinforcing steel (in2) distance between two bolts measured from center of the bolts (in) distance to concrete edge measured from the center of the bolt (in) embedment length of the bolt (in) design tensile load on the bolt (lbs) allowable bolt tension - lesser of PB or PCR/2.7 (ductile connection) or PCR/4.0 (non-ductile connection) (lbs) allowable bolt capacity in tension based upon the steel properties of the bolt (lbs) bolt yield capacity (lbs) tensile capacity of the concrete cone reduced for spacing and edge interference (lbs) ultimate strength of the epoxy bond (lbs) design shear load on the bolt (lbs) allowable bolt shear, lesser of VB or VCR/1.9 (lbs) allowable bolt capacity in shear based upon the steel properties of the bolt (lbs) shear capacity of the concrete reduced for spacing and edge interference (lbs) nominal diameter of the reinforcing steel (in) specified compressive strength of the concrete (psi) short dimension of the hexagonal head or bottom plate of the bolt (in) development length required for the anchor bolt reinforcing steel (in) distance from the parallel reinforcing steel to the bolt center (in)
PB PBY
= =
PCR = PE V VA VB = = = =
VCR = db fc h ld r = = = = =
Design Procedure, Cast-in-Place Anchor Bolts

The design procedure outlined below describes the steps to follow in selecting and placing standard A307 or A36 anchor bolts in concrete foundations. This general procedure applies to cases covered by the standard drawing but not to alternatives and special conditions for different embedment lengths, bolt spacings, and edge distances. Restrictions limiting the placement of the anchor bolts may apply to certain installations. The interference from bolts spaced close together or placed close to the concrete edge will prevent the full development of the tension and/or shear failure cones in the concrete. This decreases tension and/or shear capacities of concrete. The loss in capacity can be compensated for by increasing the bolt embedment length, edge distance, or spacing. Refer to Appendix B of this manual for the discussion of special conditions.
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For anchor bolts, five basic design steps must be followed: 1) determine the loads; 2) select anchor bolt size; 3) check shear and tension interaction; 4) check bolt spacing, edge distance and embedment length; and 5) select final reinforcement. These steps follow. 1. Determine the loads. A design should begin by determining the loads to be placed on the anchor bolts and the limitations on physical placement. The anchor bolt load depends on the type of structure and the structural framing system, the magnitude of the applied loads, the number of anchor bolts, and the anchor bolt pattern. Anchor bolt loads should be determined by applying the appropriate analysis technique, computer program, or other recognized method. 2. Select anchor bolt size. Assuming that edge distance, bolt spacing, and embedment depth can be met, a bolt is selected by referring to Standard Drawing GD-Q68922. The allowable bolt loads are compared to the design loads. If loading is from earthquake or wind, allowable bolt loads may be increased by 33 percent. Bolt capacities are listed only for standard A307-or A36-type bolts with American standard hexagon heads. 3. Check shear and tension interaction. When tension and shear loads are present and act simultaneously on an anchor bolt, the bolt tensile and shear capacities must be reevaluated by referring to the interaction chart on Standard Drawing GD-Q68922. Values within the curve are OK. The interaction chart is based on the formula from the Uniform Building Code (UBC) and is listed below: P 5/3 V 5/3 -----+ ------ 1.0 P V
A A
(Eq. 200-21)
A larger bolt size is needed if this interaction equation cannot be satisfied. 4. Check bolt spacing, edge distance and embedment length. Bolt Spacing. The bolt spacing of the structures base plates and foundation should be compared to the allowable spacing given on the standard drawing. If bolt spacing requirements cannot be met, the anchors should be reconfigured by using fewer bolts of larger size.
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Edge Distance. For the selected bolt diameter, the edge distance given by the foundation design should be compared to the minimum edge distance allowed by the standard drawing. Embedment Length. The available embedment length allowed by the foundation design should be determined and compared to the required embedment length for the selected anchor bolt. Anchor bolt embedment cannot be reduced where the full capacity of the anchor bolt is required. If the foundation size cannot be increased to meet the spacing, edge distance, or embedment requirements, additional design steps are required. See Appendix B for these design concepts. 5. Select final reinforcement. Where reinforcing steel is required parallel to the bolt, the reinforcement must be developed on both sides of the failure surface. The parallel reinforcing steel selected for the anchor bolt should be compared to the amount required for the design of the pedestal. These requirements are not additive, and the larger of the two requirements controls. The reinforcing steel needed for the anchor bolt must be spaced evenly. If, for example, the required reinforcement for the anchor bolt is two #4 bars, and one #8 bar is already provided from the pedestal design, one #4 bar must still be placed 180 from the #8 bar at the same distance from the bolt. In practice, however, it is easier to ignore the contribution of the required pedestal reinforcement and simply add the additional steel required for the bolt. Development lengths, based on ACI 318-89, are shown on the standard drawing. The assumed failure surface is a cone which radiates toward the surface from the anchor bolt head at a 45 angle. A guide for the required reinforcement would be to provide an area of steel equal to the area of the bolt. Reinforcement should be evenly distributed around the bolt and no more than five bolt diameters or six inches, whichever is less, from the bolt center. The minimum clear spacing between the parallel reinforcing and the bolt should be one inch or the bolt diameter (d), whichever is greater. Reinforcing steel perpendicular to the bolt should be placed where the edge distance is less than the embedment length. This reinforcing steel should consist of continuous spirals of 3/8-inch (minimum) diameter bars with a pitch of 6 inches (maximum), or closed hoops of #4 bars (minimum) spaced at six inches starting two inches from the surface of the concrete and continuing to the embedment length of the bolt.
Anchor Bolt Pretensioning

