Erosion Histrory of the Ragen and Nyalunya area, Nyando district, Kenya

Application of Geographic Information Technology, remote sensing and radiometric quantification to monitor temporal and spatial change

sa Bengtsson Sjrs

Arbetsgruppen fr Tropisk Ekologi Committee of Tropical Ecology Uppsala University, Sweden

November 2001 Uppsala

Minor Field Study 72

Erosion Histrory of the Ragen and Nyalunya area, Nyando district, Kenya
Application of Geographic Information Technology, remote sensing and radiometric quantification to monitor temporal and spatial change sa Bengtsson Sjrs
Abstract: This study was carried out within the context of a larger project called Improving Land Management in the Lake Victoria Basin. It addresses the terrestrial causes of eutrophication of Lake Victoria. The aim of the study was to describe the historical development of gullies in Ragen and Nyalunya, an area close to the lake basin. The probable mechanisms behind gully erosion were investigated. The soil properties in terms of erodibility were determined. It was found to be high in badly eroded areas and lower in flat cultivated areas. A radiometric quantification method was used to assess the surface erosion. Through measured reduction of 137Cs, the soil loss could be evaluated to approximately 90 tonnes/ha/yr in most of the areas with visible signs of surface erosion. Ragen and Nyalunya have expanded and increased a lot in depth since 1961. Ragen can be considered as a mature gully and it will probably have low activity in the future. Since 1961 it has grown with 236 103 tonnes. Nyalunya is younger and has developed much the last 40 years. During 1961-1990, 306 10 3 tonnes of soil was transported from the gully, and the last decade another 181 103 tonnes have been carried away by the water. Discussions during interviews with farmers in the area indicated that the impacts of surface and gully erosion are of great significance. Implementations like dams, plantation of trees, unploughed stripes and terraces have been built to prevent gully growth and surface erosion. Keywords: Kenya, gully erosion, surface erosion, radiometric quantification, remote sensing, erodibility, Land system approach, GIS-techniques Supervisors: Lennart Strmquist, Institution of Applied Environmental Impact Assessment, Department of Earth Science, Uppsala University Mwangi Hai,

International Center for Research in AgriForesty (ICRAF), Nairobi

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 5

1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................... 5 1.2 PURPOSE.............................................................................................................. 5 1.3 STUDY AREA ...................................................................................................... 6 1.4 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND OF GULLY EROSION ..................................... 7 1.4.1 Gully erosion caused by surface and subsurface run off................................ 7 1.4.2 The theory of cycle of gully erosion................................................................ 7
2. METHODS .............................................................................................................. 9

2.1 AIR PHOTO ANALYSES .................................................................................... 9 2.1.1 Air photo interpretation .................................................................................. 9 2.1.2 Gully depth measurement ............................................................................... 9 2.2 LAND SYSTEM MAPPING .............................................................................. 10 2.2.1 Identification and definition of land systems:............................................... 10 2.2.2 Mapping land systems and units ................................................................... 10 2.2.3 Land system and unit descriptions................................................................ 10 2.3 SOIL PROPERTIES............................................................................................ 12 2.3.1 Soil sampling for soil properties................................................................... 12 2.3.2 Soil property analyses................................................................................... 12 2.3.3 Infiltration rate measurements...................................................................... 13 2.3.4 Soil classification .......................................................................................... 14 2.3.5 Soil erodibility calculations .......................................................................... 14 2.4 MAPPING OF SURFACE EROSION BY 137CS METHOD ............................. 16 2.4.1 Soil sampling for Cs method ......................................................................... 16 2.4.2 137Cs analyses................................................................................................ 16 2.4.3 Assessment of surface erosion using 137Cs data ........................................... 16 2.5 GULLY SURVEYS ............................................................................................ 17 2.5.1 GPS measurements ....................................................................................... 17 2.5.2 Gully depth measurement ............................................................................. 17 2.5.3 Gully volume calculations............................................................................. 17 2.6 INTERVIEWS..................................................................................................... 19 2.7 GIS WORK STRATEGY.................................................................................... 19 2.7.1 Maps.............................................................................................................. 19 2.7.2 Cross-section area calculations with help of GIS-techniques ...................... 19
3. RESULTS .................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 LAND SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 21 3.2 SOIL PROPERTIES............................................................................................ 23 3.2.1 Surface soil map............................................................................................ 23 3.2.2 Chemical and physical properties ................................................................ 24 3.2.3 Soil classification .......................................................................................... 25 3.2.4 The soil erodibility ........................................................................................ 27 3.2.5 Soil profile descriptions ................................................................................ 28 3.3 VOLUMETRIC CHANGE OF GULLIES.......................................................... 29 3.4 SURFACE EROSION......................................................................................... 31

3.5

RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS ...................................................................... 33

4. DISCUSSION AND CONSLUSION ......................................................................... 34

4.1 HISTORY OF EROSION IN RAGEN AND NYALUNYA .............................. 34 4.1.1 Gully developement....................................................................................... 34 4.1.2 Land unit development.................................................................................. 34 4.1.3 Soil properties............................................................................................... 36 4.1.4 Surface erosion ............................................................................................. 36 4.1.5 Nyalunya and Ragen in relation to the gully erosion cycle .......................... 37 4.2 MECANISMS BEHIND GULLY AND SURFACE EROSION............................ 37 4.3 POSSIBLE IMPLEMENTATIONS TO PREVENT SOIL EROSION AND GULLY GROWTH ....................................................................................................... 38
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... 39 6. REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 40

APPENDIX Appendix 1: Results from chemical analyses Appendix 2: Results from physical analyses Appendix 3: Erodibility factor calculation Appendix 4:Gully depth measurements Appendix 5: Cs measured values and calculations Appendix 6: Map over soil samples Appendix 7: Rainfall measurements in mm

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND The Lake Victoria basin supports an estimated population of 27 million people. The lake basin is used as a major source of food, energy, drinking and irrigation water, shelter, transport, and as a repository of human, agricultural and industrial waste. The quality of the physical environment is therefore a fundamental factor in maintaining and increasing the living standards of the growing population (ICRAF/MARD, 2000).

The ecosystem of the lake has undergone substantial deterioration during the last three decades due to two major human interventions in the basin. The most urgent problems in Lake Victoria are the water hyacinth, fishery and water quality. The root causes of the eutrophication stem from continuing land degradation, resulting from deforestation, settlement, farming and accelerated soil erosion. Sediment and nutrient loads on the lake are high and will further accelerate the process of eutrophication. Urban runoff is also an important component of pollution and is bound to get worse in the next few years. Industrial discharges and sewerage will add to the problem. In addition, natural fluctuations in rainfall in the lake basin have caused a sharp rise in the level of the whole lake since 1961. This is reported to have caused an increase in the number of gullies in the district (Hai et al., 2000). This study is carried out within the context of a larger project namely Improving Land Management in the Lake Victoria Basin, a collaborative effort of two institutions: International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. This project involves research and development in order to study and address the terrestrial causes of eutrophication of Lake Victoria, the second biggest freshwater lake in the world, and an immensely important water body for at least five African countries. (Hai et al., 2000)
1.2 PURPOSE The goal of this study is to gain better understanding of the environment to help develop more sustainable land use practices for the farming communities in similar areas. The specific objectives are: * Describe historical development of soil erosion in the Ragen and Nyalunya area, especially the gully growth: the depth, width and associated volumetric soil loss within a 40-year period (1961-2001). The results will be presented with digital maps built on GIStechniques. * Investigate the probable mechanisms behind gully erosion and therefore determine the soil properties in terms of erodibility. * Determine the quantity of surface erosion by using the 137Cs method * Discuss the impact of soil erosion with the farmers in this area and investigate what kinds of implementations have been made to prevent the gully growth.

1.3 STUDY AREA Ragen/Nyalunya area is situated in the Nyando District in Kenya, which is a new rural district in Nyanza Province. It is an agricultural area consisting of a series of hills and scarps to the south, and the Kano Plains going down to the Lake in the northwest. The main river is Nyando, but there are numerous other small rivers flowing when it rains. This study was conducted in midstream Ragen/Nyalunya where the gullies are widest and deepest in an area of approximately 1742 hectares (see map over study area).

