UNIT II: ONE-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS

CHAPTER 3: ELEMENT MODELING AND ANALYSIS

Lesson 11: THE GALERKIN APPROACH

Following the concepts introduced in Chapter 2, we introduce a virtual displacement field

φ = φ(x) (11.1)

and associated virtual strain

dφ
ε (φ ) = (11.2)
dx

where φ is an arbitrary or virtual displacement consistent with the boundary conditions.

Galerkin’s variational form, given in Eq. 6.11, for the one-dimensional problem considered
here, is

∫ σ ε (φ )Adx − ∫ φ fAdx − ∫ φ T Tdx −∑ φ i Pi = 0

T
T
(11.3a)
L L L i

This equation should hold for every φ consistent with the boundary conditions. The first term
represents the internal virtual work, while the load terms represent the external virtual work.
On the discretized region, Eq. 11.3a becomes.

∑ ∫e T
Eε (φ )Adx −∑ ∫φ
T
fAdx − ∑ ∫φ
T
Tdx −∑ φ i Pi = 0 (11.3b)
e e e e e e i

Note that ε is the strain due to the actual loads in the problem, while ε(φ) is a virtual strain.
similar to the interpolation steps in Eq. 8.7b, 9.5, and 9.7, we express

φ = Nψ , ε (φ ) = Bψ (11.4)
[ ]
2 T
where ψ = ψ 1 ,ψ represents the arbitrary nodal displacements of element e. Also the global
virtual displacements at the nodes are represented by

ψ = [ψ 1 ,ψ 2 ,.....ψ N ]
T
(11.5)

Element Stiffness

Consider the first term, representing internal virtual work, in Eq. 11.3b. Substituting Eq. 11.4
into Eq. 11.3b, and noting that ε = Bq, we get

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 ∫ε
T
Eε (φ )Adx = ∫ q T B T EBψ Adx (11.6)
e e

In the finite element model (Lesson 8), the cross-sectional area of element e, denoted by Ae, is
constant. Also B is a constant matrix. Further, dx = (λe / 2)dξ . Thus,
 λe T 1 
∫ ε Eε (φ )Adx = q  Ee Ae B B ∫ dξ ψ
T T
(11.7a)
e  2 −1 
T e
=q kψ (11.7b)
= ψTkeq

where ke is the (symmetric) element stiffness matrix given by

k e = E e Ae λe B T B (11.8)

Substituting B from Eq. 9.6, we have

E e Ae  1 − 1
ke = (11.9)
λe − 1 1

Force Terms

Consider the second term in Eq. 11.3a, representing the virtual work done by the body force
l
in an element. Using φ = Nψ and dx = e dξ and noting that the body force in the element is
2
assumed constant, we have
1
λe
∫e φ fAdx = −∫1ψ N fAe 2 dξ
T T T
(11.10a)

= ψT f e (11.10b)

where
1 
 ∫ N 1 dξ 
Aλ f  
f e = e e −11  (11.11a)
2  
 ∫ N 2 dξ 
−1 
is called the element body force vector. Substituting for N1 = (1-ξ)/2 and N2 = (1+ξ)/2, we
1 1
obtain ∫ N1dξ = 1. Alternatively,
−1
∫ N dξ
−1
1 is the area under the N1 curve = ½ × 2 × 1 = 1 and
1

∫N
−1
2 dξ = 1. Thus,

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 Ae λe f 1
fe =  (11.12b)
2 1
The element traction term then reduces to

∫φ Tdx = ψ T T e
T
(11.13)
e

where the element traction-force vector is given by

Tλ 1
Te = e   (11.14)
2 1

At this stage, the element matrices ke, fe, and Te have been obtained. After accounting for the
element connectivity (in Fig. 8.3, for example, ψ = [ψ1, ψ2]T for element 1, ψ = [ψ2, ψ3]T for
element 2, etc.), the variational form

∑ψ e
T
k e q − ∑ψ T f e − ∑ψ T T e − ∑ψ i Pi = 0
e e i
(11.15)

can be written as ψT (KQ-F) = 0 (11.16)

which should hold for every ψ consistent with the boundary conditions. Methods for handling
boundary conditions are discussed in the next lesson. The global stiffness matrix K is
assembled from element matrices ke using element connectivity information. Likewise, F is
assembled from element matrices fe and Te. This assembly is discussed in detail in the next
lesson.

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