Pretentioning of anchor bolts installed on certain equipment could enhance the performance of the bolt or the performance of the system. The recommended pretension load is one-third the tensile strength of the bolt. Anchor bolts may need to be re-tightened a week after the initial pretensioning to compensate for pre-load losses from strain relaxation within the system.
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Pretensioning of anchor bolts installed on the following equipment is recommended: Process towers over 100 feet tall or with a height-to-diameter ratio of 15 or more which are sensitive to lateral deflection due to wind. Reciprocating compressors or other pulsating or vibrating equipment.
Anchor bolts which are subjected to high thermal variance should not be pretensioned since they are susceptible to failure due to fatigue. Method of pretensioning. The following methods of bolt pretensioning may be utilized: Hydraulic Jacking. This is the most accurate method and is recommended if field condition permit its use. Turn-of-nut. This method is the easiest to perform and provides reasonable accuracy. Calibrated Torque Wrench. This method provides only a rough measure of the actual pretension load.
Example Problem: Cast-in-Place Anchor Bolts

Determine the anchor bolt diameter and the placement dimensions required to anchor the stacked exchangers to a reinforced concrete pedestal. Assume the number of anchor bolts is fixed. The stacked exchangers and pedestal are shown in Figures 200-30 and 200-31.
Fig. 200-30 Anchor Bolt Design Example
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Fig. 200-31 Anchor Bolt Design Example, Sections
Anchor bolt design Step 1 The loads shown below were found using the seismic design from Section 100 and the structures geometry. Loads on Bolts N-S Loads Shear/Bolt (V) Tension/Bolt (P) Shear/Bolt (V) Tension/Bolt (P) Step 2 Since the loads are seismic, the values on the standard anchor bolt drawing may be increased by one third. Try 1" diameter bolt. 10,400 lbs < 1.33 PA = 1.33 x 8,400 = 11,170 lbs 3,670 lbs < 1.33 VA = 1.33 x 5,500 = 7,320 lbs OK Step 3 The E-W loads are simultaneous and must be checked for combined loading. = 3,670 lbs = 0 lbs = 1,840 lbs = 10,400 lbs
E-W Loads (Simultaneous Loads)
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,400 = 0.93 P = 10 -------------------------------11 ,170 1.33P A V ,840 = 0.25 -----------------= 1 ------------1.33V A 7 ,320 Locating this point on the interaction graph (Figure 1) reveals that it is on the curve. Therefore, verify interaction numerically (0.93)5/3 + (0.25)5/3 = 0.99 < 1.0 OK Step 4 E given = B given = 7" 18" 6" 16" OK
It is assumed here that the pedestals height and foundation thickness are more than adequate for a 12" bolt embedment. Step 5 Reinforcement: The standard drawing requires parallel reinforcing for corner bolts. However, as stated earlier in this chapter, the reinforcement can be omitted if the edge distance used is one third greater than that listed on the standard drawing. The edge distance needed for omitting parallel reinforcement is 8". For this example problem, the edge distance will not be increased and reinforcing steel will be added. However, in most situations, increasing the edge distance will be preferred. a. Parallel Area of bolt = 0.606 in2 The pedestals reinforcing bars (seven #5s) are not within five bolt diameters of the bolt; therefore, they cannot be counted in providing reinforcement for the bolt. Try three reinforcing bars: 0.606 A SR bar = ------------ = 0.202 in 2 3 Try three #4 bars: A SR bar = 0.20 in 2 = 0.202 in 2 OK From geometry, the minimum distance to the bolt center is h db - + ---- = 2.00". The maximum distance to the bolt center is five bolt 1" + -2 2 diameters = 5 * 1" = 5". Place bars at a four inch radius (r) to the bolt center. Check development.
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From the standard drawing, the development length needed is 17" for a straight bar. The reinforcing bar needs to be developed on both sides of the failure surface. From geometry, this works out to be: ld + (r-h/2) = 20.3" above the bolt head and ld - (r-h/2) = 13.7" below the bolt head Values for h used in the above equations can be found in Appendix B of this manual. Since 20.3" is greater than the 12" bolt embedment length minus the 2" cover (L - Cover = 10"), try a hooked #4 bar. From the standard drawing, the development length needed for a hooked #4 bar is 8". The distance above the bolt head using a hooked bar needs to be: 8 + (4 - 1.5/2) = 11.3" Since 11.3" is still greater than 10", increase the bolt embedment length by 2" to 14" total. Therefore, the parallel reinforcing should be extended at least 12 inches above and 14 inches below the bolt head. b. Perpendicular The perpendicular reinforcement used must satisfy both that shown for case A on the standard drawing and that shown on CIV-EF-518, Foundations for Horizontal Equipment. Therefore, use #4 bar ties in closed hoops with a spacing of three inches for the first space and six inches for other spaces up to just past the bolt embedment. The final design is shown in Figure 200-32.
Fig. 200-32 Final Design Example of Cast-in-place Anchor Bolts
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242 Post-installed Anchors