The geology is dominated by relative flat bedrock in the plains and granite as the major rock in the escarpment. The soils were developed in sediments deposited during a lake stadium when the water surface reached the escarpment. (Jaetzold, Schmidt, 1982) The temperatures in Lake Victoria area range from a minimum of 18C to a maximum of 34C over the year and a annual mean rainfall exceeding 1000mm (Bring, 1988). The area receives more than 40 mm/month thoughout the year, with a maximum during April and May. Diagram 1 shows the mean rainfall in mm in Upper Nyakach, which is located in the hills close to the escarpment where Ragen and Nyalunya gullies begin, approximately 1500m a.s.l. (Brring, 1988).
M ean values of 10 years m onthly rainfall (m m ) record for U pper N yakach
1253 200 190 192

180

160 139 120 101 107

140

120

mm 100
85 80 67 60 41 40 72 75 64

20

0 Jan Feb M ar Apr M ay Jun e Ju ly Aug S ept O ct N ov Dec TO TAL

Diagram 1

Mean values of 10 years monthly rainfall record for Upper Nyakach (source: Upper Nyakach DO's office)

1.4 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND OF GULLY EROSION 1.4.1 Gully erosion caused by surface and subsurface run off The rate of soil erosion caused by flowing water is controlled by two fundamental variables: the erosivity of the flow and the erodibility of the material. Basically two types of runoff are responsible for gully initiation and excavation: overland flow and subsurface flow. Surface runoff is mainly responsible for the following gully erosion processes, which can occur together: * Gully initiation and deepening by downward scouring * Undercutting and collapsing of the gully walls by water flowing along the bottom of the gully

Subsurface runoff is water movement under the soil surface, which requires high infiltration rates and a hydraulic gradient within a soil layer. There are different types of subsurface runoff. One is a linear flow along specific joints, pores or bedding directions, animal holes, plant roots etc. The linear flow can be referred to as piping or tunnelling, which cause gullying when it eventually reaches the soil surface resulting in an open gully (Nordstrm, 1988).
1.4.2 The theory of developement of gully erosion The development of gully erosion and thresholds that have to be crossed for erosion to accelerate is a theory that is of interest for this study. The activity is usually high immediately after the initiation of the erosion and when a long time has passed by the activity is normally low. There are indicators that may prove low activity: a steep average slope above the gully heads a large percentage of heads that have extended to bedrock a lower gully head development rate during the last years an increase in the impact of gully expansion (compared to gully extension) (Nordstrm, 1989)

2.

METHODS

2.1 AIR PHOTO ANALYSES Air photos over Ragen and Nyalunya from 1961 (Kenya Survey) and 1990 (Photomap) were used for measuring the gully depth, as an orientation fieldmap and for air photo interpretation. 2.1.1 Air photo interpretation Aerial photographs were analysed in relation to prominent physical features and land use. The interpretation of the images was done in advance of the fieldwork, so the primary interpretation was checked and compared to present conditions in order to make more accurate maps (Simonsson, 2001). 2.1.2 Gully depth measurement The depths of the gully were measured using a stereoscope with parallax bar (ZEISS aerotopo) from the aerial images of 1961 and 1990 in the Institution of Surveying at the University of Nairobi. This was done at the same spots as the gully measurements were taken out in the field. The procedure to determine the depth of gullies, z, was: 1) The central points and transferred image centre on every air photo were measured. Overlap and control points were found and defined in UTM coordinates and elevation from the topographic map. 2) A grid was drawn with squares of 10cm that was given the same UTM co-ordinates as the area of interest. This was called the map sheet and the control points were marked on it. 3) The ground distance from control points on the map sheet and photo distance between the same control point = s (mm) were measured. Map sheet scale was 1:10 000. Then: s mk mb = (1) s` where mk is map sheet scale, s is the ground distance from control points on the map sheet(mm) and s is photo distance between the same control point (mm). A mean value of mb (a constant) was determined. 4) The flight height was then calculated from: m f h0 = b (m) (2) 1000 where f is the principal distance and can be read on the photo and h0 is the flight height. 5) A constant, c ,was determined from: h c= 0 (3) bx where bx is the base measured in the right hand photograph (mm). 6) The elevations of the control points were determined from the topographic map and parallax values px from the parallax computer was measured on each control point. Then the measured depth of the gully, p, was determined from: p = p1- p2 (4)

where: p1 and p2 are the parallax values on the gully edge to the respective gully bottom. z, the real depth of the gully was then calculated from: z = p c (5) (Laboratory instructions from Nairobi university) Errors: The method with parallax bars is more accurate than to use only a stereoscope. The measurements were done twice to investigate the accurancy. The depths differed maximum 3m, usually not more than 1m on the images from 1961, which were in the scale 1:15 000. The images from 1990 were in the scale: 1:20 000 and therefore less accurate measurements could be done. The error with a stereoscope is normally 20% so the depth could differ up to 4m but normally not more than 2m.

2.2

LAND SYSTEM MAPPING

2.2.1 Identification and definition of land systems: The Land system approach is to describe the landscape and to find distribution and the pattern of physical units of a specific uniform character. A land system is an area with a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation. The land system can be divided into land units (Cooke, Doornkamp, 1990). 2.2.2 Mapping land systems and units The land systems were mapped in the field. By using air photos from 1990 covered with transparent contours a map of land systems could be drawn. Some features on the photos were distinguished and found in the field and used in finding the exact position. 2.2.3 Land system and unit descriptions 1: Mid catchment plains: The slope: 0 5% with a mean slope of 2,5%. Soil type: clay sand and mixed clay and sand. A1: Partly eroded area: The slope is small towards the gully. It is obvious that erosion occurs when there are heavy rains and big surface runoff. On the surface there is some gravel and under it there is a thin layer of sand. Underneath the sand there is dark clay. Vegetation is dominated by short grass with sparse bushes. Some areas have no vegetation where the topsoil is gone and underlying soil is visible. It is impossible to cultivate on these areas. B1: Badly eroded area: Close to the gully the land has collapsed and deep features have been developed. Vegetation consists of bushes and trees and some of them have followed the soil movements down into the gully. The soil profile is dark clay on the top with lighter clay underneath. When the dark clay is dry it forms cracks, which are 0,5m wide. It is impossible to cultivate on these areas. C1: Degraded grassland/bushland: The land cover consists of grass and bushes. No cultivation but it would be possible if structures were made or the land was processed. J1: Cultivated area: No sign of erosion is visible 2: Mid catchment slopes: The slope is >5% and less than 15% with a mean slope of 8%. The soils are sand, gravel and rocks over black and light clay.

A2: Partly eroded area: It is obvious that erosion occurs when there are heavy rains. There are some gravel and rocks on the surface and clay underneath. The vegetation is mostly short grass with sparse bushes. Some areas have no vegetation where the topsoil is gone and underlying soil is visible. It is impossible to cultivate on these areas. More eroded than A1 due to the greater slope. The paths in this area are eroded down to 0,5 m due to large surface runoff. D2: More eroded area: More steep and eroded than Partly eroded area. It is obvious that surface runoff occurs when there are heavy rains. There is gravel and rocks on the surface and clay underneath. There is no vegetation except for planted cactus plants in straight lines both along and across the slope. B2: Badly eroded areas: The surface is very hard and features of 5 m have been developed. Look like gully heads and they have been formed towards the main gully. Reddish sand and clay with some gravel is the main soils in these areas. There is no vegetation because of the extremely hard surface. Bedrock is visible in the streams. (See Figure 1) C2: Degraded grassland/bushland: The land cover consists of grass and bushes. No cultivation but it would be possible if the land was processed. J2: Cultivated area: No sign of erosion is visible

Figure 1:

Badly eroded area in Land system 2, Ragen, Photo: sa Bengtsson Sjrs 2001

3: Upper catchment hill slopes. The slope is more than 15%. There are mostly rocks and stones over the bedrock (granite) and the topsoil is almost gone. The vegetation consists of some trees and bushes and a few cultivated areas.

2.3 SOIL PROPERTIES The soil type has a great influence on gully erosion: conclusions made after considering the distribution of gullies in the mountains compared to the lowlands in Lesotho (Nordstrm, 1988). 2.3.1 Soil sampling for soil properties Topsoil samples were collected in each land system unit in a metal sampling cylinder with a diameter of 6cm and height of 10cm (i.e 0-10cm depth). Five cylinders were taken in each sampling area, and the soil was mixed and approximately 800g of it was saved in plastic bags.

Figure 2:

Soil sampling tool. Photo: sa Bengtsson Sjrs, 2001

2.3.2 Soil property analyses Every sample was dried, crushed and sieved through a 2mm sieve. For texture analyses the fraction bigger than 2mm (gravel) was weighed on a calibrated scale. The following analyses were made in the ICRAF laboratory in Nairobi:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Dry-Soil bulk density Texture analyses Water aggregate stability (see comments) pH, soil in water Total organic carbon, colorimetric method Exchangeable calcium, magnesium and sodium Extractable inorganic phosphorus and exchangeable potassium using Olsen extractant

Water aggregate stability The clay, silt, very fine sand and water dispersible clay were given as a percentage of the sample that passed through a 2mm sieve. The very fine sand was included in the total sand content. The percentage of aggregates that were soaked overnight and then retained on a 0,2 mm sieve after 20 oscillations, were recorded as the aggregate stability (ICRAF laboratory instructions).

2.3.3 Infiltration rate measurements Infiltration rate is the rate at which water enters the surface of the soil (Shaxon, 1977). A small rainfall simulator for the determination of water infiltration and erosion characteristics of soil was used. The sprinkler consisted of a calibrated cylindrical water reservoir with a capacity of 2500ml, which was in open connection with a sprinkling head. Water was discharged from the sprinkler head through 49 capillaries over a surface area of 0,09 m2, which was called the test plot. (Kamphorst, 1987)

The slope was 3-4 % in every test plot so the infiltration properties could be compared within different land systems units. A 3-minute long simulated rainfall, in total 1960ml (measured during fieldwork), was made and the collected amount of runoff water was measured with a 100ml-measuring cylinder. This was done three times in every land unit and the mean value was calculated. The total simulated rainfall minus the measured runoff determined the total infiltration during 3min. The infiltration rate was approximated as the total infiltration divided by 3 min and then transformed into cm/hr.

