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Eq. (4)
where O
i
is the observed frequency (The frequency computed directly from the sample data
by tally method)
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 9
E
i
is the expected frequency, and it can be determined by multiplying the proportion
with the sample size, E
i
= np and n = 50.
Since the proportions of the population, p is known, then the degree of freedom is
given by v = n 1 (Crawshaw & Chambers 2002), where n = 3 due to three categories of data.
Thus, the Chi-square goodness of fit test is performed at 5% significance level with degree of
freedom of 2 which corresponds to a critical value of 5.991 (see Appendix 2). If
2
_ is less than
5.991, then there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. On the contrary, if
2
_ is
found greater than 5.991, then it can be concluded that the distribution of digit obtained by the
sample of fifty 3-digit numbers fit the distribution of the revised probability.
Figure 3: An illustration of the selection of random numbers from a portion of Random
Number Tables
2.5 The Sampling of Sixty Four 3-Digit Numbers Generated by the Function
5
1000 n
A sample of sixty four numbers ranged from 0 to 1 is generated randomly by the aid of
Wolfram Mathematica 7.0. The irrational numbers generated are then substituted into the
function ( ) | |
5
1000 , : 0,1 f n n n = e . The computations are carried out by the aid of
Microsoft Excel 2013, and only the integer part of those numbers is taken into considerations.
The computational codes are attached in Appendix 1. The probability of getting a 3-digit
number with three different digits will be different from the revised probability. However, the
deviation shall not exceed by 0.1; therefore, the suggested probability of obtaining a 3-digit
number with three distinct digits is 0.73. Consequently, the null and alternative hypotheses are
stated as follows:
H
0
: P(X = 0) = 0.73
H
1
: P(X = 0) > 0.73
Since the primary intention of the hypothesis test conducted here is to determine whether the
suggested probability will be accepted, thus, it is a one-tail test with = 0.05 and = 0.10 at
significance level of 5% and 10 % respectively.
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 10
3.0 RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS
The computations and analysis of results in the following subsections are based on the
methodologies proposed in Section 2.0.
3.1 The Analysis of Thirty 3-Digit Numbers Obtained from Simple Experiment
(Drawing of Cards from French Deck)
The outcomes obtained from the drawing of poker cards from French Deck are
tabulated in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Outcomes obtained from the drawing of cards from French Deck
No.
Drawing of Poker Cards
3-Digit
Numbers
No.
Drawing of Poker Cards
3-Digit
Numbers
1
st
Draw 2
nd
Draw 3
rd
Draw 1
st
Draw 2
nd
Draw 3
rd
Draw
1 4 5 5 455 16 7 4 2 742
2 0 5 7 57 17 9 0 4 904
3 6 6 6 666 18 5 4 2 542
4 6 8 8 688 19 8 4 8 848
5 3 5 5 355 20 7 7 5 775
6 4 1 2 412 21 1 8 5 185
7 8 8 5 885 22 9 0 0 900
8 3 2 0 320 23 1 6 4 164
9 7 2 5 725 24 4 8 5 485
10 3 8 9 389 25 9 3 8 938
11 6 1 4 614 26 6 4 5 645
12 6 8 5 685 27 1 5 5 155
13 7 0 1 701 28 6 2 3 623
14 9 1 8 918 29 7 5 6 756
15 7 3 8 738 30 0 3 8 38
Based on the outcomes tabulated in Table 2 above, the frequencies and probabilities for 3
different digits, 2 same digits and 3 similar digits are computed and tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3: Frequencies and probabilities of 3 different digits, 2 same digits, and 3 similar digits
X =x Outcomes corresponding to X =x
Frequencies
f
Probabilities
P(X =x)
0
(6,1,4), (1,8,5), (0,5,7), (6,8,5), (7,0,1), (1,6,4), (9,1,8),
(4,8,5), (7,3,8), (9,3,8), (4,1,2), (7,4,2), (6,4,5), (9,0,4),
(3,2,0), (5,4,2), (6,2,3), (7,2,5), (7,5,6), (3,8,9), (0,3,8)
21 0.7
2
(4,5,5), (9,0,0), (6,8,8), (3,5,5), (8,8,5), (1,5,5), (8,4,8),
(7,7,5)
8 0.266666667
3 (6,6,6) 1 0.033333333
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 11
According to the frequencies and probabilities for each case tabulated in Table 3, it
can be deduced that the probability of getting a number with three identical digits is extremely
low (i.e. P(X = x) = 0.0333) as compared to the probabilities of the other two categories. On
the contrary, the results also reveals that obtain a number with three different digits is the
easiest.