Expansion Anchor Bolts
Expansion concrete anchors are shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998. They are made of high-strength steel and placed in a predrilled hole. Anchors have an expansion mechanism that contacts the holes walls upon tightening the bolt and that creates a frictional resistance to pullout. Failure Modes. The following failure modes can occur in expansion anchors: 1. 2. 3. 4. Brittle concrete cone failure: Insufficient embedment or edge distance. Concrete splitting: Placed too close together or near an edge. Bolt breakage. Bolt slip: Insufficient frictional resistance.
Failure modes 1-3 above are similar to cast-in-place anchor bolt failure modes. For additional information about them, see Appendix B. Since expansion anchors are made of high-strength steel, bolt breakage is not typical and the resulting failure mode is brittle with little ductility. Seismic loading, therefore, should be limited to primarily shear loads by requiring the tension load to allowable load ratio be less than 25% of the total tension and shear interaction ratio. Usage. In new work, cast-in-place anchor bolts should be specified. An exception might be made for floor slabs requiring a large number of anchors for equipment. In this case, loads are usually nominal, mostly in shear; and the advantage of placing and finishing the floor slab without anchor bolts may outweigh the disadvantages of using expansion anchors. If expansion anchors must be used, mounting should be designed wherever feasible to accommodate shear rather than tension. Expansion anchors are not recommended for brick or concrete building blocks. Wherever possible, such anchorages should be through-drilled with a large washer or metal plate on the back face. If expansion anchors must be used, 20% of the allowable loads shown for concrete should be taken as the design basis. As mentioned previously, expansion anchors may be used only in special cases to resist seismic loads. Installation. Expansion anchors must be specified and installed with discretion because their holding power depends upon the care with which the bolts are installed. As shallow or oversized holes weaken the grip of the bolt, installation for a specified holding power should be inspected carefully. Standard Drawing: Expansion Concrete Anchors. The following seven types of expansion concrete anchors are represented on the standard drawing: 1. 2. ITW Ramset/Red Head Trubolt Wedge Anchor, by Phillips Drill Company Wej-it Wedge Anchors, by Wej-it Expansion Products, Inc.
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3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Wej-it Ankr-Tite Stud Anchor, by Wej-it Expansion Products, Inc. Wej-it Sleeve Anchor, by Wej-it Expansion Products, Inc. Molly Parabolt, by Emhart Fastening System Group Hilti HSL Metric Heavy-Duty Expansion Anchor, by Hilti, Inc. Hilti Kwik-Bolt II Expansion Anchor, by Hilti, Inc.
Allowable loads in concrete for all seven types of expansion anchor bolts are shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998. They are based upon ICBO test reports. Other manufactures may be used if they have been evaluated by ICBO. The recommended edge distance of six bolt diameters may be insufficient for bolts loaded in shear towards an edge. For this loading case, therefore, the edge distance should be increased to 8 bolt diameters for the loads shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998. If loads higher than those shown on the standard drawing are used, per the applicable ICBO report, the allowable shear should be checked with the methodology of Appendix B.
Adhesive Anchor Bolts

Adhesive anchor bolts are attached to the concrete by a very strong adhesive. Hilti HVA and Parabond Capsule Anchors are two-part systems composed of a threaded rod stud and a sealed glass capsule. The capsule contains a pre-measured amount of adhesive resin with the hardener and aggregate in separate vials. The threaded rod may be manufactured from standard or high-strength steel. In conventional mechanical-wedge anchors, the load is transferred to the concrete through little more than a point contact; whereas, with capsule anchors, the load is distributed along the entire length of the embedment. Failure Modes. The following failure modes can occur in adhesive anchors: 1. 2. Bond breakage: Occurs in bolts with deep embedments, at elevated temperatures, or in conjunction with a concrete cone failure. Concrete cone failure: Concrete fails suddenly in the shape of a cone. Unlike cast-in-place anchor bolts or expansion anchor bolts, however, the failure cone may start somewhere along the anchors length and can be a combination concrete-cone-and-bond failure. Concrete splitting: Occurs more frequently when bolts are spaced closer together, or near an edge. Bolt breakage: Occurs typically with low-strength bolts which have deep embedment.
3. 4.
When using standard steel rods and deeper embedments, epoxy anchors may have sufficient reserve strength to develop the ductility required for seismic loading. For
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bolts to resist seismic tension loads, the anchors must meet a required safety factor of PE --------- 2.3 P BY
(Eq. 200-22)
PE is the ultimate load resisted by the epoxy bond. PBY is the bolt yield strength. For A307 bolts, PBY = 33,000 ABT (lbs). Usage. An acceptable alternative to expansion concrete anchors, adhesive capsule and cartridge system anchors are non-expanding chemical anchors that have demonstrated greater load-carrying capacity than the more conventional mechanical fasteners. Capsule anchors should neither support fire-resistant construction nor resist pullout (tensile) forces in walls or overhead installations. The capsule anchors temperaturesensitive epoxy could fail during fires when temperatures reach 170F. As described earlier, adhesive anchors may be used to resist seismic tension loads if the required safety factors are met. Hilti, Inc. and Emhart Fastening Systems Group both manufacture adhesive cartridge systems which are more economical when installing a large number of anchors at once. Note that, with these systems, the allowable tension values shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998 should be reduced by 1/3. If these systems are to be used to resist seismic tension loads, they must satisfy Equation 200-22 using a safety factor of 3.6 instead of 2.3. The increased factor of safety is a result of the decreased reliability of these systems. Installation. To install these systems, a drill bit sized for the capsules diameter is selected and a hole drilled in the concrete to a depth equal to the length of the capsule. Any concrete dust and fragments are removed by using compressed air and a nylon brush. A capsule of appropriate diameter is inserted into the hole. The pointed end of the threaded rod is rotary-hammer drilled into the capsule, breaking it and mixing the adhesive resin and hardener. Standard Drawing: Epoxy Capsule Anchors. Allowable loads for the epoxy capsule anchors are shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998. They are based upon ICBO reports. As with expansion bolts, the edge distance should be increased to 8 bolt diameters for bolts loaded in shear towards an edge.
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250 Concrete and Grouting