Figure 3:

Rainfall simulator used for infiltration rate measurements. Photo: sa Bengtsson Sjrs, 2001

2.3.4 Soil classification Soil colour was determined by using Revised Standard Soil Colour Charts. From chemical data and measured physical properties soils were named to FAO soil units. 2.3.5 Soil erodibility calculations Soil erodibility factor, K, is defined by RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation) as an empirical measure of soil erodibility as affected by intrinsic soil properties. A low K value means a soil that is resistant against erosion. The two most significant and closely related soil properties that affect soil erodibility are: infiltration rate and structural stability (USDA, not published). The content of clay, organic matter, Ca, Mg and iron oxide contributes to the aggregation of particles. Exchangeable sodium, Na, is a dominant factor in reducing aggregate stability (Jansson, 1982).

In general terms clay soils have a low K value because these soils are resistant to detachment. Sandy soils have high infiltration rates and reduced runoff, which also gives them a low K value. Silt loam soils have moderate to high K values and silt soils usually have the highest K value. (USDA, not published). The values of the exchangeable bases Ca, Mg, K and Na were classified into three different interpreted values: low (1), medium (2) and high (3). This was done with help from a Tropic soil manual and the values are referred and calibrated to soils in Malawi (Landon, 1991). The interpreted values (1,2 or 3) for every component on every sample were added together (negative values for Na because it is a reducing factor for stability) and a class called exchangeable bases was made. That was done with individual weights for their relative internal importance for stability. Ca:Mg:K:Na got the weights 2:2:1:(-2).
Table 1: Summary of soil chemical data interpretation (source: J R Landon, 1991) Interpreted Ca2+ (me/100g) Mg2+ (me/100g) K+ (me/100g) Na+ (me/100g) values <4 < 0,5 < 0.2 0 Low (1) 4-10 0.5-4 0.2- 0.6 0-1 Medium (2) > 10 >4 > 0.6 >1 High (3)

To receive a K factor, four classes were made for each soil property that contributes to the K factor. A low class value means that it contributes to a low K factor. The classes Water aggregate stability and Soil organic carbon were made with help of The soil erodibility nomograph (after Wischmeier and Smith 1978) (Shaxon, 1977). The infiltration rate was classified with help of Booker Tropical Soil Manual, but to get comparable values the suggested infiltration categories were changed into values shown in table 2.

Definition of classes that were used for calculating the soil erodibility factor, K. (*The class exchangeable bases is calculated, se above for description) Interpreted Class Texture Water Infiltration Soil organic values Exchangeable aggregate (cm/hr) carbon (%) bases* stability(%) >25 Clay >60% >35 cm/hr > 3% Low (1) Gravel Sandy/ 50-60% 25-35 2-3% Medium (2) 16-25 Clay loam 8-16 Loam 30-50% 15-25 1-2% High (3) Silty loam < 30% < 15 cm/hr < 1% Highest (4) 2-7
Table 2:

K was calculated by adding all values from each class on every soil sample with individual weights for their relative internal importance for erodibility. Infiltration rate and water aggregate stability were assumed to be the two most important factors. Therefore these classes got the weights 3 and the other classes got a weight of 1. The classes Exchangeable bases : Texture: Infiltration : Water aggregate stability:Soil organic carbon: got the weights 1:3:3:1:1 and the values were added together to the erodibility factor for every sample. Example of erodibility factor calculation: Sample: Ragen B10 CLASS exchangeable bases Ca (me/100g): 10,65 high = 3 Mg (me/100g): 2,09 medium = 2 medium = 2 K (me/100g): 0,53 Na (me/100g): 0,32 medium = 2 CLASS Exchangeable bases: 2 3 + 2 2 + 1 2 2 2 = 8 high = 3 CLASS Texutre: sandy clay loam medium = 2 high = 3 CLASS Water aggregate stability: 47% high = 3 CLASS Infiltration: 16,5 cm/hr highest = 4 CLASS Soil organic carbon: 0,47% ERODIBILITY FACTOR: 1 3 + 1 2 + 3 3 + 3 3 + 1 4 = 27 (Weights are bold font style) (See Appendix 1, 2, and 3)
2.3.6 Soil profile descriptions The profiles in the gullies were described as different visible layers. The thickness was measured with a measuring tape and soil samples were collected in every layer with the soil-sampling-tool described in Chapter 2.3.1.

2.4 MAPPING OF SURFACE EROSION BY 137Cs METHOD Surface erosion is sediment transport when run off water or wind sweep the topsoil away. 2.4.1 Soil sampling for Cs method One possible method to quantify soil loss is to use the137Cs-content of the topsoil as an indicator of processes. Removal and redistribution of the 137Cs adsorbed to the soil particles is related to the soil cycle. The method is based on observing the 137Cs fallout from atmospheric nuclear bomb test and its redistribution by erosion and depositional processes. The method has been tested and described by several authors (for instance by McHenry, Ritchie, 1977, Campbell et al., 1982, Loughran et al., 1987 and Strmquist et al, 1989) and shown to be useful. (Lunden et al., 1986) Topsoil samples were collected along a slope transect to represent different land units. The soil samples were collected in a metal sampling cylinder with a diameter of 6 cm and height of 10 cm and taken two times in depth (i.e 0-20 cm depth). (Kulander, Strmquist, 1989) Six cylinders were taken in each sampling area. The soil was mixed and approximately 500g of it was saved in plastic bags. In addition, sites showing no signs of erosion were selected for reference sampling. (Strmquist et al., 1989) To find these points (undisturbed spots where no cultivation has occurred during the last 60 years) a couple of interviews were made with old farmers in the area. Usually old trees were spotted and the farmer who owned the land told us about how old the trees were and if the land had been cultivated there. 2.4.2 137Cs analyses As a preparation for the radiometric analyses the soil samples were dried and sieved. The material <= 2mm of retained was analysed at the Department of Soil Science at The Swedish University of Agricultural Science. 2.4.3 Assessment of surface erosion using 137Cs data The computer program that was used during the 137Cs measurements corrected the 137Cs activity for radioactive decay. 137Cs inventory, which is the total amount of 137Cs in the entire soil profile per unit surface area (Bq/m2), was calculated using the following formula:

SSAcor W SSI = H

(6)

where: SSI = sub-sample inventory (Bq/m2) SSA cor = corrected sub-sample activity (Bq/kg) W = weight of sample H = horizontal surface area of the sample (m2) A theoretical model was used to estimate soil loss or surface erosion from measurements of 137Cs inventories. By assuming that the total 137Cs is completely mixed in the tillage layer and that soil erosion during the period since the beginning of 137Cs fallout is directly

proportional to the reduction in the 137Cs content of the soil. This model is represented by the formula: BdX Y = 10 (7) 100T where: Y = mean annual soil loss (t/(ha*yr)) B= bulk density kg/m3) d = cultivation depth (m) T =time elapsed since initiation of 137Cs accumulation (yr) X = percentage reduction in total 137Cs inventory (Walling, Collins, 2000)
The calculated values of the mean annual soil loss were connected to the area of each land unit. If the sample was taken in a place where no sampling for soil properties had been done the bulk density for a similar soil was used. Globally speaking, the temporal pattern of caesium-137 input characterised by a beginning of detectable 137Cs in 1954, peaks in 1958/1959 and 1962-1964. The termination of 137Cs input occurred around mid-1980s. Some countries (not Kenya) had extra input in 1986 after Chernobyl incident. The time elapsed since initiation of 137Cs accumulation was put to 39 years because there was only very small annual fallout before 1962 when the biggest peak of fallout was detected. The maximum 137Cs inventory occurred around 1967 (Quine diagram). The cultivation depth was put to 0.3 m. (Walling, Quine, URL address, not publicised)
Errors: If some of the 137Cs accumulated at the soil surface is removed before incorporation into the tillage layer, the method of calculating soil loss over estimates the erosion. The model does not take into account the potential dilution of 137Cs in the tillage layer due to the incorporation of soil containing no 137Cs from below the original tillage depth because of surface lowering. (Walling, 2000) 2.5 GULLY SURVEYS 2.5.1 GPS measurements Localisation of field spots and gully edges was carried out through the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) and a hand held receiver (Magellan GPS NAV 1000 receiver). The error in the GPS measured position using three dimensional (x,y,z) mode was estimated to 0,1-0,5m in x,y-direction and approximately 3m in evaluation values, z. 2.5.2 Gully depth measurement To measure the depth of the gullies a measuring tape of 30 m was used. At every section where the depth was measured, the width at the bottom of the gully was also measured. 2.5.3 Gully volume calculations For each section, a cross-section area was calculated with help of GIS techniques. The section area was plotted against North-South UTM-coordinates (i.e the length of each

section) from the GPS data for each cross-section. Nyalunya and Ragen were assumed to be oriented in straight North-South direction. The area under that graph was calculated as the volume of the gully. In other terms the total volume of one gully was calculated from:

V = Ai +2Ai 1 L( i 1)i
i =2

m3

(8)

where A= sectional cross-section area in m2, L= length of section in m and n= number of cross-sections. The total soil loss in m3 soil was calculated from a mean value of the bulk density of the different layers in a soil profile.