3.2 The Analysis of One Hundred 3-Digit Numbers that are Randomly Generated by
Wolfram Mathematica 7.0
The samples of one hundred 3-digit numbers that are randomly generated by the aid of
Wolfram Mathematica 7.0 are listed below:
765 905 863 718 518 307 166
002 156 727 556 699 813 056
216 091 078 096 777 996 790
362 171 666 294 856 819 951
324 404 562 775 626 255 518
177 980 760 795 392 917 916
407 281 396 245 042 820 812
743 810 953 228 037 168 861
388 393 695 869 802 405 409
991 118 768 976 080 809 388
Based on the data listed above, the frequencies, f and proportions, p
s
for each case are counted
and tabulated in Table 4 as follows:
Table 4: The frequencies and proportions computed based on the sample of one hundred 3-
digit random numbers
X = x Frequencies, f Proportions,
s
p
0 69 0.69
2 29 0.29
3 2 0.02
With both the frequencies and proportions known, the symmetric 90% and 95% confidence
intervals for the probabilities that a 3-digit number has three different digits, two same digits
and three identical digits are determined and tabulated in Table 5.
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 12
Table 5: The symmetric 90% and 95% confidence intervals for the probabilities that a 3-digit number has three different digits, two same digits
and three identical digits
Symmetric 90% Confidence Interval
Category 3 Different Digits (X = 0) 2 Same Digits (X = 2) 3 Same Digits (X = 3)
Proportion, p
s
0.69 0.29 0.02
Confidence Interval
( )
0.69 0.31
0.69 1.645
100
0.6139, 0.7661
( )
0.29 0.71
0.29 1.645
100
0.2154, 0.3646
( )
0.02 0.98
0.02 1.645
100
0.003, 0.04303
Symmetric 95% Confidence Interval
Category 3 Different Digits (X = 0) 2 Same Digits (X = 2) 3 Same Digits (X = 3)
Proportion, p
s
0.69 0.29 0.02
Confidence Interval
( )
0.69 0.31
0.69 1.96
100
0.5994, 0.7806
( )
0.29 0.71
0.29 1.96
100
0.2011, 0.3789
( )
0.02 0.98
0.02 1.96
100
0.074, 0.0474
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 13
The results tabulated in Table 3 and
Table 5 clearly manifested that there is a high resemblance in terms of proportions
obtained between two samples of distinct sizes. For instances, the deviation in terms of
probabilities from two samples that a 3-digit numbers has three distinct digits is only 0.01,
which is relatively small. Hence, it can be said that a larger sample would results in a more
accurate indication on the population parameter (Soon & Lau 2013). Apart from that,
although the probability that a 3-digit number has three identical digits is 0.02, but the results
obtained from the interval estimation distinctly illustrate that the lower confidence limit for
both symmetric 90% and 95% confidence intervals are -0.003 and -0.0074 respectively, in
which the probabilities are negative that is impossible to occur in real-life situations. In
addition, the occurrence of probabilities with negative values also implies that although the
true population parameters will be included if an interval with larger size is employed, but it
might leads to discrepancies of results as well (Crawshaw & Chambers 2002). Therefore, in
order to overcome the drawbacks of interval estimation, a larger sample with size of 100 < n <
400 would be recommended.
