. -.

SPWISRM 47274 Reservoir Compaction and Seafloor Subsidence at Valhall

P. D. Patti[lo, SPE, Amoco Production Company, and T. G. Kristiansen, SPE, Amoco Norway Oil Company, and G. V. Sund, Amooo Norway Oil Company, and R. M. Kjelstadli, SPE, Amoco Norway Oil Company

discussion to follow. Previous Work Studies of varying complexity have attempted to predict reservoir compaction and associated mudline subsidence in the Valhall field. Previous finite element studies include an early analysis performed by the Sediment Deformation Research Center of University College, London for the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate and unpublished analyses performed both by engineering consultants and Valhall partners. In addition to numerical models, Ruddy et aI.* generated mudline subsidence predictions using an elastic su~rposition model that has reservoir compaction as an input variable. General conclusions reached from these studies include the following 1. All models illustrate the arch that normally forms over the compacting region. 2. bmparison of twodimensional and three-dimensional models of Valhall indicate that, for this reservoir two-dimensional (plane strain) models geometry, overpredict overburden flexibility and, thus, mud line subsidence. 3. A shortcoming of simpler models based on elasticity solutions to half-space geometries is the lack of detail provided on the near reservoir stress state. This omission becomes critical if well failures in the vicinity of the a closer reservoir/overburden interface necessitate examination of this region. 4. The coarser meshes usually necessarv to accommodate the size of reservoir subsidence models make predictions sensitive to in~rpolation schemes used to assign pore pssures and rock mechanical behavior. Reservoir Model Interface The driving force for compaction in the reservoir is effective depletion. stress increase associated with pore pressure Spatial and temporal pore pressure distributions used in this study were retrieved directly from executions of an in house resrvoir model. In particular, elements of reservoir simulator inputioutput data used by the finite element model include the fouowing 1. Spatial positions of the model grid points. 2. The porosity at each grid point. 3. Initial and subsequent pore pressure distributions used,

Abstract The combination of in situ effective stress and reservoir chalk mechanical weakness in the Valhall field has resulted in compaction and associated subsidence at the mudline. This paper summarizes recent fiite element modeling of this phenomenon, emphasizing items of concern in a numerical sinmlation of this nature. The paper also presents new results from a simulation allowing inelastic overburden response. Introduction The Valhall field is an initiaIIy overpressured, undersaturated Upper Cretaceus chak reservoir located in the central graben in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. The reservoir is at a depth of approximately 2400 m subsea and consists of two oil hearing fmznatiom the Tor and Hod, The former contains roughly two-thirds of the oil and is a soft chalk characterized by high purity (95-98% caIcite), high porosity (up to 50%) and high oil saturations (90% and greater). Oil and gas production from the field began in October, 1982. The Tor discovery pressure was ody 3.4 MPa less than the 48.3 MPa overburden S-SS, implying minor formation compaction during burial. With depletion, the Tor in particular has compacted significantly, inducing tubular failures in the ~servoir and overburden, and subsidence at the nmdline. This paper ignores @buIar design issues and focuses on ~dicting Valhall mudline subsidence. Subsidence p=diction is not new to the petroleum indus&, or even to the central graben of the North Seal37. The model developed for Valhall, however, does contain _ features deserving review. These features, and their ~e in subsidence modeling, are detailed in the