2.6 INTERVIEWS To understand what impact the soil erosion and gully growth have for the people living in Ragen and Nyalunya nine interviews were made. The following questions were discussed. 1) What kind of crop did the farmer grow? 2) How fertile is the soil on the plots and has there been a change in the fertility during the years, which could prove if some topsoil had been removed through erosion? 3) Have some structures been made to prevent the erosion due to surface runoff and has the farmer been advised by a company or governmental institution to do so? 4) How has the development of the gully (Ragen or Nyalunya) in deepening and widening been? And has there been any attempt at stopping the gully growth? 5) What did the farmers know about sand harvesting and the development of the sand collection in the gullies? 2.7 GIS WORK STRATEGY 2.7.1 Maps All the actual aerial photographs were scanned in a scanner with the resolution of 200 pixels per inch (ppi). The scanned images were georeferenced using the geocording function of the ArcView, GIS program, and UTM co-ordinates obtained from a 1:50 000 scale topographic map (SoK, 1982). The gullies, landsystem map and soil map were digitalized by using the georeferenced images in Arc View. 2.7.2 Cross-section area calculations with help of GIS-techniques GPS data (x,y,z) from field measurements was processed in MS Excel. New elevation (z) co-ordinates were estimated from depth measurements and from descriptions of every measured section in Nyalunya and Ragen (in total 14 in Nyalunya and 27 in Ragen). The sections are shown in Figure 4 on the air photo from 1990. The z-co-ordinates were given in meters over sea level (around 1200m) but they were changed in range so that the lowest point was given the value 0. After that process every section was edified with UTM co-ordinates and z values. The widths in 1961 and 1990 were measured with a tool in Arc View on the georeferenced images. The cross-sections were assumed to be similar shape in every year. The cross-sections were then transferred in to Arc View and the program calculated the section area. Further calculations were made in MS Excel and described in Chapter 2.5.3.

3. RESULTS
3.1 LAND SYSTEM Land systems and units in Ragen and Nyalunya mapped in field 2001 are shown in Figure 5. As the map indicates there are mainly badly- and more eroded areas around the gully heads in Land System 2. Badly eroded areas were found in Land System 1 too, but scattered along the gully sides like collapsed edges with eroded features down in the black clay. Degraded grassland/bushland was scattered and so were also partly eroded areas.

3.2 SOIL PROPERTIES 3.2.1 Surface soil map The surface soil map (figure 6) shows fluvial or alluvial deposition of sand along the gullies. In many places the texture is very mixed of gravel, sand, silt and clay.

Figure 6:

Surface deposition map

Texture analyses showed that the content of clay silt is also high in the samples where gravel is deposited on the surface. In badly eroded areas the surface is very hard and the topsoil is gone. The result of texture analyses from these areas is shown in Diagram 2.
T e x tu r e a n a lys e s in b a d ly e r o d e d a r e a s

Ragen B11

21

37

29

13
c la y s ilt sand g ra v e l

Ragen B1

22

39

35

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Diagram 2:

Texture analyses in Badly eroded areas, Ragen

The texture is well mixed and there is still a high content of sand even if a lot of the sand and silt has been transported from these areas by rainwater. The textures of the samples taken in the area with a surface layer named gravel have a gravel fraction of around 30% and maximum 41% (sample Nyalunya A2). Gravel is deposited at higher water velocities than sand and the origin is probably stones from the upper hills, or from residue of soil washed when the Lake was retreating.
3.2.2 Chemical and physical properties Soil samples were taken in every land unit in Ragen and Nyalunya and analysed for chemical and physical properties. A summary of the results is shown in table 3 with mean values from analyses of samples from both Ragen and Nyalunya. J1sand and J1 clay belong to land unit J1-cultivated land in Landsystem 1 with surface deposition of sand respective clay. J1mix represents cultivated land in Landsystem 1 with surface deposition of a mixture of clay and sand. (See Appendix 1,2 and 3) Table 3 Land Unit A1 B1 C1 J1mix J1clay J1 sand A2 B2 D2 J2 gravel C2

Summary of chemical and physical properties of the soils in Ragen and Nyalunya Number Dry-Soil Water Ph Total Ca+Mg+ P of soil Bulk aggregate organic Na+K (mg/kg) samples density stability carbon (me/100g (g/cm3) (%) (%) soil)
2 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 1.24 1.12 1.08 1.24 1.11 1.42 1.20 1.18 1.16 1.23 1.23 38.75 37.28 14.13 35.58 28.54 53.78 40.34 37.96 35.86 47.75 48.90 6.97 8.27 7.34 7.00 7.56 7.07 7.57 8.15 7.65 6.60 6.91 0.56 0.40 1.05 0.88 1.07 0.44 0.60 0.31 0.70 1.10 1.01 11.60 16.49 28.56 10.12 17.76 5.45 12.40 15.08 14.43 6.49 9.45 1.16 5.92 5.05 58,9 31.2 2.2 2.1 2.13 0.79 1.47 1.20

The infiltration rate is an important property concerning development of piping and surface runoff. Basic infiltration rate means the steady state rate that appears after some hours of rain but the infiltration measured in Ragen and Nyalunya was measured during an initial state and determined as the total infiltration divided by the time (3 min). The rate was very rapid (over 35cm/hr in a cultivated area, see Appendix 3) and the values were not comparable to values in other reports, where normally basic infiltration rates are given, see table 4.

Infiltration rate measurements in different Land Units in Ragen and Nyalunya (see Appendix 3) compared to suggested infiltration categories in Tropical Manual (Landon, 1991) Infiltration measured in Land Interpreted Basic infiltration rate Units in Ragen and Nyalunya values (cm/hr) Slow 0.1-0.5 Moderately slow 0.5-2.0 Moderate 2.0-6.0 Moderately rapid 6.0-12.5 Minimum in A1: 12,6 cm/hr Rapid 12.5-25.0 In B1 and B2: around 14 cm/hr Maximum in J1sand: 35,6 cm/hr Very rapid >25.0
Table 4:

Normal infiltration for sand is 2 - 25 cm/hr, sandy loam 1- 8 cm/hr, silty clay 0,03-0,5 cm/hr and clay 0,01-0,8 cm/hr (J.R. Landon, 1991). In clay loam soil in J1, the infiltration rate was determined to 31,4 cm/hr! A big change in runoff after 2 minutes was noticed in some soils because the soil was very dry when the measurements were made. The soil moisture has a great impact of the infiltration rate. It has been investigated that a soil with 20% initial soil-water content has an infiltration rate of 14cm/hr and the same soil but with 40% initial soil-water content infiltrated 2cm/hr (Landon, 1991).
3.2.3 Soil classification In sub-humid regions that have been grazed or cultivated for a long time it is usually not possible to recognise the original depth of the A-horizon (Dunne, 1981). Therefore there was some difficulties in classification of soil. The soil could be divided into three different main groups: Soils on plains, soils on foot slopes and soils on middle slopes. The characteristics of each soil are described below. No complete soil map was made due to lack of time in the field.

First some definitions: Illuvial: deposited material removed by percolating water from upper soil profile. Argillic: a mineral subsurface horizon that is characterised by the illuvial accumulation of clay. Pallid: thin with low organic carbon and light, otherwise no diagnostic horizon S-value: sum of Ca, Mg, Na and K expressed in me/100g. Base saturation: the ratio S-value to cation exchange capacity (CEC) expressed as a percentage. Soil on plains: Contains of deep, very dark to black soil. Cracking clay loam to clay with calcareous deeper subsoil. FAO classified soils found in the area: PLANOSOLS with a argillic horizon

Soils on foot slopes: Contains of dark reddish brown to dark yellowish brown soil with varying texture. FAO classified soils found in the area: ARENOSOLS highly weathered with less than 15% clay. Have a pallid A horizon LUVISOLS high value of base saturation, subsoil is not saline, with a argillic horizon Soils on middle slopes: Contains of dark red to brown soil. The texture is sandy clay loam in many places gravel. Shallow in some places. FAO classified soils found in the area: REGOSOLS non-alluvial unconsolidated materials with no diagnostic horizons other than a pallid A horizon LITHOSOLS have solid rock within 25cm of the surface (Macviar et al., 1977, Jaetzold, Schmidt, 1982)

3.2.4 The soil erodibility The soil erodibility, K, was calculated and a map with interpolated grids based on the K values was made and it is shown in Figure 7. The interpolated grids were calculated with a model in Arc View, which extrapolated and interpolated the contours based on 20 values from the samples.

Figure 7:

Interpolated grid of Erodibility factor. Erodibility factor in ranges 16 to 31

The highest K values appeared in badly eroded areas and partly eroded areas in Land System 2. That was due to low infiltration rates and the soils in these areas have low aggregate stability. High values were also found in badly and partly eroded areas in the plain area around section 1 and 2 in Nyalunya. In cultivated areas the erodibility factor was low due to high infiltration rates. It may appear strange that low erodibiliy factors are found around the gully heads of Nyalunya. These samples are not taken in only eroded areas but also in cultivated and bushland, where it is likely to find more resistant soil, otherwise it would have been badly eroded.

3.2.5 Soil profile descriptions The profiles were similar in almost every gully section. Upper layer was sandy loam and second layer contained dark clay loam. Underneath the dark clay loam there was light clay loam, usually with layers of rounded stones (see Figure 8). That layer probably reached the bedrock.