251 Concrete Mix Selection
Introduction
Model Specification CIV-MS-850 details the requirements for materials, proportioning, mixing, placing, finishing and testing concrete. Company practice, when requesting construction of concrete, is to specify the type and strength of the concrete desired and to hold the contractor responsible for following the specifications for placing the specified concrete. This section provides information that will aid in selecting and specifying the desired concrete properties. Concrete is a three-part mixture, primarily of cement, aggregates, and water. Concrete also contains some amount of entrapped air. Admixtures may be included for specific purposes. (See descriptions of aggregates and admixtures in subsequent paragraphs.) The cement and water are mixed to make a paste that, when mixed with the aggregate, binds the aggregate into a rocklike mass as the paste hardens by the chemical reaction of the cement and water.
Cement Types
There are eight types of cement available to mix concrete. Each type, defined by ASTM, meets different physical and chemical requirements for specific purposes: Type I Type IA Type II Normal Normal, air-entraining Moderate, sulfate-resisting, lower-than-normal heat of hydration
Type IIA Moderate, sulfate-resisting, lower- than- normal heat of hydration, air-entraining Type III Type IV Type V High early strength Type IIIA High early strength, air-entraining Very low heat of hydration Sulfate-resisting
Type I cement is used for general concrete construction where no special properties are required. Type I cement is often not available. Type II cement is usually provided in lieu of Type I. Type II cement should be used for general concrete construction, exposed to moderate sulfate attack from contact with groundwater or flowing water. Type II is often used in drainage structures such as separators, sumps, and drainage channels. It has a moderate heat of hydration and, therefore, can be used in moderately large structures such as piers or heavy retaining walls. Also, the moderate heat of hydration reduces the internal temperature rise of the concrete during placing, which is an important consideration in warm weather.
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Type III cement is used for concrete construction when high early strength is desired. Concrete mixed with Type III cement gains high strength within a week or less. High early strength concrete is commonly used when the formwork must be removed as soon as possible or when a structure must be put into service quickly. Because it cures rapidly, care must be exercised when mixing and placing this type of concrete. Type IV cement gains strength more slowly than Type I and is characterized by a low heat of hydration, making concrete mixed with this cement especially suitable for massive structures such as dams. Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement restricted to concrete that will be exposed to severe sulfate attack, such as is found when the soil groundwater has high sulfate concentrations. Other cement types are also available for special purposes.
Aggregate Materials
Coarse and fine aggregates comprise approximately 60 to 80 percent of concrete volume. Gravel and crushed stones account for nearly all coarse aggregate materials. Minerals, which are products of weathered rocks (such as sand, silt, and clay), are the compositions of most fine aggregates. The quality of aggregates should conform to ACI and ASTM requirements. The location and size of the job and the availability of aggregate materials will determine the aggregates selected for concrete mixes. Blast furnace slag is not recommended as aggregate. Aggregate for concrete for roof slabs should be well graded.
Mixing Water
Nearly any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor can be the mixing water for making concrete.
Admixtures
Admixtures are ingredients in concrete added to improve the inherent properties of the concrete or to impart particular properties. They are other than cement, water, and aggregates and are added to the mixture just before or during mixing. Admixtures can be classified by function as follows: Air-entraining admixtures Water-reducing admixtures Retarding admixtures Accelerating admixtures Pozzolans Workability agents Miscellaneous agents, such as bonding, damp-proofing, permeability-reducing, and gas-forming
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Concrete can exhibit the qualities specified above more easily and economically by adding suitable materials rather than relying on admixtures, except for air-entraining admixtures. Air-Entraining Admixtures. Air-entraining admixtures suspend air bubbles in concrete. The entrained air dramatically improves the durability of concrete exposed to moisture and to freezing and thawing cycles. It also improves the workability of fresh concrete and reduces segregation and bleeding. Air-entrained concrete should be specified for all concrete that is subject to freezing and thawing cycles, or to the application of salt for the removal of snow and ice. Air entrainment can be achieved by air-entrainment cements (Types IA, IIA, IIIA), or by air-entraining admixtures. Water-Reducing Admixtures. A water-reducing admixture reduces the amount of water required to produce concrete of a given consistency. It can also retard the setting time of the concrete mix. Provided the cement content and slump are unchanged, a water-reducing admixture will generally increase the strength; however, it will also increase drying shrinkage. Retarding Admixtures. Retarding admixtures slow the rate of setting concrete. Retarders (1) offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the concretes setting time or (2) delay the initial set of concrete or grout for difficult or unusual placement. Most retarders also act as water-reducing agents. Accelerating Admixtures. An accelerating admixture speeds up the development of the concrete strength at an early age. Most accelerators also increase the drying shrinkage of the concrete. Calcium chloride should not be used as an admixture. Pozzolans. Pozzolans are most often used as admixtures to improve the workability and plasticity of concrete mixes. Some natural pozzolan materials also reduce internal mix temperatures, and aggregate alkali expansion while providing sulfate resistance. Fly ash is a popular, artificial workability agent. Workability Agents. Entrained air is the best workability agent. Natural pozzolans and fly ash are also used as workability agents. Miscellaneous Agents. Damp-proofing and permeability reducing agents can reduce the permeability of concrete with low cement content, high water-cement ratio, or low fine-aggregate content. In well-proportioned mixes, however, they may increase the mixing water required, resulting in increased permeability. Bonding admixtures are added to concrete or applied to the surface of old concrete to increase the bond strength between old and new concrete. Aluminum powder and other gas-forming materials are sometimes added to concrete or grout in very small quantities to cause slight expansion of the mix prior to hardening. This can be beneficial when grouting in confined areas, such as beneath equipment bases.
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Proportioning of Concrete Mixes