3n

P. D. PAITiLLO, T. G. KRISTIANSEN, G. V. SUND, R. M. KJELSTADLI

SPE 47274

respehly, to set the initial effective stress distribution in the reservoir and subsequent changes to the initial distribution. AIthough the ftite element model and the reservoir model share common grid points, the meshes are not identical. Carefi interpolation and extra@Iation procedures were used to recover data from the reservoir medel for use in the ftite element amdysis. No attempt was made to model the coupling between - mechanical deformation of the reservoir and surrounding rock, as predicted by the ffite eIement model, and flow in the reservoir. This is not to say that the important driving force aswbd with reservoir compaction is absent from the fluid flow analysis. The reservoir sirmdator does take account of the effect of reservoir rock compress]%ility on fluid flow. However, in the reservoir simulator, each computational cell acts in isolatioxL That is, there is no accounting in the reservoir model for bridging effects associated with interaction between relatively strong and weak regions of the reservoir. To fi.dly model such an effect given the currently available tools, it wotid be necessary to either resort to a fully coupled porn-mechanical numericaI forrmdation or intersperse each time step m the reservoir sirrndation with a finite element load step, using the results of each model (pore pressure from the reservoir @tor, pore volume strain from the finite element modeI) as input in the subsequent step of the other. ~ impact of resewoir fIow/kinematic coupling on VaIhrdl mm is difficult to estimate. One would expect bridging, in particular, to influence reservoir pore volume change, with the resulting altered pore pressure distribution influencing subsequent mechanical deformation. Any change in the reservoir respu will also affect the values of parameters, such as rock compressibility and reservoir property distributions that have been fine tuned during the life of reservoir sinndation at Valhall. me situation is further complicated by the fact that, at present, the finite element grid is not as fine as the reservoir simulator grid, such that impo~t l~d effects Of property variation in the reservc)ir AII of this is and near reservoh region are not fully detailed. not to say that coupling should not be the ultimate goal in modeling stress sensitive reservoirs such as ValhalI. One shodd expect, however, that a significant period of readjustment will accompany each step toward an integrated poro-mechanical modeI. Finite Element Model The ftite element model constructed in this study Figs. 1 and 2) employs the ABAQUS general purpose finite element program.* Element C3D20RP, a 20 node, reduced integration, quadratic displacement, linear pore pressure element was used for all reservoir and non-reservoir strata. Underburden and were modeled with element sideburden boundaries CIN3D12R, a 12 node, reduced integration, quadratic displacement semi-tilnite element that does not have pore pressure capabilities.

All depths in the model were referenced to the rotary kelly bushing (RKB). Nonreservoir Eiements. Four overburden layers appear in the model representing, from the mudline to the reservoir, the Pliocene (including the Pleistocene and Miocene), Lower Miocene, MiddIe Eocene, and Paleocene, with the top of the Paleocene coincident with the Balder formation. The Paleocene was taken to have a constant thickness of 40 meters. All other overburden layers have constant depths-to-top as given in Table 1. E&astic Behovwr. In this study, elastic stiffnesses are taken from a petrophysics analysis using the following sources: 1. Logs taken on a wellbore which does not penetrate the gas cloud overlying the Valhall reservoir were processed with shale strength correlations. 2. A search of an industry data base yielded ratios of normal and in-plane sonic velocities, which were used to ratio inplane properties to those associated with the normaI. The results of this work are summnrized in Table 2. Each overburden layer modeled is assumed to exhibit planar isotropy, with greater stiffness in the horizontal plane. Sideburden elements (outside the reservoir simulator grid) were assumed to be elastic wifi elastic properties identical to coincident elements in the reservoir/overburden cohmm. The underburden and sideburden elements do not contain pore fluids. Plastic Behvior. This study is the fust application of inelastic behavior to the Valhall overburden. The ABAQUS cap plasticity model (see Appendix) was used to modeI plasticity in the overburden, as well as modeling the chalk reservoir. Fjaer et aI? report Mohr-Coulomb parameters which provide reasonable guidelines for defining the Drucker-Prager failure surface. Specific values for these and other cap modeI parameters selected for the Valhall overburden are given in In all instances except the Lower Miocene, Table 3. a = 0.01, R = 0.5. For the lower Miocene, R = 0.35 to remove an inconsistency in the data fitting process. This adjustment is far removed from the point where the initial yield surface is penetrated and should, therefore, have minimal effect on the numerical solution. Fig. 3 illustrates the work hardening curves used to follow movement of the cap. The procedure used to constnict these curves ignores tie transversely isotropic nature of the nonThis additioml complexity was not reservoir material. included in the development of Fig. 3, a simplification which may be justified by the limited knowledge of the overburden and underburden material. Reservoir Elements. The ftite element mesh in the reservoir overlays the reservoir model grid and is approximately onesixteenth as dense, the lateral extent of each reservoir Iayer being 17 by 9 elements, with six reservoir layers modeling two layers in the Tor formation and four layers in the Hod