Figure 8:

Soil profile visible in Nyalunya gully where the vertical edge is around 9m

The properties of different layers are described in table 5. Table 5: Properties of soil in gully profiles Soil Depth of Water Na+ Ca2+, layer from aggregate (me/100g) Mg2+,K+ surface(m) stability (me/100g) (%) 0-3 54.3 0 8.9 Sandy loam 15.4 0 29.1 Dark clay 3-7 loam 7-bedrock 43.4 1,9 20.2 Light clay loam

Soil organic carbon (%) 0.42

Bulk density (g/cm3)

1.30 1.12 1.14

0.90 0.25

The soil properties in the profile were interpreted as the erodibility classes. Water aggregate stability is very low in the dark, low in the light clay loam and medium in the sand loam. Content of exchangeable bases (Ca2+, Mg2+ and K+) is high in dark clay loam, medium in light clay loam but low in sand loam. Only the light clay has any measurable content of Na+, which reduces the aggregate stability. The soil organic carbon is very low in all profile layers.
3.3 VOLUMETRIC CHANGE OF GULLIES The cross-section areas in Ragen and Nyalunya have changed a lot the last 40 years. Diagram 3 shows the area of sections 1-8 (se figure 4), which is the east branch of Ragen and the area development since 1961 plotted against the distance from section 1. Ragen has a similar shape today as in 1961. In further calculations the west branch (sections 2328) is included in the total volumetric determination.
Cross-section area (m 2) in Ragen 1961, 1990 and 2001
350

300

250

200

AREA 1961 AREA 1990 AREA 2000 150

100

50

0 0 138 241 345 447 550 713 877 1063 1399 1502 1605 1697 1731 1766 1843 1967 2030 2134 2198 2263 2431

Distance from section 1 (m)

Diagram 3:

Cross-section area in east branch in Ragen in 1961, 1990 and 2001

Diagram 4 shows the area development in each section in Nyalunya plotted against the distance from section 1. The extension of Nyalunya has changed very much between 1961 and 1990. The part between cross-sections 2 and 7 was almost no stream in 1961, 46m in 1990 and 7-9m today (2001) (See Appendix 4). The development of the volume is probable not linear over time rather bigger during the years with heavy rains 1991 and in may 1998 when the area received 275mm rain in one month (Appendix 7). The width of Nyalunya has increased in almost every cross-section.

Cross-section area (m 2) in Nyalunya 1961, 1990 and 2001

350

300

250

200

Area 2000 Area 1990 Area 1961 150

100

50

77

243

330

418

734

978

1117

1353

1681

2221

2468

2734

2842

Distance from section 1 (m)

Diagram 4:

Cross-section area in Nyalunya in 1961, 1990 and 2001

The area under the graphs in diagram 2 and 3 is assumed to be the volume of the gullies. In diagram 5 the total volume change of Ragen and Nyalunya from 1961 is shown. There has been a great development of Ragen and Nyalunya the last 40 years.

Volume (m3) of Nyalunya and Ragen 1961, 1990 and 2001

600000 Ragen Nyalunya 500000

400000

m3

300000

200000

100000

0
1 2 3

Diagram 5:

The volumetric change in the gullies from 1961 to 2001

From the volumes and bulk density the total soil loss measured in 1000 tonnes of soil (= 1 10 6 kg) can be calculated. SOILLOSS (10 6 kg ) = Volume(10 6 m 3 ) Bulkdensity ( kg / m 3 ) ) A mean value of the bulk density of light clay, dark clay and sand was used for the calculation = 1187 kg/m3. In Table 6 the assessment of soil loss in 1000 tonnes is shown.
Table 6: Years 1961-1990 1990-2001

Total soil loss in gullies measured in 1000 tonnes during the last 40 years in Ragen and Nyalunya Soil loss Soil loss RAGEN (1000 NYALUNYA (1000 tonnes) tonnes) 158.4 306.4 77.9 181.1 236.3 487.5

TOTAL 40 years

3.4 SURFACE EROSION The mean reference level of 137Cs loading was 80.7 Bq/m2. This is after some unknown natural losses, from leaching and from uptake by plants that have been grazed. In the badly eroded areas the loading was 0 Bq/m2 which is equal to 100% reduction. Due to the low loading, the amount of 137Cs was undetectable, some samples were not analysed. That was the case for samples taken in more eroded areas than analysed samples containing not measurable values of 137Cs (* in bad eroded areas B1 and B2, marked in the table). The indication of sediment transfer was shown by the reduction in 137Cs loading in all land units. The reduction in 137 Cs loading in gully systems (comparable to badly eroded areas) was 100% in both Ragen and Nyalunya. There has not occurred any soil loss at the reference points i.e. they are considered as undisturbed areas. Strictly the soil density is affecting the assessment of soil loss. The 137Cs reduction in a cultivated area (J1 sand with bulk density of 1.43 g/cm3) is around 88% and soil loss is determined to 95 tonnes/ha/yr. An area with a reduction of 100% (for example, land unit D2, where the soil has a density of 1.17g/cm3) has an evaluated soil loss of 89 tonnes/ha/yr. Table 7 shows the reduction of 137Cs inventory in different land units. Table 7: explanation Land Unit

Reduction of 137Cs inventory in different land units, * see above for

Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.24 (mean value) 1.35 (mean value) 1.23 1.19 1.20 1.15 Reduction of Cs (%) 0 88 % 92% 100% 80% 100%
137

Reference points Cultivated land, J1 Cultivated land, J2 Partly Eroded areas, A1 Partly Eroded Areas, A2 More- and Badly Eroded Areas, D2, B1 and B2*

Number of samples 4 2 1 1 1 1

The material could be temporary stored in footslope accumulation, and partly further transported to the plains around Lake Victoria. That could explain why the reduction in partly eroded areas in Land system 2 (A2) is lower than in partly eroded areas in Land system 1 (A1), which is defined to be less eroded than A2. In some places the topsoil could have contained soil deposited from another area. In figure 9 the annual surface soil loss is shown with values measured in 1000kg/ha/yr.

Figure 9:

Annual soil loss in 1000kg/ha determined out from Cs method

It is important to note that that surface soil loss is not comparable to the total soil loss through gully growth, which is calculated to 479 500 tonnes since 1960 in Nyalunya (around 12 tonnes/yr)

3.5 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS Most of the farmers in Ragen and Nyalunya grow maize, groundnuts, beans, sorghum, cassava and some vegetables like tomatoes and sweet potatoes only for family use. The soil fertility has decreased the last 10 years and some of the farmers have added cow manure to make the soil more fertile. The harvest has improved due to improved seeds.

Many farmers have made structures like unploughed strips, tree planting and some small terraces during the last 10 years after advice from Ministry of Agriculture. All of them have noticed an improvement in harvest after the implementation of the structures. The question of how the gullies have developed resulted in a lot of different answers and opinions. Most of them indicated that Ragen gully was a path in the 40s, where largescale farms took the cattle down to the plains to graze. Some serious rains in 1963 and El Nino rains in 1997 have caused a rapid development of the gullies. The gullies have a different impact for the farmers. The farmers living at the gully edge can see their plots collapsing down into the gully. The knowledge of the weakness of the soil stability is there. Many farmers who live along the gully edges have problems in transporting their tools in cases where the gully has divided their land properties. Many of them have to leave their plots on the other side of the gully uncultivated. Another problem is when houses are built in areas where great surface erosion has caused transport of soils and movements of the ground. In some places you can find houses that are tilted to a slope of 15% . Some implementations to stop the gully growth have been made. Joseph O.Miguda built a small dam in 1990 to stop a small gully east of Nyalunya. By that time the gully was 4 m deep and growing deeper. After the dam was built the gully erosion almost stopped and soil was put back by hand. Today over 10 years later the former gully is cultivated in small plots and the water in the dam is used as drinking water to the cattle. Sand harvesting started in the 1960s and has increased the last 20 years. The rainy season is the high season and the collection is started down and moves upstream as the gully bottom dries. Nowadays the amount of sand taken from the bottom of the gully (Ragen and Nyalunya) can be up to 10 lorries/day with 7 tonnes each (wet sand). The sand harvesters dig the sand from the stream and place it in hips. Then lorry owners drive into the gully to collect the hips and pay the harvesters some money. The driver transports the sand to the buyer and sells it for a 10 times higher price and sometimes more! Everybody does not accept the sand harvesting. At one place in Nyalunya (further east from sample Nyalunya J2 (see Appendix 6)) a stream in a another gully spreads out where the gully ends. Sand had been transported to this area and collection of sand made the stream form a path. The water coming from upstream was then spreading further downstream and caused overflow on farmers plots so that they could not cultivate there.

4. DISCUSSION AND CONSLUSION

4.1 HISTORY OF EROSION IN RAGEN AND NYALUNYA The following history of the development of the gullies, Ragen and Nyalunya, is a summary and contains conclusions from results found in this study. 4.1.1 Gully developement Thousands of years ago Ragen and Nyalunya area was the bottom of a lake. The soil profile indicates that in the beginning of the lake stage light calcareous clay was sedimented. A change in the environment occurred and the deposited clay changed properties and the colour to black clay loam, which now covers the surface in the flat areas. Since the end of the lake stage sand has been transported from the hills and deposited in the lower parts on the mid catchment slopes.