The objective in designing a concrete mix is to determine the most economical and practical combination of materials to produce a concrete that will meet the requirements of its intended service. Model Specification CIV-SC-850 specifies Company requirements for proportioning, mixing, placing, and testing concrete. References 1 and 2 provide comprehensive procedures for determining concrete mix proportions. Concrete proportions must be selected to provide necessary workability, consistency, strength, durability, and density for the anticipated service use of the finished concrete. Workability is the property that determines the ease with which fresh concrete mix can be placed, consolidated, and finished without segregation. Consistency is the wetness of the concrete mixture. Consistency is measured in terms of the concrete slump. Concrete compressive strength is the universal measure of concrete quality. Durability and impermeability may, however, be equally important. Concrete strength depends upon the water-cement ratio of the mix. The durability of concrete is its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, or any other exposure that may adversely affect its serviceability. Five common causes of concrete deterioration are Freezing and thawing Aggressive chemical exposure Abrasion Corrosion of steel or other embedded items Chemical reaction of the aggregates
Freezing and Thawing. Deterioration of concrete by freezing and thawing is the result of a physical action not a chemical reaction. Freeze-thaw deterioration of concrete can be reduced by: Minimizing exposure of concrete to water or moisture Establishing low water-cement ratios; not less than 0.45-0.50 Using air entrainment Using suitable materials for concrete mix Requiring proper curing and construction practices
Aggressive Chemical Exposure. Deterioration of concrete by chemical exposure can be divided into two primary categories: sulfate attack or acid attack. Sulfate attack results from concrete exposure to sulfates in soil or groundwater. Cooling tower water is a common cause of sulfate attack: there is a gradual buildup of sulfates from water evaporating from exposed concrete faces. Acid attack often requires special protection. Concrete can tolerate weak acids, but strong acids require acid brick paving or special coatings to maintain the concretes integrity. Concretes resistance to deterioration from chemical attack is increased by:
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Dense, high-quality concrete Low water-cement ratio Air entrainment (also reduces water-cement ratio) Portland cement with sulfate resistance (Types II and V) Pozzolans
Abrasion. Deterioration of concrete by abrasion is most prevalent in hydraulic structures or on the floors of industrial buildings. A high-quality, high-strength concrete is necessary to increase resistance to abrasion. In some extreme cases, a very hard aggregate must be specified. Corrosion of Reinforcement or Other Embedded Items. This corrosion is due to exposure of the reinforcement to water, deicing salts, etc. It can be minimized by providing ample concrete cover for the reinforcement. Low-permeable, air-entrained concrete will also assure concrete durability. Chemical Reaction of Aggregates. Certain aggregates react with Portland cement when mixed, causing expansion and deterioration of the aggregate and concrete. This deterioration can be prevented by selecting the proper aggregate. Low-alkali cement and pozzolans will reduce reactions with the aggregate. Repair of concrete deterioration is covered in Section 260 (Concrete Repair) of this manual. ACI Committee Report 211 provides a thorough discussion of the causes and cures for concrete deterioration.
Concrete Testing
Concrete testing is an indispensable part of the construction process for concrete placement. The number and frequency of tests depends upon the job specifications and the occurrence of variations in the test results. The following types of quality control tests are commonly made at the job site for all fresh concrete: Consistency Air content Strength
The Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-318) specifies that samples for strength tests of each class of concrete placed should be taken: Not less than once a day Not less than once for each 150 cubic yards of concrete Not less than once for each 5000 square feet of surface area
Concrete compressive strength tests are made on standard test cylinder specimens, measuring 6 inches in diameter by 12 inches high. Usually three or more specimens are tested for each test age. Compressive strength tests are usually tested after 7 and 28 days of curing. High early strength concrete specimens are often tested after 1, 3, 7, and 28 days. ASTM Specifications C31 and C192 give requirements for making and curing concrete test specimens in the field and in the laboratory.
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Consistency tests are performed on mix samples from which strength test cylinders are made. The air content and temperature of the concrete should be measured and recorded for each sample. The slump test and ball-penetration test are the two most common tests for the consistency of concrete. The slump test is made by measuring the subsidence, in inches, of a concrete pile 12 inches high, formed in a mold that has the shape of the frustum of a cone. The ball penetration test is made by measuring the settlement of a six-inch steel ball, weighing 30 pounds, into the concrete surface. The results of the ball penetration test can be calibrated to relate directly to slump. Refer to Model Specification CIV-SC-850 for further testing requirements.
Special Types of Concrete

There are numerous types of special concrete: those with out-of-the-ordinary properties or those produced by unusual techniques and made with or without cement. The most widely used are fiber-reinforced concrete and shotcrete. Fiber Reinforced. Fiber-reinforced concrete contains fine or fine and coarse aggregate and discontinuous discrete fibers. The fibers are produced from steel, plastic, glass, and other natural materials. Fiber-reinforced concrete, with and without normal reinforcement, makes pavements, overlays, hydraulic structures, slabs in tank bottom replacement, and rock slope stabilization. Steel fiber is most widespread. The significant advantage of fiber-reinforced concrete is the increased first crack flexural strength. Shotcrete. Shotcrete is a process of applying mortar or concrete pneumatically to a surface. Shotcreting is classified according to the process: dry-mix or wet-mix, and to the type of aggregate: coarse or fine. Shotcrete can be more cost effective than conventional concrete in several applications, where: Formwork is impractical or can be reduced or eliminated. Access to the work area is difficult. Thin layers and/or variable thicknesses are required. Normal casting techniques cannot be used. Concrete bond is important.
Conventional shotcrete uses cement, aggregates, and ordinary admixtures for applications in new structures, linings and coatings, and concrete repair. Refractory shotcrete uses high-temperature binders and refractory aggregates for new installations, repair, and maintenance of all types of linings. Special shotcretes use proprietary combinations of binder and aggregate for corrosion- and chemical-resistant applications. See Section 700 for more information on shotcrete applications.
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Waterproofing
Roof concrete mix and trenches with concrete floors should have Anti-Hydro added in manufacturers recommended proportions. Roofs should be finished with 1 inch grout finish that contains Ferritex in manufacturers recommended proportions. There are also other waterproofing agents available for application on existing concrete. Contact the ETC Civil and Structural Team for more details.
252 Grouting
The purpose of this section is to identify and describe the different types of grouting materials and their common uses. Grouting of structural column and beam base plates is the primary focus of this section. Model Specification, CIV-SC-985 Grouting of Structures is included in the specifications section of this manual. Epoxy and cement grouting of bases for heavy reciprocating machines, e.g., compressors, and other similar equipment is covered by Standard Specification MAC-MS-3907, Grouting of Machinery.
Types of Grout
Non-shrink cement-based grout is preferred. The non-shrink capability is important to transfer loads. Sand-cement dry pack, susceptible to shrinkage is not as desirable as cementbased grouts, but is still commonly used. Epoxy grout is expensive but very good where minimum shrinkage is desired.
Uses of Grout
The primary use of grout from a structural standpoint is to mortar base plates for structural steel columns and beams. When a structure is erected, an allowance is required for adjusting the level of the columns or beams. This is accomplished by allowing approximately a one-inch gap between the top of a foundation and the bottom of the base plate. Once the structure is leveled, the remaining air gap is filled with grout. Filling this gap with grout ensures that there is a uniform bearing of the column loads to the foundation.
Pressure Grouting
Pressure grouting is the process by which liquid grout is pumped into the voids of soils and then hardens. Pressure grouting is used most often for one or both of the following to: 1. Improve the mechanical characteristics of the soil through consolidation. Bearing capacity of the soil is increased which can be especially important under concrete paving which could have heavy vehicle traffic (i.e., cranes). Decrease the permeability of the soil structure, referred to as waterproofing.
2.
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260 Concrete Repair