378

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RESERVOIR COMPACTION AND SEAFLOOR SUBSIDENCE AT VALHALL

formation. Increased density within the lateral boundaries of the reservoir is desirable as it has the potential for rendering the model more flexible in two areas: 1. Definition of ~ properties. The primary factor in deterrninin g variation of chalk strength is porosity. A finer mesh permits a more detailed deftition of porosity variation in the reservoir, and, therefore, allows some eIements (tiose with higher porosities) to undergo compaction due to pore collapse at an earlier stage in the load history, 2. Even with the detail used in the present model, a number of elements in the reservoir have large lateral extents as compared to vertical extent. Such high aspect ratios can msr,dt in artificial, numerical stiffening of the mesh in response to shear stresses in the vertical plane. Materird properties in the reservoir were varied on an element by element basis, the parameter fixing exact material c~ being the average porosity within an element, Material behavior for aII chalk elements was taken from internally deveIoped correlations, where elastic behavior is assumed to be isotropic, and inelastic behavior is described using the ABAQUS cap plasticity model. The primary variable in correlating both elastic and inelastic parameters is porosity. Fig. 4 indicates the accuracy of tire ABAQUS model ~ +ucing Vamrdl type curves by Andersenlo. Boundary Conditions. The following boundary conditions were ~Iied to the model: 1. tilowermost Iayer of nodes in the serni-itiinite underburden and nodes on lateral surfaces of the model (i.e., the serni-infiite elements representing the aidehurdcn) were freed. 2. Pore pressures in the reservoir proper were taken from the ~oir simulator. 3. Pore pressures in the overburden were held constant. Possfile undrained response was not considered. Initial Conditions. The overburden is assumed to be in an initird (discovery) state of incipient plasticity on the cap. This conclusion is based on an analysis of overburden stress-strain curves used to estimate the pre-consolidation stress. Assuming mdaxird strain compaction of the overburden material, one can use the maximum effective overburden stress from the preconsofidation stress estimate to back calculate a pore pressure from the =ve _ principle. Since this pore pressure estimate correlated weIl with the current pore pressure profile, it was concluded that the maximum effective vertical stress the material has experienced is equal to the current, and therefore tie material is located on the cap. Defining (tension positive) p=-~fr u , ............................................................... (1) {-}

q=~=

2.:0 i 2--

. ................................................. (2)

where J2 is the second invariant of the deviatoric effective stress tensor, m, and 0 = u+ p I .................................................................... (3) --consider a biaxial stress state where the two nonzero components are the vertical stress, Uv , and the isotropic horizontal stress, ah.
q=o~-erv

For this simpIe stress state,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(4)

p=-;(ov

+2crh) ....................................................... (5)

If it be further assumed that the initial state is one of uniaxial deposition, then for a transversely isotropic material with hotintal bedding,
Eh

h =~

Vhv (6) 1 vh 0 """"" """"" "o""" """o""`"""""""`""""""""""'""""""""""""' we

Substihrting this expression into Eqs. (4) and (5), arrive at the useful relations

p.; (1+2% )
hv u Evl-vh
v~v E, l-vh

q=(-?%)o
,_q ,+2~ v~v
Ev lvh

v ~................................................ (7)

v ) ......................................... (8)

q=s

p.3

Ev(l-vh)-Ehvhv

EV(l vh )+ 2Ehvhv

p. (9)

me last relation gives the load history in p q space and allows one to compute the intersection of the deposition history with the yield surface, thus determining the stress state corresponding to incipient yield. Table 4 summarizes the intersections of Eq. (9) with the ABAQUS yield surface cap (Eq. (A-1)), given the material properties from Tables 2 and 3 and Fig. 3. The slope of the load path, taken from Table 2 and Eq. (9), is in every case less than ~, substantiating the cap, rather than the Drucker-Prager failure surface, as the portion of the yield surface penetrated. Note that the load path is sensitive to Poissons ratio, which appears to be very high for aII formations except the underburden. T&ing the Paleocene as an example, any value of Poissons ratio less than 0.33 wiIl retit in a load path slope greater than the Drucker-Prager failure surface and thus, depending on the value of d, increase

379

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P. D. PATTILLO, T. G. KRISTIANSEN, G. V. SUND, R. M. KJELSTADLI

SPE 47274

the Likelihood of penetrating this surface, rather than the cap. Pore pressure at the mud line (top of Pliocene/Miocene) was set at 0.6913 MPa. The interface between the Plioc ~ene and Lower Miocene was assigned a pore pressure of 1522 kg/m9. The interface between the bwer Miocene and MlddIe Eocene, was assigned a pore pressure of 1618 kg/m3, The interface between the Middle Eocene and Paleocene was assigned a pore pressure of 1642 kg/m3, The pore pressure at the bottom of the Paleocene was given spechd treatment. A conflict arises at the Paleocene/reservoir intefice between the relatively smooth pore pressure variation assigmnen~ above and the more erratic values in the Tor taken * the reservoir simulator, Further, abrupt variation in pore ~ssure cmi tiect both the initial stress and subsequent stress paths. To minimize this effect, a double layer of coincident nodes was created at the PaIeocendreservoir interface, with one Iayer assigned to Paleocene elements and one layer assigned to reservoir elements. Coincident nodes were assigned differing pom pressures, according to which formation they were attached, but were constrained to have identical displacements. Reservoir Elements. Reservoir elements were assigned an effective stress composed of a gravitational body force due to a total specflc weight of 0.02 I MN/m3 and a pore pressure taken born the reservoir simulator, An inconsistency dms exist between the defiition of material properties in the reservoir and the pore pressures used to initialize the model. The total specific weight is assumed constant, and for tie pmPOSCof CaICUlath3g the gravity load the pore fluid is assumed to have a specific weight of 0.00999 ~/m3. Thus the dry rock specific weight is adjusted for each reservoir elemen~ depending on its porosity, to yield the constant 0,021 MN/m3 gravitational Ioadii. me effective horizontal to vertical stress ratios were taken as cons~~, with of /o~ = 0.735 in the Tor layers, cr~/u~ = 0.508 in the upper two Hod layers and Oi /oJ = 0.577 in the lower WO Hod layers. Bouand Unde&utien (Semi-i@nite) Elements. Elements not having pore pressure capability must be iniwith total stresses to equilibrate them with the pore pressure eIements. If the reIation between total stress and effective stress is taken as
51 =0/ au .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..(lo)