3.3 The Analysis of Fifty 3-Digit Numbers by Random Number Tables
Based on the tabulation of results for both symmetric 90% and 95% confidence
intervals in Table 5, it could be clearly seen that none of the probability in Table 3 lies outside
the confidence limits. Thus, the subjective probability obtained by drawing of poker cards
from French Deck in Section 3.1 is acceptable. Consequently, this constituted the formulation
of the following null and alternative hypotheses.
H
0
: The distribution of digit obtained by the sample of fifty 3-digit numbers fit the
distribution of the revised probability.
H
1
: The distribution of digit obtained by the sample of fifty 3-digit numbers does
not meet the distribution of the revised probability.
According to the approaches proposed in Section 2.4, fifty 3-digit random numbers are
selected from Random Number Tables and listed below:
555 956 356 438 548 246 223 162 430 990
576 086 324 409 472 796 544 917 460 962
378 594 351 283 395 008 304 234 79 688
311 693 324 350 278 987 192 015 370 049
299 498 942 468 496 910 825 375 919 330
Hence, the frequencies and probabilities correspond to the respective categories are computed
and tabulated in Table 6 below.
Table 6: Frequencies and probabilities correspond to each respective category in a sample of
fifty 3-digit random numbers
X = x Frequencies, f Probabilities, P(X = x)
0 40 0.8
2 9 0.18
3 1 0.02
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 14
With the observed frequency in Table 6 known, the expected frequency are calculated and
tabulated in Table 7.
Table 7: The observed frequency and the expected frequency for Chi-square test
X = x
i
Observed
Frequency
O
i
Revised
Probability
p
Expected
Frequency
E
i
= np
i i
O E
( )
2
i i
i
O E
E
0 40 0.7 35 5 0.7143
2 9 0.2667 13.335 -4.335 1.4092
3 1 0.0333 1.665 -0.665 0.2656
50
i
O =
50
i
E =
( )
2
2.3891
i i
i
O E
E
As mentioned in Section 2.4, since the upper point critical value for Chi-square goodness of
fit test at 5% significance level with 2 degree of freedom is
2
0.05,2
5.991 _ = (see Appendix 2),
which is much more greater than the test value of
2
2.3891 _ = , therefore, there is no
sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. As a verdict, it can be concluded that the
distribution of digit obtained by the sample of fifty 3-digit numbers fit the distribution of the
revised probability.
3.4 The Analysis of Sixty Four 3-Digit Random Numbers Generated by the Function
5
1000 n
The sixty four real numbers ranged from 0 to 1 that are randomly generated by Wolfram
Mathematica 7.0 are listed below:
0.708477 0.295863 0.971974 0.099977 0.962334 0.630794 0.379602 0.900808
0.217191 0.914257 0.156891 0.405242 0.23194 0.252731 0.369021 0.630475
0.845501 0.307553 0.397659 0.211588 0.993561 0.394024 0.297604 0.17321
0.428942 0.179826 0.291179 0.271801 0.250618 0.022988 0.760863 0.013218
0.904237 0.497101 0.001202 0.869522 0.927179 0.410847 0.135921 0.837393
0.760437 0.253564 0.639631 0.981092 0.06209 0.578899 0.994646 0.773488
0.669724 0.980035 0.180364 0.008676 0.898413 0.776303 0.951459 0.435168
0.367291 0.138426 0.519327 0.411859 0.848798 0.819825 0.566698 0.132321
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 15
By the aid of Microsoft Excel 2013, the raw numbers listed above are substituted into the
function ( )
5
1000 f n n = , computed and tabulated in Table 8.
Table 8: Processing of raw numbers into a sample of sixty four 3-digit random numbers
No.
Raw
Random
Number
n
f(n) int(f(n)) No.