This section describes the types of damage and/or deterioration often experienced with concrete structures and identifies the materials and methods of repair that are used to restore the concrete. Section 251 (Concrete Mix Selection) of this manual and ACI Committee Report 211 describe common causes of concrete deterioration and their prevention through proper proportioning of concrete mixes.
Types of Concrete Damage or Deterioration

Common concrete problems requiring repairs are due to: Mechanical damage Acid attack Excessive heat Corrosion of reinforcement Thermal expansion or contraction Sulfate disintegration
The deterioration effects of these actions upon concrete are evident in these ways: Popouts, which are caused by unsound coarse aggregate particles near the concrete surface. Aggregate absorbs water, and the subsequent freeze-thaw cycles cause pieces of concrete to break away from the surface. Rebar corrosion can also cause popouts as the rust by-product has four times the volume of the original steel. Honeycombing, which is a consequence of a cement mix with excessively coarse aggregate, mortar leaking through the forms, very low slump concrete, and poor vibration of concrete during placement. A honeycombed surface appears pitted or full of cavities. Abrasion, which results from water flowing over or against concrete surfaces. Appearance is similar to honeycombing. Cold joints defects, which are due to improper preparation of the concrete surface before placing new concrete. Concrete cracking, which is caused by a number of factors, such as drying shrinkage cracks, resulting from: Volume changes in the concrete during curing Design errors Poor construction practices Rebar corrosion Weathering Overloading
Hairline cracks are to be expected in concrete to allow the reinforcing steel to work; and, unless they are large, they need not be repaired.
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Testing and Evaluation

The initial step in the repair of any concrete deterioration or damage is to evaluate the cause, type, and extent of the concrete damage. Determine the location and extent of the damage by any one or combination of the following methods: Visual Inspection. Most often this will show the location and extent of the damage. Movement or propagation of surface cracks should be observed to determine if the cracks are active or dormant. Signs of settlement should be identified and the condition of exposed surfaces determined. Finally, potential causes of distress (poor drainage, expansive soils, or exposure to aggressive chemicals) should be identified. Non-destructive Testing Methods. NDT methods can be used in the evaluation: Internal cracks can be located by tapping the concrete surface with a hammer or dragging a steel chain along the surface. A hollow sound indicates unsound concrete. Ultrasonic testing and radiographic inspection can also be used to evaluate internal defects in the concrete. Reinforcing steel locators are available to determine the presence and/or location of any reinforcing steel. Approximate existing concrete strength can be determined by an explosive, gun-type tester such as the Schmidt Air Gun.
Concrete Core Tests. These can be used to conduct macroscopic analysis of causes of deterioration or to determine approximate concrete strength. Petrography can be used to conduct microscopic examination (ASTM C-856). Review of construction drawings, concrete placement, and test data should also be included in the evaluation process to identify possible deficiencies in the original design. These deficiencies might be insufficient steel cover, inadequate concrete strength, nonconventional construction details, and load underdesign.
Determine Need for Repair

The need for repair should be based on the judgment of experienced inspectors. Repair is required if there has been a reduction in the strength, stiffness, or durability of the structure. The repair procedure may be selected to accomplish any one of the following objectives: Restore or increase concrete strength Restore or increase stiffness Improve functional appearance Provide water tightness Improve appearance of concrete surface Improve durability Prevent access of corrosive substrata or atmosphere to reinforcement Renew confidence of structural integrity
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Repair Materials
The materials for the repair must be selected in conjunction with choosing the repair method. Four major factors dictate product selection: 1. 2. 3. 4. Chemical exposure Compatibility with the substrate, i.e., coefficient of thermal expansion Application condition Type of exposure
Common repair materials are listed and described below: Elastic Sealants. These materials maintain a bond between concrete surfaces subject to expansion and contraction, and can seal active cracks and replace expansion joints. Epoxy Resins. Several epoxy or synthetic resin products are available. Epoxy compounds consist of a two-part mix of resin and hardener. Epoxy bonding agents are mixed with sand to form epoxy mortar. They are commonly used for the repair of serious structural defects since the epoxies can be poured or injected into small cracks. Hardened epoxy creates high strength bond with the concrete. Epoxies also bond replacement concrete or mortar to old concrete for repairs from 1.5-6.0 inches deep. Expanding Mortars. These materials have been developed to reduce shrinking of the product upon curing. Latex-modified Compounds. Latex-modified concrete displays excellent bonding characteristics and resistance to freeze-thaw deterioration, alkalis, and dilute acids. This material feather edges well and is used for the repair of concrete roads, bridges, and heavy-duty floors. Portland Cement Concrete, Grout, or Mortar. Portland cement concrete, consisting of coarse and fine aggregate and cement, is used for deep repairs. Grout is used for small repairs where some shrinkage can be accepted and gives best results when pumped into the opening. Mortar, consisting of a fine aggregate and cement, is used for many repairs; however, mortar should not be used for shallow repairs less than 1.5 inches or wherever a featheredge is required. Quick-setting Materials. Usually referred to as water plugs, wet plugs or hydraulic cements, these materials are characterized by rapid setting and hardening in minutes. They are useful for plugging holes or leaks in concrete construction where water is entering the defect under pressure. To aid in bonding new concrete or patching material to the existing concrete, common bonding agents are Sand-cement mortar Cement paste Epoxy resins Latexes
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Polyvinyl acetate Acrylics
Preparation for Concrete Repairs