pore pressure to total vertical stress is constant. For the overburden, this requirement coincides with the gradient assumptions listed above (The parameter ez was assumed to be unity for all layers for the purpose of assigning initial stresses.) For the sideburden elements opposite the reservoir, the situation is more complex, as the pore pressure gradient is not constant. As a compromise, the reservoir sideburden and underburden were assigned an initial total stress ratio identical to that of the Paleocene immediately above. Inconsistencies between this simpWled initial s@ess profile and that required to bring the entire model to equilibrium were left to resolution in the fiist load step. Mutine Elements. The elements adjacent to the mudline were loaded by a vertical stress of 0.6913 MPG representing the hydrostatic load of 69.2 meters of sea water (0.00999 MN/m3). Numerical Procedure. By far the most difficult portion of areservoir subsidence analysis is achieving initial equilibrium of the overburdedreservoirlunderburden under the stress distribution assumed to exist at the onset of the calculation. This &lculty arises from the fact that all contributors to the initial stress state are not known to a stilcient degree of accuracy. As long as the substrata are horizontal and the pore pressures vary linearly, even inaccurate values for the formation densities and in sim pore pressures will yield an equilibrated initial state rather quickly. Unfortunately, for most problems, the substrata, particularly the reservoir, are not strictly horizontal. Furthermore, the pore pressure distribution retrieved from the reservoir simulator is variable throughout the reservoir. In such cases, it is often not possible to set forth a consistent initial stress state from which to begin an analysis. The procedure used to achieve initial equilibrium in the current study assumes that one is relatively cotildent of his knowledge of the ~tial stress state and/or is willing to accept The steps any inaccuracies embodied in the prmedure, rnvolved are as follows: 1. &ate a model input file as if no problem with the initial equilibrium state existed. This file will have ordy one step, to achieve initial equilibrium. Before executing the amdysis, make the following changes to the model as part of the initialization process: a) Fix all nodes in the model in all displacement degrees of fiedom. Include the necessary instructions to write file output that wiIl save the nodaI reaction forces from this step. b) Execute the analysis using the input as revised by the previous step (I a). 2. Use the output horn the above execution (1 .b) and create a list of concentrated loads at all nodes in the mesh that exactly counter the imbalance in equilibrium due to inaccuracies in the estimate of the initial stress state. 3. Re-execute the analysis with the original input file edited to reflect the tru6 boundary conditions (i.e., remove the constraints impowd in ( 1.a) and include the concentrated

for the ith component of normal stress, and where u is pore ~ssure, a = 1- K/K= , where K is the buk modulus of the porous matrix and Ks is the buk modulus of the solid, h h=~l-vh hv

sv-o-2%lau*ooooo(11)
380

for transvemely isotropic formations. Fortunately, the additional pressure terms do not require the total swss ratio to vary with depth, provided the ratio of

SPE 47274

RESERVOIR COMPACTION AND SEAFLOOR SUBSIDENCE AT VALHALL

loads from the previous arudysis (I b)). At the end of the secomi executio~ the entire model should be equilibrated and ready to restart with pore pressure depletion steps to detexmine compaction and associated subsidence. Note that with the procedure outlined above, a distributed load (representing the body force and vertical load in each element due to its weight and the weight of elements above it) is not rtecq ~. The initiaI s~ess state submitted to the model should include the contribution of gravity, and this contribution is permanently incorporated in the model via the concentrated loads calctited in the ~~st execution (1.b) and added to the model as part of the second execution (3). Time Steps.
ESSNOU