Raw
Random
Number
n
f(n) int(f(n))
1 0.708477 933.3943 933 33 0.962334 992.3507 992
2 0.217191 736.8318 736 34 0.23194 746.5779 746
3 0.845501 966.9919 966 35 0.993561 998.7089 998
4 0.428942 844.2668 844 36 0.250618 758.2326 758
5 0.904237 980.0686 980 37 0.927179 984.992 984
6 0.760437 946.7006 946 38 0.0620896 573.5929 573
7 0.669724 922.9521 922 39 0.898413 978.8028 978
8 0.367291 818.4687 818 40 0.848798 967.7449 967
9 0.295863 783.8232 783 41 0.630794 911.9636 911
10 0.914257 982.2311 982 42 0.252731 759.5069 759
11 0.307553 789.9216 789 43 0.394024 830.0505 830
12 0.179826 709.5296 709 44 0.0229878 470.2183 470
13 0.497101 869.5387 869 45 0.410847 837.0204 837
14 0.253564 760.0069 760 46 0.578899 896.4386 896
15 0.980035 995.9747 995 47 0.776303 950.6185 950
16 0.138426 673.3541 673 48 0.819825 961.0461 961
17 0.971974 994.3309 994 49 0.379602 823.8833 823
18 0.156891 690.4299 690 50 0.369021 819.2382 819
19 0.397659 831.5764 831 51 0.297604 784.7435 784
20 0.291179 781.3255 781 52 0.760863 946.8066 946
21 0.00120195 260.6017 260 53 0.135921 670.8993 670
22 0.639631 914.5046 914 54 0.994646 998.9269 998
23 0.180364 709.9536 709 55 0.951459 990.0976 990
24 0.519327 877.1789 877 56 0.566698 892.6277 892
25 0.0999769 630.9282 630 57 0.900808 979.3241 979
26 0.405242 834.724 834 58 0.630475 911.8714 911
27 0.211588 732.9903 732 59 0.17321 704.2301 704
28 0.271801 770.6376 770 60 0.0132181 420.9532 420
29 0.869522 972.425 972 61 0.837393 965.1301 965
30 0.981092 996.1895 996 62 0.773488 949.9281 949
31 0.00867574 386.9558 386 63 0.435168 846.7036 846
32 0.411859 837.4323 837 64 0.132321 667.3071 667
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 16
For the sake of sensible visualization, the processed random numbers in Table 8 are further
arranged into an 8 by 8 arrays as follows:
933 783 994 630 992 911 823 979
736 982 690 834 746 759 819 911
966 789 831 732 998 830 784 704
844 709 781 770 758 470 946 420
980 869 260 972 984 837 670 965
946 760 914 996 573 896 998 949
922 995 709 386 978 950 990 846
818 673 877 837 967 961 892 667
Based on the 8 by 8 arrays listed above, the number of 3-digit number with three
different digits is 45. In order to determine whether the probability that a number has three
different digits is more than the probability suggested in Section 2.5, which is p = 0.73,
hypothesis testing at significance levels of 10% and 5% are conducted.
If H
0
is true, then p = 0.73. So, X ~ B(64, 0.73). Since n = 64 (> 30), np = 64 0.73 =
46.72 (> 5) and nq = 64 0.27 = 17.28, hence normal approximation to the binomial
distribution is employed with a continuity correction factor of 0.5.
Thus, X = 44.5 and
X ~ N(64 0.73, 64 0.73 0.27)
X ~ N(46.72, 12.61)
Then,
46.72
12.61
X
Z
=
Test statistic:
44.5 46.72
0.6252
12.61
Z
= =
For hypothesis test with significance level of 5%, the cut-off region is at z = 1.645.
But, based on the test statistic, since the Z
observed
= -0.6252 (< 1.645), the sample value 45 is
not in the critical region. Thus, it can be concluded that the suggested probability is true.