During the earlier agricultural landuse (before the land reform in 1964) large-scale farming dominated rural areas in Kenya. By that time Ragen gully was a path for walking cows to graze in the plains (interviews). When a path was developed the water was given a fast way down and it became an occasional stream with high water velocities. The gully erosion started taking place and gullies developed. As they grew deeper the gully edges collapsed and they expanded. The dominance of a rectangular cross-sections in the Ragen gully, indicate gully widening (expansion), rather than extension, and will probably dominate gully development in the future (Nordstrm, 1989).
4.1.2 Land unit development During the last 40 years there has been formations of badly-, more- and partly eroded areas. With help of GIS techniques the land unit change between 1961 and 2001 is shown in Figure 10 and 11. Badly- and more eroded areas in Land System 2 have developed mainly around the gully heads. It is difficult to make interpretations on the air photos from 1961 and 1990 to distinguish right land units. As Figure 10 and 11 have shown, badly- and more eroded areas in Land System 2 have developed mostly around the gully heads. That is also where the highest values of the erodibility factor were found

Some degraded grassland/bushland areas in Nyalunya (around sample Nyalunya B2, see Appendix 6) leading down to the gully were cultivated before the heavy rains during El nino in 1997 (see Appendix 7). After 1997 there has been too much water on the surface to cultivate there. The water came from a stream in the upper hilly areas and during the El nino rains it found a new path and since then it is still pouring water on this degraded grassland/bushland area (interviews).

Figure 10 Badly and partly eroded areas in Ragen and Nyalunya 1961 Figure 11 (below) Badly, more- and partly eroded areas in Ragen and Nyalunya 2001

4.1.3 Soil properties The surface erosion has caused a lot of mixing of soil, which is visible in the surface soil map (see Figure 6). Looking at the distribution, the finest topsoil is found on the flat surfaces while the coarsest are on the plots just below the escarpment. The badly eroded area units show a very wide variation (see Diagram 4) in texture and have a high erodibility factor. The transport of soils is of great impacts on the content of nutritions in the soil. Some areas have improved with increased fertility but in other areas the topsoil has become swept away (Interviews). 4.1.4 Surface erosion The surface erosion has been enormous in some areas. In badly and partly eroded areas the surface soil loss, estimated by 137Cs-method, is around 90 tonnes/ha/yr. The erosion rate from a catchment in Lesotho, which had been estimated through repeated reservoir surveys, was 24 tonnes/ha/yr in the period 1973-1977 and 12 tonnes/ha/yr in 1977-1986. That is deposited soil from an area that consists of escarpment, debris slope, footslope gullies and a plateau, similar to the study area in Kenya. Ragen and Nyalunya could have comparable erosion rate values but the erosion estimated by 137Cs-method is not. These values show the surface erosion in specific geomorphologic units during the last 40 years. In cultivated areas the soil loss was estimated to around 87 tonnes/ha/yr but the tillage method may have an impact of the 137Cs-method, so that could be overestimated.

Runoff volumes from experimental plots in Upper Ragen (above the escarpment in Land System 3) have been measured during two storms (19,5 and 46,2mm) occurring in 2000. The results showed that degraded areas (comparable to partly eroded areas) lose the highest amount of runoff (15,6%). Bushland plots recorded the least runoff loss of 0,17% and cultivated area around 2,4%. The soil loss was estimated in the same plots during one of these storms (19,5mm). Analyses of suspended sediments in collected runoff water were used for the assessment of soil loss. In degraded areas the soil loss was measured to 6652kg/ha, which presented the highest value of the experimental plots. In grazing area the soil loss was 23kg/ha and on roads and footpaths 279kg/ha. The mean annual rainfall in the area is around 1253mm/yr (see Chapter 1.3), which is equal to 64 rainfalls of 19,5mm each (hypothetical pattern). That would give a soil loss of 425,7 tonnes/ha/yr (64 rainfalls/yr times 6652 kg/ha/rainfalls) in degraded areas with a slope of 15% or more. Surface soil loss assessment in Ragen and Nyalunya could be underestimated with the 137Cs method. It is to be remembered that the 137Cs method is used in areas with a lower slope than in Upper Ragen. The mean reference level of 137Cs loading in Ragen and Nyalunya was 80,7 Bq/m2, which can be compared to the reference level in Lesotho: 300 Bq/m2, in 1986 (L.Kulander, 1986). The decay of 137Cs during 15 years could be one reason for that. The reference points used in the method are possible not totally scientific correct. Due to the way of interviewing old farmers the whole truth may not come out. How many years ago a tree was planted is not always easy to remember and also the way of counting years could be different in other parts of the world. The age of the trees was not so hard to visually determine but if the land around the tree ever had been cultivated was impossible to see.

4.1.5 Nyalunya and Ragen in relation to the development of gully erosion The study shows that the state of gully erosion in Ragen is probably at the end of its active lifetime. That is when surface erosion rates, gully head development and slope above gully heads have been taken into account. The descriptions of indicators in chapter 1.4.2 are similar to the situation in Ragen 2001 except for the gullyheads. Not many of them have extended to bedrock but the soil surface in these areas is very hard, almost impossible to remove. Nyalunya is probable a younger gully than Ragen and it has developed in a rapid pace the last 40 years. Especially in the lower part of Nyalunya (Sections 2-4) there are indications showing a great change. In 1961 there was almost no gully and the water did not form a stream, instead it spreads out on the surface and caused a lot of mixing and transporting of soils. Sometime between 1961 and 1990 a stream was formed, perhaps during the heavy rains in 1964, which today is a gully around 6 m deep and 30 m wide (see Appendix 4). Nyalunya will probably expand further. Some areas (around section 5 and sample Nyalunya C1 (see Appendix 6)) in Nyalunya can be considered as active in the erosion process. 4.2 MECANISMS BEHIND GULLY AND SURFACE EROSION The main agents of erosion and transportation are impact of raindrops and the surface flow of water (M.Jansson, 1982). The deepening and widening of Ragen and Nyalunya may have been caused by many other factors. It is impossible to tell which is the most important. Harvesting of sand may have a great impact due to the long period (probably more than 40 years) of taking sand from the bottom of the stream. That is not a natural factor but it is very difficult to stop this activity because this natural resource supplies many families in the area.

The speed of runoff water is probably very high in badly- and more eroded areas in Land System 2 due to the large slope and hard surface. The change in depths of features in the soil was impossible to measure and there could have been a large deepening of features in badly eroded areas. Rainfall data prove an increase in precipitation during 1997 (See Appendix 7). That could have had a great impact of the gully and surface erosion caused by high velocities of run off water occurring during heavy rains. In the area with lower slopes (Land System 1) the gully erosion has probably developed mostly through undermining of gully sides, which has lent to collapsed edges. Water saturation of the soil makes is unstable and it will collapse. The aggregate stability of the black clay is very low and usually the eroded features are grown in the black clay. Degraded grassland/bushland areas are scattered in both 1961 and 2001, and so are partly eroded areas. Their occurrence could be an effect of surface runoff water that has been transported on these areas, maybe on a path or spread out. Even if the analyses of the soil samples did not show a high content of sodium (Na+) some small cream-white stones were largely present in many profiles. These are indicators of high sodium content. Another indicator of sodic properties is Acacia with very strong sharp thorns. Kano plains, of which Nyalunya and Ragen belong, are dotted with pockets of this Acacia. Sodium is a compound that strongly influences soil instability and therefore also gullies initiation and gully growth.

4.3

POSSIBLE IMPLEMENTATIONS TO PREVENT SOIL EROSION AND GULLY GROWTH Make implementations it is necessary to have knowledge about the mechanisms that may cause soil erosion and gully growth. Surface runoff with a lot of transported soil is probably one of the most known factors due to its visibility. From interviews and visual experience during the fieldwork some initiatives to prevent the erosion were noticed. Unploughed stripes or terraces in the plots, in order to stop the rainwater from sweeping fertile soil away, seem to be successful implementations. The problem is that the structures usually need to be rebuilt after approximately 5 years, which is a hard work. Joseph O.Migudas example of building a small dam to stop a small gully is another recommended example. In addition, water in a dam is a convenient way of supplying the cattle with drinking water.

Several trees have been planted around and along the sides of the gullies. Unfortunately these efforts have not been very successful and some of the trees have fallen vertically as the edges have collapsed as the figure 12 shows. This was also the case in Lesotho and the deep penetrated roots of the trees seemed to promote, rather than prevent, the development of pipes. The roots break through the top horizon of the soil and facilitate the percolation of water to piping-prone horizons deeper down in the profile (Nordstrm, 1988). Nevertheless trees and bushes on the gully bottom appeared to locally halt the erosion. Another study about trees in erosion and soil conservation in Kenya got other conclusions: Trees should not be planted on the floor of eroding and narrow gullies, because the stems will decrease the cross-section of streaming water. The stems can divert the stream to the sides of the gully, thus causing undermining of the gully sides. Where the gully sides are less steep (inclination of about 1:1) trees should be planted on the gully walls (Wenner, 1980).

Figure 12: Tree planted along the side in Nyalunya, photo: sa Bengtsson Sjrs, 2001

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Swedish International Development Authority (Sida) funded this project through the Committee of Tropical Ecology at Uppsala University. Additional funding was provided by the Earth Science Section, Uppsala University (Geosektionen). Thanks to Lennart Strmquist, Professor at Uppsala University, who has provided excellent help and guidance and Mwangi Hai, ICRAF Nairobi/Kisumu, who gave me advice and support during my time in Kenya. I would also like to thank Lisa Fernius for cooperation during preparations and fieldwork, Jason Oguonga, Ragen Kenya, for help during fielwork Alain Albrecht ICRAF Nairobi for supervising, Oscar Ochieng, ICRAF Nairobi, for helping with GIS work, Ted Osewe, Nairobi university, for work with Department of Surveying, Klas Rosn, Department of Soil Science, Swedish University of Agriculture Science, SLU, who carried out the Cs analyses, Abraham Joel, Department of Soil Science, Swedish University of Agriculture Science, SLU, who assisted me with calculation of the erodibility factor, PO Hrden, Per Stolpe and Andreas Gyllenhammar for advising during GIS work, Philip Wookey for help with soil classification Allan Rodhe for comments, Hugo Sjrs for comments and for linguistic revision and Peter Gtenstedt for all support and for linguistic revision.