The major time steps were taken from the entire depletion history was considered to be a quasi-static process wherein transient effects are ignored. Although each major time step was subdivided into a number of increments, the sole purpose of this .suMvision was to achieve numerical convergence of the noxdinear aspects of the model response to pore pressure variation. Whhin a major time step, the pore pressure history at each node was assumed to vary linearly between initial and fii vrdues for that step.
Sh31Uhlti011. The

Results The ftite element model consisted of 2613 elements with 13541 nodes resulting in 35070 degrees of freedom. The estimated RMS wave front for the model was 1468. Platform Subsidence. Fig. 5 compares the model prediction of VrdhalI pIatform complex subsidence with fieId me~ and with a previous, unpublished prediction empIoying an elastic overburden. Both models follow the field measuremerrt closely through the current history. In a ti typical of these analyses, subsidence is predicted to continue at a retively constant rate for the next three to four years, and then to proceed at a reducing rate as compaction reaches its limits and the reservoir, viewed globally, begins to work harden. This transition continues through December 2031, the end of the simulation. Predicted platform subsidence with the current model in December, 2031, is 6.3 meters. Fig. 6 dispIays the same data as Fig. 5 in rate form, where tie measured data are presented as a twelve month moving Notice that the current study follows the rate average. measurements acceptably. Two interesting conclusions cart be reached from Figs. 5 and 6. First, note that the difference between the so-called Elastic OB curve and the Plastic C)B curve is minor. This would imply that the overburden is not yieIding, that is, that both are actuaIIy elastic overburden curves. In support of this conclusion, Fig. 7 illustrates the Ioad path taken by integration points in the overburden immediately below the platform. Although the overburden elements are initialized at incipient yield, overburden response to reservoir compaction primarily

ties the form of unloading into elastic behavior. Only the Pliocene/Miocene exhibits minor loading. Secondly, it is worth noting that the elastic mechanica~ properties for the Elastic OB and Plastic OB models are not the same. The Elastic OB model uses earlier estimates of Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio (again assuming planar isotropy) that are softer than those used in the current analysis, presumably to partiaIly account for inelastic behavior. It is tempting to attribute the close agreement between the two curves to the results of Berry and co-workers. Analyzing the plane response at the boundary of a half-plane to compaction represented by a displacement discontinuity, the y found that the displacements are independent of the elastic constants for an isotropic medium*2 and only dewnd on two dimensiodess combinations of the elastic constants for planar isotropy 13lA.Here, however, the compaction is not specified a priori, but is part of the solution. Figure 8 presents a comparison of compaction and subsidence for the two models (Elastic OB and Plastic OB) along a plane passing roughly through the center of the mesh along its short axis. Note that the two models do not predict the same compaction, and the close agreement on subsidence occurs primarily near the center of the mesh. It may be, therefore, that at least a portion of the cIose agreement between the two models is purely accidental. Compaction and Mudline Displacements. Compaction and its associated subsidence is a direct consequence of effecti~c S*SS changes in tie reservoir associated with fluid withdrawal. Initially, the reservoir rock matrix and resenoir pore pressure are equilibrated in their joint support of vertical stresses induced by the weight of the overburden. As fluid is withdrawn, however, the reservoir pressure decreases, and an increasing fraction of the overburden load is transferred to the rock matrix. This increase in the effective stress on the rock matrix is accompanied by deformation which is initially elastic in nature. For weak rocks such as the VaIhaIl chalk, however, continued pore pressure decreaseieffective stress increase exc=ds the elastic limit of the reservoir matrix and the response becomes inelastic and accelerated. The amount of compaction in a region of the reservoir is primarily a function of the IocaI pore pressure decrease, porosity and thickness. Heterogeneity in the reservoir in aII tiese factors can lead to complicated compaction contours. As an example, Fig. 9 summarizes the predicted displacement at the top of the reservoir in December, 2031. The erratic nature of the contours is a direct result of the pressure depletiotiporosity/thickness distribution in the reservoir. In contrast, Fig. 10 illustrates tie result of transmitting the vertical displacements of Fig. 9 to the mudline. St. Venants principle acting through the intervening overburden significantly smoothes the character of the displacement field. This mitigation of displacement gradient is typical of analyses of the type. . A cursory examination of Figs. 9 and 10 might lead one to

