RIVER METAMORPHOSIS DUE TO

HUMAN INTERVENTION IN THE NEYYAR BASIN,

KERALA

BY
K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI

TECHNICAL REPORT OF PROGRESS OF WORK SUBMITTED TO THE

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, DEPT. OF ENVIRONMENT, GRANT
NO. 9(6) 83. ENV. 2/DTD. 15-3-83. REPRODUCTION IN WHOLE OR
IN PART IS PERMITTED ONLY WITH THE SANCTION OF
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY / UNIVERSITY OF KERALA

/ TRIVANDRUM 695 81 / INDIA
 PREFACE

This annual report is divided into three parts, each part dealing with some or other
facet of River Metamorphosis due to Human Intervention. Part I dwells at moderate
length to present a perspective of the main theme. Part Ii describes the various
components of the research programme designed for implementation in the Neyyar
basin. A format field and laboratory procedures and methodologies for base-line
data-capture, processing and analysis have also been discussed in the second
part. The last part presents the investigators report for the first year of the study.
Indeed the first year did not provide sufficient research time to be solely devoted for
work, as several items of preparation for implementation of the research
programme naturally formed part of the first year s activity. Lastly, I myself would
concur that with a very modest number of diagrams and other data formats this
report will make a monotonous reading even for the novice.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Whatever contained in this anthology of the Project on River

Metamorphosis due to Human Intervention would not have been possible
to achieve, had not the expert group assisting the DOEn, in selecting, and
scrutinizing proposals for research, realized and recognized the
significance of the problem and the need for research into it. Published
works by Profs. Ian Douglas, Stan Schumm, Kenn Gregory and Chris Park
had always spurred my thinking and approach in the intriguing field of
fluvial geomorphology. However, I am solely responsible for the lapses, if
any. Virtually the achievements reflected in this report are partly the result
of a group of young dedicated staff assisting me in the field and in the
laboratory. The University of kerala generously helped me in the
implementation of the project, by adopting a maverick approach in respect
of sponsored projects implemented in the departments of the University.

THRIVIKRAMAJI. K.P.

3
 CONTENTS

i. Preface

ii. Acknowledgements

Part I. River Metamorphosis due to Human Intervention A Perspective

Part II. Goals set and procedures adopted in the study

Part III. Achievements in the year ending March, 1984

4
 Part I
RIVER METAMORPHOSIS DUE TO HUMAN INTERVENTION
Introduction
The fluvial systems are one the most dynamic environments of the earth s
surface, where interaction of meteorological, pedologic and fluvial processes jointly
act at varying scales to modify the physical aspects of the system. However, only in
the time frame of the geological processes the changes undergone by the fluvial
channels become perceptible. This end is achieved by study of landforms, from
topographic maps, aerial photographs and similar bases. Such river channel
changes have been traditionally designed as river metamorphosis, and the
erosional processes that have been active in the basin and which modified the
system are called geological erosion. According to Shumm such changes are
caused by large scale alteration in sediment and water discharge, related to
climatic accidents which lead to the changes of regimen of the system.
River metamorphosis to some extent can also be the result of various
types of human intervention, and then one could as well designate such changes
as The River Metamorphosis due to Human Intervention . In that case, one has to
consider the various types of Human activities in the river basin which may have
varying degrees of influence in the modification of the system.
Table 1. Types of Human actions modifying the fluvial system

Sl.No. Type of action

i. Interbasin diversion of water
ii. Construction of dams
iii. Shift in landuse practices
iv. River Training works
v. Borrowing of channel sand
vi. Channel dredging
vii. Borrowing of flood plan mud
viii. Drainage network changes