6. REFERENCES
Literature, reports and articles: Brring, L, 1988, Aspects of daily rainfall climate relevant to soil erosion in Kenya, Department of Physical Geography, University of Lund, Sweden. pp 3 ,373

Cooke, R.U and J.C Doornkamp, 1990, Geomorphology in Environmental Management, Clarendon Press Oxford Dunne,T, Wahome,E.K, Aubury,B, 1981, An ordinal-scale classification of water erosion intensity, Ministry of Environment and Natural resources, Republic of Kenya, K.R.E.M.U, Technical report Series No.46 Hai, M., Chin K. Ong, David N. Mungai, 2000. The impact of land use and rainfall on runoff and sedimentation in the Lake Victoria Basin. UNESCO/IUFRO symposium on Forest-water-people in the humid tropics: Past, present and future hydrological research for integrated land and water management, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ICRAF/MARD, 2000. Final technical report, Start-up phase, July 1999 to March 2000, Improved land management in the Lake Victoria Basin: Linking land and lake, research and extension, catchment and lake basin. Jaetzold, R and Schmidt, H, 1982, Farm Management Handbook of Kenya, West Kenya by, Ministry of Agriculture. Jansson, M, 1982, Land erosion by water in different climates, UNGI rapport Nr 57, Uppsala University, ISBN 91-506-0343-4 Department of Physical Geography, Printed by Borgstrms Tryckeri AB. Kamphorst, A 1987, A small rainfall simulator for the determination of soil erodibility, Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 35, Art.Nr: 09.06, Department of Soil Science and plant nutrition, Wageningen Agriculture University, Netherlands Kulander, L and Strmquist, L, 1989, Exploring the use of top-soil 137Cs content as indicator of sediment transfer rates in a small Lesotho catchment, Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie. N.F. Vol 33(4): 455-462. Kulander, L, 1986, Sediment Transfer within a geomorphic system in a foothill region of Lesotho, Department of Physical Geography, Uppsala University, pp 69-93 in Q K Chakela et al, 1986 UNGI Rapport Nr 64, Sediment Sources, Sediment Recidence Time and Sediment Transfer-Case Studies of Soil Erosion in the Lesotho Lowlands Landon, J R, 1991; Booker Tropical Soil Manual, A handbook for soil survey and agricultural land evaluation in the tropics and subtropics, Booker Tate Limited, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, pp 113 and 125-127

Lunden, B, Strmquist, L, Nordstrm, K, 1986, An Evaluation of soil erosion intensity mapping from spot satelite imagery by studies of colour air-photo sand top-soil content of 137Cs, Article in: Monitoring Soil Loss at different Observation Levels, UNGI Rapport Nr 74, pp 13-35 Macviar, C.N et al, 1977; Soil Classification, A Binomial System for South Africa, Department of Agricultural technical services Nordstrm, K, 1989, Gully Erosion in the Lesotho lowlands, A geomorphological study of the interactions between intrinsic and extrinsic variables, UNGI rapport Nr 69, ISBN 91-506-0707-3, Uppsala University, Department of Physical Geography, Printed by Uppsala University RUSLE, 1995, User Guide, Reversed Universal Soil Loss Equation Version 1.04, Soil and Water Conservation Society Shaxson, T.F et al, 1977; Agriculture Handbook No 537 in: A Land Husbandry Manual Techniques of Land-Use planning and Physical conservation in Malawi. Strmquist, L, Jonasson, C and Robinsson, C, 1989, Testing 137Cs as an indicator of slope process activity in periglacial environments, Geomorpholigica, Krakow PL ISSN 0081-6434 USDA, United states Department of Agriculture, National Sedimentation Laboratory, Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation, not published. Walling D.E and A.L Colling, 2000; Integrated Assessment of Catchment, Sediment budgets: A technical manual, University of Exeter, DFID Wenner, C.G, 1980, Trees in erosion and soil conservation in Kenya, Issued free by the Ministry of Agriculture, Farm Management branch
URL addresses: Simonsson, L.,2001, Applied Landscape Assessment in a Holistic Perspective. a case study from Babati District, north-central Tanzania , Published in Electronic Journal: Read Vol 1, Department of Earth Sciences, Applied Environmental Impact Assessment, Uppsala, Sweden: http://www.env-impact.geo.uu.se/Public.html

Walling, D.E and Dr Quine, homepage, not publicised, Department of Geography, University of Exeter, http://www.ex.ac.uk/~yszhang/caesium/welcome.htm
Used map: Topographic map, Scale: 1:50 000, from 1982 by Survey of Kenya

Used aerial photos: Photomap (KENYA) Limited, Scale 1:20 000, Date: 1990, Run No: 11, Frames: 42054198, Area name: Kano Plain

Kenya Survey, Scale: 1:15 000 Date: 1961 Prints: 146,147,148,149,158,159,160 and 161
Interviews: Joseph O. Miguda, Nachon Gogi, Kalib Oguonga, Alifas Odoyo, Iska Omanje and Oria Okoth everybody living in Ragen/Nyalunya, Nyanza province, Kenya. Rainfall measurements: Upper Nyakach DO's office

Appendix 1 Results from chemical analyses

SAMPLE SOC (%) 0.49 0.47 0.59 1.21 0.50 0.16 0.34 0.25 0.90 1.21 0.43 1.01 0.25 0.63 0.34 1.05 0.39 0.94 1.17 1.04 0.34 1.01 0.49 0.98 0.40 0.80 0.24 P (mg/kg) K (me/100g Ca soil) (me/100g soil) 0.96 5.68 1.66 *58.94 2.73 2.41 2.50 1.75 0.55 1.96 1.09 0.78 1.11 1.36 6.16 5.05 1.67 3.42 **273.72 1.80 2.13 1.20 1.02 0.98 3.78 3.14 1.29 0.49 0.53 0.45 1.61 0.32 0.59 0.43 0.79 0.38 0.31 0.18 0.33 0.60 0.78 0.59 1.08 0.46 0.63 1.68 0.44 0.55 0.38 0.63 0.34 0.22 0.60 0.84 4.31 10.65 4.57 11.19 2.75 11.31 11.56 16.59 6.45 3.93 6.16 23.08 11.91 12.62 16.17 21.76 4.71 14.91 7.94 7.29 9.22 6.81 14.68 4.84 9.10 25.31 17.48 Mg Na (me/100g (me/100g soil) soil) 1.11 2.09 1.46 2.38 0.59 2.18 1.25 1.42 2.64 1.29 1.24 5.55 7.00 2.62 1.83 4.64 1.29 2.57 2.03 1.95 1.64 1.87 3.09 1.63 1.19 3.58 3.85 0.32 0.14 0.96 1.29 1.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.23 0.00 4.64 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.53 PH (water) 6.6 7.9 6.4 7.5 7.0 8.3 8.3 8.7 6.9 6.4 6.0 7.3 8.7 7.3 8.7 7.3 7.2 7.6 7.6 6.8 7.5 6.9 8.4 6.8 7.6 7.5 8.7

Ragen A1 Ragen B10 Ragen J1 Ragen J8 Ragen J7 Ragen A3 Ragen B1 Ragen B11 Ragen D1 Ragen J9 Ragen 2profil1 Ragen 2profil2 Ragen 2profil3 Nyalunya A1 Nyalunya B9 Nyalunya B2 Nyalunya J4 Nyalunya J5 Nyalunya J2 Nyalunya A2 Nyalunya B10 Nyalunya C1 Nyalunya D1 Nyalunya J7 Nyalunya 2profil1 Nyalunya 2profil2 Nyalunya profil3

* This sample is taken in a plot. The value is regarded as probable. ** This sample was probably contaminated during laboratory work and it should not allowed for. It is not included in mean value calculations.