Before beginning any repairs to concrete, regardless of the materials and type of repair method selected, the area to be repaired must be prepared properly. All deteriorative or defective concrete should be removed by light-duty, hand, or pneumatic chipping tools. The finished cavity should be at least one-inch deep, with its sides perpendicular to the concrete face, i.e., no feather edges where possible. Care must be taken not to propagate cracks. Concrete surfaces should be cleaned thoroughly by abrasive or water blasting for large surfaces. Wire brushing, scarifying, and acid-etching are other cleaning methods. All dust and debris must be removed to assure good bonding of repair material. After the concrete surface has dried, it must be vacuumed to remove fine dust particles. Repair areas must be cleaned of existing coatings, oil, acid, grease, or wax solutions. Chemical surface-cleaning agents are acceptable provided they are washed with soap and rinsed thoroughly with water. Surface area must be allowed to dry then be rechecked to ensure all unsound material has been removed. For concrete, mortar, or grout repairs, the repair surface should be saturated with water but free of standing water. For epoxy repairs, the surface should be dry and heated to 65-105F at the time of repair. Concrete surface should be prepared with bonding agent. Certain repair procedures require application of a bonding agent to the repair surface. The surface should be coated with 1/8-inch of mortar or bonding agent. Bonding coat should never be allowed to set prior to the placement of concrete, mortar, or other repair material.
The success of concrete repairs depends as much on preparation of the area to be repaired as on the repair materials and methods.
Concrete Repair Methods

Visible cracking of concrete surfaces is the most commonly observed problem with unreinforced and reinforced concrete construction. Concrete cracks can be divided into two broad categories: Dormant Active
Dormant cracks, such as drying shrinkage cracks, are not likely to increase in size nor affect the structural integrity. These cracks are often sealed with quick-setting hydraulic cements. As they can reduce the structural capacity, active cracks (those that propagate under loads) should be repaired as soon as possible. The most common repair method for
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these cracks is pressure and vacuum injection of low-viscosity epoxies and other monomers which polymerize in place and rebond the parent concrete. Working cracks, those that show movement under stress, usually must be sealed with a flexible joint material. Prior to repairing or resealing cracks, cleaning the cracks is essential, as described earlier in this section. Common cleaning methods include: compressed air, wire brushing, sandblasting, routing, and use of picks or similar tools. Some of the common concrete repair methods are listed below. The method of repair is dependent upon the size and nature of the repair to be made: Dry-pack mortar Concrete replacement Mortar replacement Preplaced concrete aggregate Shotcrete Epoxy injection
Dry Packing. This method involves ramming a thin layer of very stiff cement-sand mix into place. The repair surface is covered with a thinly layered bond coat of grout or mortar prior to placing the dry pack. Most commonly used to fill tie-rod holes, narrow slots, or other cavities with high depth-to-area ratios, this method is characterized by high strength and minimal shrinkage. Concrete Replacement. This is the most common method of repairing defective or damaged concrete, particularly honeycombed new concrete or concrete that has deteriorated through the wall or the reinforcement. After surface preparation, new concrete similar to old in terms of aggregate size and water-cement ratio is placed into the area. Always place low-slump concrete. Excess water results in drying shrinkage and bond breakage at the interface. Mortar Replacement. This repair method is similar to concrete replacement, except that the mix consists of a fine aggregate and cement only and is used for smaller repair areas. Best results are obtained when the mortar is applied pneumatically. Preplaced Concrete Aggregate. This method is especially adaptable to underwater repairs particularly for large ones where conventional concrete placement is difficult or low-volume change is required. This method involves forcing grout into a compacted mass of clean coarse aggregate. The grout displaces the water and fills the voids. Forms must be designed to resist the pumping pressure. Shotcrete. This repair method is a process of applying concrete mix pneumatically for shallow repairs on overhead and vertical surfaces without forms. This is usually an economical method of making large concrete repairs. Epoxy Injection. This is the common method for sealing or repairing cracks. For those cracks greater than 1/4 inch, epoxy resin mortar is usually placed into the cracks. For those less than 1/4 inch, epoxy resin compounds are injected into cracks
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under pressure at regular intervals. This type of repair should be carried out by qualified personnel.
270 Computer Program Abstracts

Computer programs have been developed to assist with the design of three types of foundations commonly used in petrochemical process plant facilities. These programs are not maintained by Chevron Information Technology (CITC). However, they are in the Engineering (ENGR) library of programs available. Contact CITC and CRTCs Civil and Structural team for assistance in accessing and using the programs. The programs have not been compared to the current requirements of the ACI Building Code. The programs may be used for preliminary design and the results should be checked with the current ACI Code for final design. The programs are as follows: OCTFNDDesign of Reinforced Concrete Octagonal Foundations PLSUPFNDDesign of Reinforced Concrete Pile-Supported Octagonal Foundations ENGR 389Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations for Horizontal Vessels
Abstracts of these computer programs follow.
271 OCTFNDDesign of Reinforced Concrete Octagonal Foundations