The consequences of such actions by the Human have not attracted the
attention of the geoscientist at any length in our country. We are beginning to turn
our attention to the problem only recently. However, the situation is entirely
different in other parts of the world with the new awareness created by the
environmentalists and ecologists. There has been good deal of work done in this
aspect of earthsciences in countries like Malayasia, Australia, United Kingdom and
also in the United States. Thus information is now emerging from different
continents of the world on the modification of the behaviour of the fluvial system
due to one or all of the above actions. Now we will take a detailed look at the
various actions and responses.
i. Interbasin diversion of water
From the point of view of an engineer, most of the time the rivers of the
world are carrying excess water either seasonally or annually. His immediate
concern was then to harness the excess water for purposes of irrigation, power
generation, some times even interbasinal diversion of water to augment the
supplies. It was realised only very late that the prime forces acting in the
maintenance of the river channel network, are the sediment and water that are
discharged through the network. The engineer s amendments of the river system
had always been and still are related to the control, diversion or subtraction of
water that was available in the network.

5
 As pointed out the most important work-horse, as far as a drainage system
is concerned, is the sediment and water that is put through the channel network.
The depth width, velocity and other channel characteristics like the nature of
sediment in the banks and the bed, the types of grass, brush, or other growth along
the channel walls or bed and whether the channel is bedrock floored and walled,
are very intimately related to the channel pattern, the shape of the channel cross-
section and the long profile. The diversion of water (the socalled excess water) to
an adjacent basin can cause many irrevocable changes in the donor basin as well
as in the acceptor basin. As far as the donor basin is concerned the sediment and
water discharged through it are considerably reduced and hence the channel net-
work down stream of the point of diversion will be forced into sediment and water
starvation, resulting in derangement and degradation. The master stream will
become a misfit stream very soon.
Generally the response of the master stream due to diversion of discharge
is like the following. The channel bank failure is normally common along the river
bends and even in sections with straight channels, the slumped blocks are normally
removed by erosion and transportation during the subsequent floods or bankful
discharge events. However, due to diversion, the stream will no longer be in a
position to remove the sediment in the slumped blocks as it does not require the
preslump channel capacity any more, nor has it at its disposal the required
discharge. These slumped blocks therefore should become more or less fixed to
the ground and added protection to it will be afforded by the riparian vegetation,
brush or grass that will establish on it. After a while these blocks will appear as
shoulders and benches in the channel cross profile.
The sediment in the channel bed will authenticate the reduced discharge
by several means. This sediment in the channel bed moves down stream mainly in
the form of down-stream-migrating bedforms. One very commonly noticed change
is the stabilization of ubiquitous sand bars in the channel bed by natural turf that
establishes on it. This is taken as an important indication of reduced sediment
movement as bedload in the stream bed. The turf that grows on the bars, not only
stabilizes the bars covered with bedforms, but would also tend to increase the bed
friction.
Coarseing of bed sediment is also taken as an indicator of increase in the
stream power. Diversion of water to elsewhere, naturally should tend to reduce the
stream power, leading to fining of the bed sediment. However, this point is yet to be
established by actual field data. Such modified reaches of stream bed have been
noticed by this author in several channels in Kerala. But the point, that the changes
undergone by the stream either along its banks or in its channel due to reduction in
peak discharge or duration of peak discharge, does not extend or manifest all along
the downstream side of the channel. The peak discharge and its duration if reduced
affects the entire length of the channel, the way it would affect, may be by way of
lowering the frequency of floods. Through the events like floods are capable of
transforming the channel dramatically, the changed channel is maintained and
established by the bankful discharge events that occur with more frequency.
Therefore, we must conclude that the changes undergone by the stream whether it
be along the channel bed or along the channel wall, the propagation of these
changed downstream need not essentially manifest in the entire length of the
stream channel.
ii. Construction of Dams
Another category of diversion of flow in the channel network, is by
construction of dams to create artificial reservoirs to store water for irrigation
purposes within the basin or for generating electricity, in which case also the tail-
race water will be used for irrigation or just let out along the main channel. Such
diversion will result in the reduction of peak discharge and duration of peak
discharge or both. For this reason one should expect channel bed and bank
modifications considered in the previous section to manifest.