Appendix 2
sample Ragen A1 Ragen B10 Ragen J1 Ragen J8 Ragen J7 Ragen A3 Ragen B1 Ragen B11 Ragen D1 Ragen J9 Ragen 2profil1 Ragen 2profil2 Ragen 2profil3 Nyalunya A1 Nyalunya B9 Nyalunya B2 Nyalunya J4 Nyalunya J5 Nyalunya J2 Nyalunya A2 Nyalunya B10 Nyalunya C1 Nyalunya D1 Nyalunya J7 Nyalunya 2profil1 Nyalunya 2profil2 Nyalunya profil3 Ragen profil3

Results from physical analyses

%sand 40.9 37.6 25.9 30.5 48.1 36.8 34.6 29.3 30.6 32.9 35.98 19.1 22.8 30.9 26.5 14.1 48.9 25.6 44.1 24.3 42.2 32.0 26.0 23.7 50.5 11.7 29.4 77.9 %silt 40.2 20.7 51.2 33.1 30.9 27.7 39.3 37.1 29.1 28.2 43.1 30.9 24.96 23.6 25.9 30.7 31.98 32.5 36.4 19.7 35.8 21.2 27.2 17.4 20.1 44.9 29.2 9.4 %ler 15.5 21.4 21.5 34.7 7.4 28.7 22.4 20.6 17.2 9.9 12.8 50.0 31.1 33.4 44.2 55.1 13.5 40.1 17.8 15.1 17.1 12.3 28.4 7.2 15.4 43.5 27.9 2.0 % gravel 3.35 10.2 1.4 1.6 13.6 6.8 3.7 13.1 23.1 29.0 8.2 0 12.3 12.1 3.3 0 5.6 1.8 1.7 40.9 4.9 20.4 18.3 43.4 6.7 0 13.5 10.6 8.3 7.4 14.1 8.8 10.2 %stone Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.28 1.13 1.21 1.10 1.43 1.20 1.16 1.15 1.15 1.23 1.28 1.14 1.15 1.19 1.11 1.08 1.41 1.12 1.27 1.19 1.24 1.23 1.17 1.23 1.31 1.10 1.13

Appendix 3 Erodibility factor calculation SOC =Soil organic carbon

SAMPLE Water aggreg ate stability (%) Ragen A1 42.32 Ragen B10 47.14 Ragen J1 Ragen J8 Ragen J7 Ragen A3 Ragen B1 Ragen B11 Ragen D1 Ragen J9 Nyalunya A1 Nyalunya B9 Nyalunya B2 Nyalunya J4 Nyalunya J5 Nyalunya J2 Nyalunya A2 Nyalunya B10 Nyalunya C1 Nyalunya D1 Nyalunya J7 Nyalunya 2profil1 Nyalunya 2profil2 Nyalunya profil3 Ragen 2profil1 Ragen 2profil2 Ragen 2profil3 sand 26.26 31.00 55.71 39.50 35.89 33.68 39.83 46.37 35.18 27.42 14.13 51.85 26.07 44.90 41.17 44.32 48.90 31.89 49.13 58.72 11.68 33.95 39.19 19.07 28.96 87.18 CLASS Infiltr infiltr CLASS CLASS AGGSt (mm) (cm/hr) INFILT CAT Weight Weight: Weight: 3 3 1 3 3 4 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 6.34 8.23 17.82 7.00 11.15 8.86 6.82 6.82 12.00 10.52 7.26 7.11 12.67 16.45 35.64 14.01 22.30 17.71 13.64 13.64 24.01 21.04 14.53 14.23 31.41 32.60 28.16 35.64 31.34 15.27 25.86 16.82 25.04 4 3 1 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 1 1 CLASS texture SOC Weight: 1 4 loam 4 sandy clay loam 4 loam 3 clay loam 4 sandy loam 4 clay loam 4 loam 4 loam 4 loam 1 gravel 4 clay loam 3 clay 4 clay 4 sandy clay loam 4 clay loam 3 loam 1 gravel 4 loam 3 sandy loam 3 clay loam 1 gravel 3 sandy loam 4 silty clay 4 clay loam 4 silt loam 4 clay 4 clay loam sand TEXT TOT CLASS Weight: 1 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 4 1 2 2 30 27 24 27 25 26 30 30 28 25 29 31 24 21 26 18 19 25 20 25 22

4 15.71 2 16.30 4 14.08 2 17.82 2 15.67 2 7.63

2 12.93 3 8.41

3 12.52 2 4 3 3 4 4 1

Appendix 4

Gully depth measurements

Ragen 1990 depth (m) 1) 3.7 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 9) 10) 12) 13) 14) 15) 8) 23) 24) 25) 26) 16) 27) 28) 19) 3.7 2.6 4.5 6.5 9.1 11.6 14.2 15.7 15.9 19.7 18.7 18.4 18.0 13.1 13.8 6.7 8.0 7.0 6.2 5.5 Ragen 2001 Depth(m) 1e 4.2 2e 3.1 3e 7.5 4e 7 5e 10 22e 12 6e 13 7e 15 9 15.5 23e 16 23W 16 10e 17.2 11e 17.9 12e 18.2 13e 20.1 15e 21.6 14e 22.2 8e 8 8w 8 15w 21.6 14w 22.2 13w 3 13w2 20.1 12w 18.2 11w 17.9 10w 17.2 23e 16.3 24e 15 25ea 13 25e 13 26e 13 16e 8 27e 7.2 28e 9.2 28w 9.2 27w 7.2 16w 8 26w 13 25w 13 7w 15 6w 13 22w 12 5w 9 4w 6 3w 5 2w 4.1

USFUL VALUES (mean values) RAGEN: Ragen 1961 depth (m) 1) 1.6 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 10) 12) 13) 14) 15) 8) 23) 24) 25) 26) 16) 27) 28) 19) 2.5 2.9 4.5 6.4 8.9 10.2 11.35 11.6 9.1 9.7 9.4 8.5 9.5 5.6 5.0 3.4 4.8 6.6 7.9 3.4

USFUL VALUES (mean values) NYALUNYA

Nyanlunya 61 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Djup (m) 5.3 1.1 0 0 1.1 0 2.0 Nyalunya 90 Djup (m) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 4.2 6.3 4.2 6.3 8.8 9.5 10.9 Nyalunya 2001 1e 1be 1bw 2east 1 2east2 2e till3e 2w till 3w 3e 3e till 4e 3w till 4w 4e 5e 6e 7e 8e 9e 10e 11e 12e 12w 11w 10w 9w 8w 7w 6w 5w 4w 3w 2w 1w Depth (m) 1.90 1.90 1.90 2.00 7.99 7.11 7.11 8.00 7.58 7.58 7.80 8.00 9.80 8.80 11.10 10.80 10.30 9.50 10.70 10.70 9.50 10.30 10.80 11.10 8.80 9.80 8.00 7.80 8.00 4.90 1.90

8)

2.9

8)

10.5

9)

2.9

9)

9.2

10) 11) 4.1

10) 11) 5.3

12)

10.2

12)

10.5

13) 14)

4.5 3.4

13) 14)

6.7 8.4

Appendix 5
Sample identity

Cs measured values and calculations

Weight (g) Land 137Cs unit (Bq/kg) Error in subsample Bulk reduction Soil loss % inventory density (%) (1000kg/ (Bq/m2) (g/cm3) (ha*yr)) 3.4 2.3 5.6 0.25 3.4 0.4 0.6 8 17 7 72 11 84.38 63.16 81.29 7.67 94.15 1.10 1.21 1.43 1.27 1.23 0% 0% 0% 90% 0% 92% 87% 0.00 0.00 0.00 88.54 0.00 86.55 95.11

Ragen J5 Ref Ragen J3 Ref Ragen J10 Ref Nyalunya J1 Nyalunya J6 Ref Nyalunya J8 Ragen J11 Ragen J2 Nyalunya J3 Ragen B7 Ragen B3 Nyalunya A3 Ragen B5 Nyalunya B13 Nyalunya A4 Ragen J12 Nyalunya D2 Ragen A4 Ragen A2

280.53 ref 310.4 ref 164.08 ref 346.89 J1 sa 313.02 ref 190.71 J2 gr 203.59 J1 sa 377.25 J1 sa 355.58 J1 sa 316.76 B2 369.03 B2 167.99 D2 362.95 D2 321.41 B1 176.67 A1 192.58 J1 sa 212.97 D2 210.7 A1 231.76 A2

62 51 not meas not meas 0 not meas 0 not meas 0 not meas 0 999 0 not meas 0 999 not meas 0 999 0 not meas 0.8 17

6.75 1.23 10.81 1.43 20.02 7.86 0.00 1.15 0.00 1.15 0.00 1.19 0.00 1.15 0.00 1.11 0.00 1.19 10.22 0.00 1.17 0.00 1.28 16.40 1.20 Mean ref (Bq/m2) 80,7

100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 80%

88.58 88.58 91.90 88.58 85.50 91.82 89.73 98.74 73.28

Appendix 6

Map of soil samples

Appendix 7

Rainfall measurements in mm (source: Upper Nyakach DO's office)

10-Year monthly rainfall record for Upper Nyakach DO's office

Year JAN
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Mean

FEB

MAR APR

MAY JUNE JUL

AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC TOTA L

0 0 226.8 349.4 208.7 148.4 34 45.9 154.4 240.3 18.7 61 76 171.8 145 124.5 41.3 52.1 71.8 337.8 10.5 17.8 226.7 314.9 158.1 26.7 62.7 181.4 191.2 59.9 116.6 113.9 161.3 170.9 140.9 0 0 101.1 143.6 208.3 143.5 78.6 90.2 176.3 274.9 81.8 4.1 229.5 155.6 141.1 jan 67 feb

30.3 41.8 54.1 74.6 80.9 51.9 82 1201 213.7 37.4 180.5 40.9 104.4 29.6 23.4 1253 144.6 91.1 123.4 59.4 127.5 58 50.2 1127 84.8 39 81.2 66.9 39.1 77 33.8 1049 104.4 111.8 67.1 47.7 79 164.2 35.1 1337 158.2 41.5 105.6 172 104 30 27 1160 75.7 104.3 77.8 79.6 127.9 116.5 21.3 1307 41.4 54.3 85.5 36.1 215.3 223.2 287.2 1396 90 80.9 78.4 73.6 136.9 70 18 1311 69.8 115.3 214.7 98.8 182.5 32.1 62.5 1388

mar apr may june july aug sept oct nov dec TOT 41 139 190 192 101 72 107 75 120 85 64 1253