The objectives of this program are to determine the minimum base thickness, minimum base diameter, and optimum steel reinforcing that meet all the usual design and code requirements. In addition, the program calculates the volume of concrete and reinforcing steel stresses in the base. The program is based on the Alternate Design Method (Appendix B) of the ACI Building Code (ACI 318-77 including the 1980 Supplement) and on Section 100 of this manual.
272 PLSUPFNDDesign of Reinforced Concrete Pile-supported Octagonal Foundations

The objectives of this program are to determine the minimum base thickness, minimum base diameter, optimum pile arrangement, and optimum steel reinforcing that meet all the usual design and code requirements. In addition, the program calculates the volume of concrete and the minimum and maximum pile loads, and concrete and reinforcing steel stresses in the base. Minimum stability ratios are calculated for foundations without uplift. The program is based on the Alternate Design Method (Appendix B) of the ACI Building Code (ACI 318-77) and on Section 100 of this manual.
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273 ENGR 389Design of Reinforced Concrete Foundations for Horizontal Vessels

The objective of the program is to determine the minimum sizes of the piers and footings and steel reinforcing that meet all the usual design and code requirements. In addition, the program calculates the volume of concrete, net soil pressures or pile loads, minimum stability ratios, and concrete stresses in the piers and footings. The program is based on the Ultimate Strength Design of the ACI Building Code (ACI 318-77 including the 1980 Supplement), the 1982 edition of the Uniform Building Code, and on Section 100 of this manual. The program designs the following types of vessel supports: Non-Pile Supported FootingsTwo individual rectangular, spread footings Pile Supported FootingsIndividual pile supported footings and tie beams. Limited to a total of four or six piles per foundation
280 Model Specifications, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms

This section lists documents that will be of use when planning soils, foundation and concrete work.
281 Specifications
The following specifications related to this section are included in the Specifications section of the manual or are available in other manuals as indicated. ACI 301-96 CIV-SC-850 CIV-SC-985 CIV-MS-4841 American Concrete Institute, Specifications for Structural Concrete for Buildings Plain and Reinforced Concrete Specification Grouting of Structures Piling Installation
MAC-MS-3097 Grouting of Machinery (in Machinery Manual)
282 Standard Drawings

The following standard drawings either are included in the Standard Drawings and Forms section of this manual or are available in other manuals as indicated. GF-S1121 GD-Q68922 GB-Q99967 GD-Q99998 Secondary Containment and Leak Detection for Tanks (in Tank Manual) Anchor Bolts Uplift ConnectionsTimber Piles Expansion Bolts
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283 Engineering Forms

The following Standard Engineering Forms relating to this section are included in the Standard Drawings and Forms section of this manual or are available in other manuals as indicated. CIV-EF-336 CIV-EF-515 CIV-EF-516 CIV-EF-517 CIV-EF-518 CIV-EF-519 CIV-EF-627 CIV-EF-629 CIV-EF-725 TAM-EF-364 TAM-EF-421 Details of Guys and Deadmen Octagonal Foundation with Pedestal Octagonal Foundation without Pedestal Simple Foundation without Pedestal Foundation for Horizontal Equipment Foundations for Pumps Pile Driving Data Concrete Pile Driving RecommendationsBlows/Ft Triangular Foundation with Pedestal Tank Foundations (in Tank Manual) Pile Supported Tank Foundations (in Tank Manual)
290 References
The following references are available through the Corporation Library or other technical libraries. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, Portland Cement Association, 12th edition, 1979. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, American Concrete Institute, Parts 1-5, 1990. Foundation Engineering Handbook, Winterkorn, Hans F. and Fang, Hsai-Yang, Litton Educational Publishing, Inc., 1975. Foundation Analysis and Design, Bowles, Joseph E., Second edition, McGraw Hill, Inc., 1977. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials, 1991 . Handbook of Concrete Engineering, Fintel, Mark, Van Norstrand Reinhold Company, Inc., 1985. Soil Engineering, Spangler, Merlin G. and Handy, Richard L., Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., Third edition, 1973. Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, Merritt, Frederick S., McGraw Hill, Inc., Third edition, 1983. Design Manual (NAVFAC DM-7)Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures, Department of the NavyNaval Facilities Engineering Command, US Government Printing Office, March, 1971.
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10. Structural Engineering Handbook, Gaylord, Edwin H. and Gaylord, Charles N., McGraw Hill, Inc., Second edition, 1979. 11. Concrete Manual, US Department of the Interior, US Government Printing Office, Eighth edition, 1981. 12. Pipe Support Design Manual, D. Russell and Associates, July, 1987. Prepared for the Richmond Refinery.
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200 Soils, Foundations and Concrete

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200 Soils, Foundations and Concrete

Civil and Structural Manual

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Civil and Structural Manual

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211 Industry Codes and Practices

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Civil and Structural Manual

220 Soil Investigations

222 Phases of Soil Investigation

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Preliminary Investigation or Reconnaissance and Design Studies

Soil Boring and Testing

Final Soil Report

Consultation During Construction

223 Checklist of Services Available

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Civil and Structural Manual

Seepage and Drainage a. b. c. Seepage analysis Seepage control Dewatering

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16. Response Spectra

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224 Administering Soil Investigation Contracts

Soil Consultant Selection

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Prepare an authorization to an existing standing contract with the preferred consultant

Establish Scope of Services and Prepare Cost Estimate

Clarify Division of Responsibilities

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Civil and Structural Manual

Maintain Open Communications

Request Complete Reports

Prepare Cost Estimates Early

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231 Foundation Types

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Civil and Structural Manual

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Civil and Structural Manual

200 Soils, Foundations and Concrete

Combined and Strap Footings

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Civil and Structural Manual

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Civil and Structural Manual

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