6
 A point related to reduction in discharge is the change in the water quality
experienced through out the length of the stream. Lower water discharge will be
inefficient in transporting the particulate waste and liquid refuse entering the
network from time to time and from place to place. This modification of water
quality sometimes attains very detrimental levels. When one examines the lower
reaches of the stream, then again, due to the reduced flow, (less than normal
baseflow in summer) the saltwater wedge advances very much upstream, creating
problems of water portability. The concentration of particulate matter as well as
salts in the water will have to be properly reckoned. People enjoying protect water
supply are least concerned with the enormity of this aspect of the problem. The
negative amendment of the water quality due to the above may be of considerable
consequence.
The substrate sediment in the channel bed is capable of absorbing in it
some amount of dissolved salts, and particulate matters will tend to act as a buffer,
especially during baseflow seasons; ie., in summer. The flood flow on the other
hand causes some degree of scour of the channel bed, and thus be able to
subtract a certain quantity of the substrate material, along with salts and
particulates that were detained in summer during the baseflow stage. However, the
role and efficacy of this buffer system is yet to be understood scientifically.
iii. Shift in Landuse practices
Landuse has been changing continuously in every continet, and is
progressing steadily from the forest landuse to others, like agricultural, industrial,
residential and recreational landuses. The landuse has been indetified as one of
the prime candidates that determines the quantity of sediment lost from the uplands
and slopes in the the channels. There has been several tens of well documented
studies that had demonstrated the choking of river channels by sediment, which
then turned into braided channels by sediment, which then turned into braided
channels, the result of excessive soil loss in the uplands. It has also been
documented in some studies, that the present century is an example of reduction in
the sediment output derived from farmlands and from the watersheds in the
mountain ranges, where until now excessive erosion due to deforestation was the
rule. This was the result of the new awareness among the people and governments
leading to conservation practices, which resulted in reducing the sediment loss, by
way of soil erosion. However what has been said is true only of the developed
countries. But the story in developing countries is far from satisfactory.
In the past say, before the onset of Industrial revolution, they type of
landuse was mainly agricultural, and the population was also rural, nomadic or
shifting. They felled trees, burnt forests and raised their living. However, the degree
of destruction that was inflicted on the forests were nowhere comparable to what
was done during the industrial revolution. It was due to the lower size of population
that the earth has to support then. But during the industrial revolution, growth of
industry went hand in hand with the growth of urban centers and increasing
population. This naturally led to the destruction of forest for consumptive,
constructive and settlement purposes and to further agricultural output. Large
chunks of new areas were cleared of forests, to locate and to exploit new raw
materials for input into the industry. All such growth-related activities led to
shedding of new soil and sediment from the uplands into stream channels. The
rivers were no longer allowed to flow on their own. Huge water storage reservoirs
were built for irrigation and power generation, which affected the streams and
modified many of them. Thus, this became the forerunner of accelerated erosion,
which was identified as one of the banes of industrial revolution and population
explosion. It has been demonstrated that denudation of soil by expanding
population had achieved a higher order of magnitude in the thickly populated third
world.
Another consequence of population and industrial growth were the
requirements of timber for various needs of population. The forest lands thus
started shrinking in area in an ever-increasing and unprecedented rate resulting in