361

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P. D. PAITILLO, T. G. KRISTIANSEN, G. V. SUND, R. M. WELSTADLI

SPE 47274

conclude that compaction and subsidence are roughly equal. ActualIy, the gradients at tie top of the reservoir are -ienfiy steep to be missed by the contour interval selected (see Fig. 8). The predicted subsidence: compaction ratio continuously increases with time, reaching a vaIue of approximately 0.84 Iate in the simulation. Horizontal displacements are also important at both reservoir and mudline depths. In the vicinity of the reservoir, horizontal displacement gradients can damage tubulars. At mudIine depth, horizontal displacement gradients can affect the integrity of surface structures. Fig. 11 is a vector plot of horizontal displacements at the mudline. The general horizontal movement at the mudIine is toward the center of the mxrvoir with a slight bias in the southeast direction (toward the upper right of the figure), and with a maximum magnitude of 2.45 meters in December, 2031. In the vicinity of the platform, the honzontaI displacement in 2031 is approximately 1.02 meters. Closure Stress. Together with the material properties of the reservoir rmk and the assumed pore pressure history during depletion, the initial stress state, pardcularly in the reservoir, m~sents a major factor in determining the time history of compaction/subsidence. Given an accurate chaIk constitutive model and reservoir pore pressure, the closeness of the initial stress state to the yield surface can affect the point at which pore volume coIlapse accelerates, and thus, the history of mudline deformation. Field data collected during hydraulic fractming treatments are rhe best current means of determining the horizontal (closure) stress state within the reservoir. As discussed above, initial horizontal stresses in the reservoir Iayers of the model m determined by the integrated overburden, initiaI pore pressure and fixed (0.735 for Tor, 0.508 for Upper Hod, 0.577 for tiwer Hod) horizontal to vertical effective stress ratios. These stress ratios were determined from an analysis of earIy history minifracs. The current model predicts a trend of lowering closure stress with time. A similar, but less pronounced trend appears in the field data. Comptig the two results, and ignoring a coupIe of anomalous points, it maybe generally concluded that the modeI is fairly accurate in predicting rninifrac closure stiss with time (on the order of 5% difference), slightly ove~dicting the field measurements. Conclusions 1. The current model sadsfactorily reproduces field me~ of both mumdative and current incremental (rate) subsidence at the VaIhalI platform complex. 2. The ABAQUS cap plasticity model is an effective and accurate means of ~ the constitutive behavior of both the overburden shaIe and the reservoir chalk. 3. Establishing the initial in siru effective stress state is an et and dificuIt part of compactiotisubsidence modeling. 4. Inelastic behavior in the overburden in the form of

additioml compaction is not likely to be a major influence on subsidence at Valhall. Nomenclature d - q-intercept of Drucker-Prager failure surface, m/Lt2, MPa E - Youngs modulus, tn/Lt2, MPa &w - ~AQUS cap function, rn5t2, ma G - shear modulus, rn/Lt2, MPa Y2- second invariant of deviatoric stress, m2/L2t4, MPa2 k - ratio of yeild stress in triaxial tension to yield stress in triaxial compression K - bu~ modulus of porous matrix, m/Lt2, MPa K, - bulk modulus of solid, rn/Lt2, MPa Kt - see Appendix @p= slope of Drucker-Prager failure surface p - mean stress, m/Lt2, MPa P. - center of ABAQUS elliptical cap, fit2, Mpa p, - intersection of ABAQUS cap with p-axis, rn/J.-t2, IvfPa qm*~$*Mpa
R = measure on horizontal axis of ABAQUS cap

r - cube root of third stress invtiant, rn/Lt2, MPa s - total stress, tit2, MPa t - see Appendix, tit=, MPa u - pore pressure, mfLt2, MPa a - Biot parameter a - radius of ABAQUS transition circle ~ - angle whose tangent is ~, degrees #w, = volumetric plastic strain v = Poissons ratio cr - effective stress, flt2, MPa 0- deviatoric effective stress, m/Lt2, MPa Subscripts h -in the horizontrd plane v - in the vertical plane References 1. Ruddy, I. et al.: Rock Compressibility, Compaction, and Subsidence in a High-Porosity Chalk Reservoir A Case Study of VallraliField; JPT (JUIY 1989) 741. 2. Geertsma, J.: Land Subsidence Above Compacting Oil and Gas Reservoirs,JPT (June 1973) 734. 3. Mori~ N. et al.: Quick Method to Determine Subsidence, Reservoir Compaction, and In-Situ Stress Induced by Reservoir Depletion, JPT (Jan. 1989) 71. 4. Chin, L Y., and Bosde, R. R.: Tull-Pield, 3-D, Finite-Element Subsidence Model for Ekofisk, presented at the Third North Sea Chalk Symposium, Copenhagen, June 11-12, 1990. 5. Chii, L..Y., et al.: Numerical Simulation of Ekofisk Reservoir Compaction and Subsidence: Treating the MechsnicaI Behavior of the Overburden and Reservoir, Proc., Eurock 94, tik Mechanics in Petroleum Engineering, Delft, Netherlands (1994) 787.