Likewise, for the test of hypothesis at significance level of 10%, the upper critical
point in such a way that the null hypothesis could be rejected is 1.281. Again, Z
observed
< 1.281,
therefore, it can be concluded that the statement on the probability suggested is justified.
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
CONCLUSIONS 17
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The studies conducted above clearly manifested that subjective do exists in any
applications in real-life situations, since it is significantly affect by past experiences and ones
degree of belief. Although its determination do not possesses any standard mathematical
formulation and equations, but its outcome is often validated by the aid of inferential statistics
in which interval estimations and hypothesis testing are conducted, and inferences are made.
According to statistical analyses conducted on various samples obtained above, it can be
concluded that the probability that a 3-digit number has three distinct digit is the highest
which lies between 0.65 < P(X = 0) < 0.75. This is true as if a census is conducted on each
data in a population of one thousand 3-digit numbers ranged from 0 to 999; the probability of
getting a 3-digit number with three different digits is also lies in the ranges from 0.65 to 0.75.
Besides, the results obtained from testing of hypotheses by Chi-square and one-tail tests also
lead to the probabilities lie between the confidence limits as computed in Section 3.2. As a
verdict, it can be concluded that the inferences and conclusions drawn from the statistical
analyses on the distribution of digit in random numbers are accepted and properly justified.
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
REFERENCES 18
5.0 REFERENCES
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Crawshaw, J & Chambers, J 2002, A CONCISE COURSE IN ADVANCED LEVEL
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Elsevier Inc. 2012, CHAPTER 11 RANDOM NUMBERS in Probability and Random
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Hibbeler, RC 2009, Structural Analysis, 7
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Johnson, R 2005, Chapter 6 Sampling Distribution in Miller & Freunds Probability and
Statistics for Engineers, 7
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edn., Pearson Prentice Hall, United States of America.
Kahneman, D & Tversky, A 1972, Subjective Probability: A Judgement of
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Kyburg, H 1978, SUBJECTIVE PROBABILITY: CRITICISMS, REFLECTIONS, AND
PROBLEMS, Journal of Philosophical Logic, vol. 7, pp. 157-180, D. Reidel
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Machina, MJ & Schmeidler, D 1992, A MORE ROBUST DEFINITION OF SUBJECTIVE
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Maskalevich, T 2011, Probability involving sampling without replacement and dependent
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Velasco, JD 2012, Objective and subjective probability in gene expression, Progress in
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Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A1
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Computational Codes
1. The computational code used to generate one hundred 3-digit random numbers ranged
from 0 to 999 in Wolfram Mathematica 7.0 is:
RandomInteger[999,100]
The left-hand side of the comma in the square bracket represents the domain, which is
ranged from 0 to 999 in this work, while the right-hand side of the comma is the
number of random integers going to be generated which set to be 100. The general
code is: RandomInteger[domain,n]
2. The computational code used to generate sixty four random numbers ranged from 0 to
999 in Wolfram Mathematica 7.0 is:
RandomReal[1,64]
3. The integer part of the sixty four real numbers generated by the function
( )
5
1000 f n n = are obtained by the following formula in Microsoft Excel:
( ) ( )
int f n =
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A2
Appendix 2 List of Statistical Tables
Table 9: Random Number Tables
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A3
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A4
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A5
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A6
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A7
Table 10: Percentage Points of the
2
_ Distribution
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A8
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A9
Table 11: The Upper Tail Probabilities ( ) z u of the Standard Normal Distribution X~N(0, 1)
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A10
Statistical Inferences on the Distribution of Digit in Random Numbers
by Stephen, P. Y. Bong (September 2013)
APPENDICES A11
Appendix 3 Screenshots of Random Numbers Generated from Wolfram Mathematica
7.0
Figure 4: The screenshot of random generation of one hundred 3-digit numbers ranged from 0
to 999 by Wolfram Mathematica 7.0
Figure 5: The screenshot of random generation of sixty four real numbers ranged from 0 to 1
by Wolfram Mathematica 7.0