7
the loss of precious forest cover. It has reached a point, where the optimal
requirement of 1/3 of forest covered land, out of the total area of the nation could
hardly be guaranteed in third world countries. One of the major consequences of
this rate of forest denudation is the modification of sediment and water input into
the river networks which led to the changes in the regimen of the river systems.
iv. River Training Works
General types of flood protection, bank protection and sediment reduction
procedures adopted in the river channels will have its own deleterious
consequences. Such protective structures often tend to reduce the contribution of
sediment to the channel from such reaches and had in several occasions led to the
scouring of the channel leading to undermining of the structures resulting in their
collapse.
v. Borrowing of channel sand
The adverse effects or otherwise of excessive borrowing of channel
sediment for construction and similar uses from the river channels are yet to be
documented scientifically. However, according to me, one prime consequence of
this practice can lead to is overdeepening of the channel in the sand borrowed
sections. The deepening not only makes the stream unsuitable for crossing by
wading even during the baseflow seasons, but also might lead to adverse alteration
and loss of riparian aquatic fauna. The borrowing process leads to the reduction in
mean size of the sediments and shifts it to the fine sand or silt size; As a result the
life that depended on the sand substrate for sustenance would perish. The exact
damage and the degree of damage is outside the purview of this study.
The damage caused to the physical system of the river by the streaming
process is rather in alarming proportions; at least as far as the riparian land owners
were concerned. The over deepening of the channel in non-rocky sections tends to
undermine the channelwall-slopes and has led to the slump of the channelwalls all
along the streamed sections. The over deepening has led to the increase in height
of free face which is no longer in equilibrium with the excess height. The deepening
must also logically lead to the erosion of sections of channel bed that were not
streamed for sand.
vi. Channel Dredging
Thus the streaming process should lead to the speedy failure of the
channel walls and narrowing of the channel that was active before the streaming
process started. A common practice related to navigational modification of the
channels is dredging of the channel to maintain a specific draft. However, such
dredged sections are continuously maintained by repeated dredging and the cross
sectional parameters of the dredged section are designed ones. Therefore one
could conclude that the dredging and its consequences are more of a problem from
the ecological point of view than from the physical system point.
vii. Borrowing of Flood Plan Mud
Another important form of misuse or excessive use of the river basin is the
borrowing of flood plain mud for brick and tile making. As the flood plain mud
contains most of the time an ideal proportion of clay and silt, this mud is extensively
exploited by tile, pottery and brick making industry routinely as a source of raw
material. This borrowing activity has made many large scars of considerable extent
in the flood plain on either side of the channel. The mid is excavated in such a way,
that only a considerably thin partition alone is left between the channel and the mud
borrow pits, in the form of a dike. Instances of breaches of this dike are not
uncommon, which had let in flood waters into these pits. Farmer s claim that the
new surface and the soil contained in it after removal of the top layer of flood plain
sediment, has very improved fertility. How such ditching of the flood plain affects
the hydrology or the hydraulics of the stream has to be examined in detail. This
may be a serious type of intervention in the river basin; out what is not certain is the
type or degree of the modification of the physical system. Nonetheless, it is an

8
eyesore and mars the aesthetic appeal of the scene. Moreover, at times of flood,
these ditches would serve as stilling basins for retaining flood waters, leading to the
reduction of flood crest.
Thus one could conclude that the various actions in the river basin,
including those in the channel network, would lead to some or other type of
modifications of the physical system of the river. Some of the changes are
irreversible, others with some careful planning could be made milder in their
intensity, and still others can be avoided if careful thought were given before
implementation. Truly, and attempt is made to formally identify the various
categories of human activity to which the stream network would attest with various
types of responses. The moral of this discussion is that the stream network and the
basin are dynamic systems which on some or other type of provocation would
respond may be with a lag of time and the response may not always be in the
interest of the human.
vii. Drainage network changes
By drainage network changes, what is mean here is the modification of the
first order (finger tip) streams in the basin. While embarking on a study of River
Metamorphosis, the investigator should pay appropriate attention to the changes
and modifications of aerial and linear parameters of the basins of the lower order
streams too. Many approaches are available to the investigator, to examine the
aerial and linear changes. The main base materials in addition to field checks for
data capture are the aerial photographs, and topographic maps. Normally several
sets of serially flown air photos will be available for most of the regions and same is
the case with the totpomaps. These maps are the best source available to the
analyst for recognising, identifying and modeling of the network changes, including
that of the master stream through time. Further results of field surveys, mapping of
land forms of depositional origin and identification of erosional and depositional
features in the area are also taken into account while proposing a model for the
evolution of the landforms.
When it is the case of finger tip streams, generally the changes and
modifications expected in them are extension by gullying. Generally the mapping
scale usually adopted, tends not to depict such extension of gulleys due to the
small dimensions involved. Another way of estimating the network enlargement or
reduction is to estimate stream frequency from maps of specific dates to compare
the results. Yet another approach is to study samples of selected first order
streams and compare their lengths along with field checks wherever possible.
Fluvial geomorphologists have noted that the enlargement of stream network to
consume the upland area is in the normal progression of fluvial cycle.
However, in certain cases, due to very intense shift from forest landuse to
agricultural landuse, highly sophisticated land management programmes will be
designed and implemented, like for example, contour bunding, rehabilitation of
gulleys into lined channels, plugging of channels, construction of tow walls,
terracing etc. These practices may load to conservation of soil and regulation of
flow through restricted channels. Such practices will easily lead to the inability to
trace the true extent of finger tip streams out of airphotos due to the extensive
foliage cover of plantations.
Landmanagement measure usually tend to reduce the extent of finger tip
streams, on the one hand and to curtain erosional loss of soil on the other, in spite
of the Human intervention. Therefore, while looking for a retrogression of channel
length of the finger tip streams in areas of plantation type landuse, the consequent
reduction in soil loss needs to be appreciated. For the same reason, while
comparing maps of areas that had evolved in the above fashion, it is not
unreasonable, to expect a reduction in the length of the first order streams, despite
the fact that such reduction of channel length is against the accepted norm of
channel network evolution. This facet of human action should therefore be
considered as an exception rather than the rule.