3BZ

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RESERVOIR COMPACTION AND SEAFLOOR SUBSIDENCE AT VALHALL

6.

~mite Hemcnt Analysis of Compaction and Subsidence - Experience Gained from Several Chalk Fields, Prac., Eurock 94, Rock Mwhanics in Petroleum Engineering, PIiscbke, B.:
pc

Pc - Rd

=l+Rtanfl

. ...................................................... (A-5)

Delft, Netherlands (1994) 795. M. J.: Analysis of the Valhall Oi@eld Subsidence, W, Sediment Deformation Research Center, London (Nov. 1987). 8. Hibbitt. Kadsson, and Soznsen, Inc., ABAQUS Users Manual, Version 5.6 (1996). 9. Fjaer, E. et al.: Petroleum Related Rock Mechanics, Elsevier, New York (1992). 10. Andersen, M. A.: Petroleum Research in North Sea Chalk, Joint ChaIk Research Phase IV (1995). II. Kristiansen, T. G.: -omechanical Characterization of the Overburden Above the Compacting ChaIk Reservoir at Valhall, Proc., Eumk 98, Rwk Mechanics in Petroleum Engineering, Trondheim, Norway (1998). 12. Berry, D. S.: An Elastic Treatment of Ground Movement due to Mining -1. Isotropic Ground, J. A4ech. Phys. Solids ( 1960) 8
7.

No functional form is stipulated for this relation. Rather, is entered as a piecewise linear function of volumetric

plastic strain.

Plastic flow is defined using a separate flow potentiaI function that is associated in the deviatoric (p) plane, associated along the elliptical cap in the meridional (p-~ plane, and nonassociated along the Drucker-Prager ftihrre surface and @ansition circle in the meridioti plane. me nonassociated flow potential surface is elliptical and is constrained such that it forms a continuous and smooth potential surface with the elliptical cap. S1 Metric Conversion Factors E-01 - m fi X 3.048* lbf X 4.448222 E+OO = N lbtigal x 1.198264 E+02 - kg/m3 E-03 - MPa psi x 6.894757
Conversion factor is exact.

D. S. and Sales, T. W.: An Elastic Treatment of Ground Movement due to Mining -II. Transversely Isotropic Ground, J. Mech. Phys. Solid, (1961) 952. 14, Berry, D, S. and Sales, T. W.: An Elastic Treatment of Ground Movement due to Mining -~. Three Dimensional Problem, Transversely Isotropic Ground, J. Mech. Phys. Solids (1962) 10 73.
13. ~,

~ Formation Pliocene/Miocene Lower Miocene Middle Eocene De~th to TOD (ml 112.7 1437.11 2190.29

Appendix - The ABAQUS Cap Plasticity Model Material behavior for aIl chaIk and overburden elements was determined by in house correlations, where elastic behavior was assumed to be isotropic (chalk) or anisotropic (overburden), and inelastic behavior was described using the ABAQUS cap plasticity modeI. The A8AQUS cap plasticity models combines a DruckerPrager failure surface with an elliptical cap ~lg. A-I) in p-f space,
fm = ~ (p- p.) + (Ktt) - R(cf+ p. tan~),
.......(A-l)

Table 2- Elastic Constants for Overburden used in Current Study Formation Constants E = 775 MPa, Eh = 870 MPa, Pliocene/Miocene Lower Miocene Middle Eocene Paleocene
~h= ~h = 0.46, E. 590 MPa, vh= vh = 0.45, E.= 720 MPa, vh= ~h = 0.46, E.= 730 MPa, vh= vh = 0.44, E. 1980 MPa, vh= vh = 0.30, Ghv= 320 MPa Eh. 650 MPa, Ghv= 240 MPa Eh = 810 MPa, Ghv= 300 MPa Eh. 820 MPa, Gh. = 310 MPa Eh = 2390 MPa Ghv= 840 MPa

where t=;[l+;-[l-;](:y]
q is the Mi.ses equivalent ~ = tan-~ MDP ()

.................................... (A-2) Underburden

stress, ~ is the third stress invariant, , /? controls the shape of the ellipse and R

Kt =

..........- ..................................(A-3)

l+a-asec~

A surface characterized by the parameter a effects a between the Drucker-Prager surface and the elliptical cap, Yielding on the elliptical cap results in work hardening,
smooth transition P, =Fcp%) , ........................................................... (A-4)