9
 Landuse related changes
Due to large scale conversion of forest land into agricultural, industrial,
habitational and recreational categories, it is common place to expect, accelerated
erosion and soil (sediment) loss. This premise may not hold good for the entire land
area in question for the following reasons. Where holding are large and are under
plantation crops, the land management practices are executed reasonably well.
This is expected to lead to reduction of the usual quantum of soil loss in
plantations, though there are no turn or brush cover on the ground. The barren
ground in the plantations must normally lead one to the misconclusion that there is
bound to be large scale erosion of soil. Such a contention, however, needs to be
buttressed by supporting field data. Shed same is true in the case of other types of
plantations like coconut etc. But the story is entirely different when one considers,
annual dry crops like tapioca whish is raised in all kinds of terrains and slopes.
Being an annual crop, and one needing at least two or three raking of the bed
before harvest, and further with the generous input of water by two seasonal rains,
like in Kerala, the tapioca cultivation raises serious doubts about even the
continuation of this crop without any proper land management practice. Generally
speaking, annual crops like tapioca needing special types of crop and soil
management, should tend to result in a more than average soil/sediment loss from
such fields, which obviously will be transported downslope into higher order
streams and finally into the master streams. However, one should not overlook the
fact that there are many temporary and local sinks for the new sediment shed from
such land areas.
PART II
Introduction
In this part of the report a brief outline of the objectives of the project on
river Metamorphosis due to Human Intervention will be presented along with the
discussion of the field and laboratory methodologies to capture appropriate
baseline data and the methods of analysis that will ultimately lead to the
understanding of the extent to which the Neyyar River basin and its channel
network were modified.
In Kerala, due to the intense pressure on land resources, time and again,
people have been encouraged to clear forests, so as to add now areas for raising
more food crops as well as to accommodate various other developmental
programmes of the Government. Such unprecedented conversion of forest land
into non-forest type landuse, should have tended to initiate accelerated erosion of
the river basins or even accelerated the pace of accelerated erosion. While
preparing a programme of research for consideration of funding by the DOEn,
Govt. of India, this author was overwhelmed by the above awareness, and hence,
the research proposal centering around the investigation of the accelerated erosion
leading to River Metamorphosis due to human intervention. For this purpose, the
Neyyar basin of the Trivandrum District of Kerala was chosen for the study.
The Neyyar Basin
The Neyyar basin is not one of the larger river basins in Kerala, and it has
only an area of about 492km2. The cumulative length of all the streams in he basin
stands at 605 Km., and the state irrigation Department has estimated the surface
water potential of the basin at 229 Mm3. At Kallikkad, there is a major masonary
dam (and a reservoir) constructed for the irrigation purposes in the basin. The
Reservoir was completed in the secondfive year plan. However the distribution
network is still being expanded.
Physiographically, the major divisions of the basin are the highland (600
m), the mid-land (600-200 m), the lowland (200-5 m) and the coastal land (5m).
Large part of the river basin is composed of crystalline rocks like Charcockite,
Gneisses of different categories and their altered products, like the ubiquitous
laterite and the soils derived there from.