Table 3- Drucker-Prager Constants for Overburden and Underburden used in Current Study Drucker-Praae r Parameters Formation Pliocene/Miocene ~= 37.9, d = 7.79 MPa, k = 0.794 Lower Miocene P= 34.4, d= 6.85MPa, k= 0.814 Middle Eocene ~= 37.0, d= 7.53 MPa, k = 0.799 Paleocene ~= 37.3, d = 7.63 MPa, k = 0.797 Underburden B = 47.8, d= 11.03 MPa, k= 0.778

where

383

P. D. PATTILLO, T. G. KRISTIANSEN, G. V. SUND, R. M. KJELSTADLI

SPE 47274

Table 4- Penetration of the Overburden and Underburden Yield Surfaces by a Uniaxial Load Path q at Cap Siope pat Cap of Path intersection intersection ~ ~~~ Pliocene/Miocene 2:60 0:539 1i.7 Lower Miocene 0.773 4.70 Middle Eocene 9.3 4.54 1.14 14.0 Paleocene 8.10 8.77 42.7 Underburden

30 , ; 25 ; ~ 20 ---Plio/Miccene Lower Miocene

.--. --- Middle Eocene

t /
f ,. 8:

-----Underburden

& 15

10

5 --.0

. .

0.1

0.2 0.3 -I? Pvol

bshsvior for

0.4

0.5

Fig. 3.-Oap ,,.*rhur*n.

hardening

overburden

and

view of ffnlte element mesh. The SIX reservoir Isysm and Palecoarre overburden are very thin and are not discernible on this figure, bur appear as a single thick ls~r. The outsmoat rtng of eIementa are esmi-inflnlts boundsry elements and do not overfav tfro reaarvolr simulstor mesh. me nletforrn ~.~!.?x.!?.p.qg~~ in ~.? ~!e~.of ths mesh.

Fig. I.-overall

: j+~...; VK&>~]

. ......... .....

.:. ..... ....!..... ........... .!....!.

0.35 A

....................... .... .....

0.30 o~~ ~ o

10

20 OB Streae (MPa)

30

40

Fig. 2.-Plan view of reservoir Mrtlon of flnlte element mesh, A cc-~ur of TVD to top of the Tor formation Is overlald to Indlcets the pcsltion of the mesh mlatfve to the extant of the reservoir.

Fig. 4.-Reaulte of fitting ABAQUS cap model to type curves of AnderasnO. Solid lines are predicted response. Symbols are original type curves.

384

SPE 47274

RESERVOIR COMPACTION AND SEAFLOOR SUBSIDENCE AT VALHALL

7T
8

6- .
7 6

5- E 4 I a3 ~ 2- 1- 0

-.\

s,+
\

3 2 1

., \\ .T
\\{ . . \ ,, \ \\ \\\

\ \ :

\\\,

\,i,

0
I

2
p, MPa

1980

1990

2000

2010
Year

2020

2030

2040

Fig. 7.--Typlca1 atraaa patha In the Valhall overburden. o

Fig. 5.4omparfaon of subsidence pradictlons at the Valhall platform comp[ax with field maaauramenta. The Plaatlc OB (Overburden) curve la the currant etudy. 0.4 0.35 I + t+ A,

-1 E

-2 -3

E 3

-4 1 =-5 $ g% g 84 -9 -7

$
8
1 @

0.25
0.2 0.15 0.1

-104
0
Diatanm Along Peth, m 6671

0.05 I

o~
19s0 1985 1990
Year Fig. 6.-Oomparfaon of eubsidenca rata pradictiona at the Valhall platform complex wIM field maaauramenta. The Plaatic OB (Overburden) curve Is the currant study.

Fig. 8.-Oompariaon of compaction and eubeldenca predictions for two models with different elestlc properties in the overburden.

1995

2000

Fig. 9.Vertical dlsplacament at top of raaervolr on December, 2031. Only the region overlaying the reaarvoir almulator mesh la shown. Contour Ievela are meters.

385

10

P. D. PAITILLO, T. G. KRISTIANSEN, G. V. SUND, R. M. KJELSTADLI

SPE 47274

-..

Fig 10.-VerWcal dlaplacement at mudline on Dacambar, 2031. Only tie region ovarIaying the raaarvoir simulator maah is shown. Contour Ievela are matara. Dleplacement at platform la &3 matera. . . ..~ iiiiii~it+{ 44t.,..

MDP

..V I,,,ipsfi u
~R(d+p~tan~)~
Fig. A-i.-ABAQUS ylald aurfaca.

k
~

Transition Surface s -a ~

366