10
 Like most parts of the state of Kerala, the population density of the region
is very high and the people are agricultural labourers, small business men and
some large planters, Industrially, this area can be classed as backward area due to
lack of any large industrial undertakings. One could conclude that, most of the
people depend on the land and agricultural resources for their livelihood. Holdings
of land with the majority of families are relatively small.
Objectives of the present study
Many study components have been identified for pursuing in the field and
the laboratory to answer the basic question of the modification of any or some or all
aspects of the physical system of the Neyyar river, due to what is called Human
Intervention in the basin. The study components are:
(i) Estimation of the present area under forest cover and estimation of the area
redovered for non-forest land use out of the forest area.
(ii) Documentation of landuse practices and landuse classification of the study
tract.
(iii) Through field observations and surveys in specific areas, estimation of the
soil erosion rates, in various geomorphic domains, ie., with the various types
of soils profiles (catenae), and slopes.
(iv) Estimation of the rate and extent of aggradation and degradation in selected
valleys and stream channels.
(v) Identification of a model for evolution of slopes of different categories in the
sub-basins subjected to accelerated erosion.
(vi) Formulation of a model of river metamorphosis in sub-basins subjected to
accelerated erosion.
(vii) Documentation of features of aggradation or degradation of channels in the
upstream and downstream section of the reservoir.
(viii) Estimation of sediment discharge rates through several channel reaches in
the basin.
(ix) Study of load through-put by the Neyyar River into the adjoining sea.
The expectations set in the objectives are reasonably very tall and efforts will
be made as detailed below to realize the objectives. The methodology for
examining the study components are listed below:
(i) Study of airphotos, topomaps, landsat imageries, forest maps (f available)
and other derivative maps in order to achieve a reasonably reliable estimate
of the original extent of forest area and the present extent of forest cover in
the basin.
(ii) A survey has been carried out by the Soil survey department, in the basin
and the maps published by that agency will be used as a base for selection
of study areas for landuse practices. It is envisaged to carryout the study in 6
to 9 sub-basins in such a way to cover, areas upstream and downstream of
the reservoir, the landuse categories will be identified in the subbasins.
(iii) The next step is the identification of catanae, and slopes for monitoring the
soil loss-rate, and quantity. A range guage, sediment traps and stakes will be
established in each of the selected slopes of the sub-basins to monitor the
degradation or otherwise of soil material at different reaches in the slope.
This monitoring will continue for one year, as to cover the NE and SW
monsoons. The analysis of data collected will help to decipher the short-term
slope morphodynamics. This investigation will also help us to understand the
decay of soil profiles in various slope morphotypes.
(iv) Filed mapping, pitting, augering and related activities will be carried out, in
the flood plain of selected valleys in the subbasins, in order to identify and

11
 estimate the aggradation and degradation due to accelerated of erosion of
the upland.
(vi) Total dissolved load and suspended load discharged by the stream for
various types of flow conditions will be estimated by systematic sampling
temporally and spatially and further analyzing the samples in the laboratory
subsequently.
(vii) Channel and slope modification (bank modification) due to controlled
discharge and reduced peak flow in the river will be examined by analysis of
suitable data collected from the stream net work.
To summarise, it is hoped that by proceeding along the lines of investigation and
methodologies listed above, we will be in a position to characterize the present
status of the River system, including the river basin.
Geomorphology of the Neyyar Basin
The Neyyar system is the southern most of the drainage basins in the state
of Kerala and about three fourths of the basin falls in the district of Trivandrum,
while the rest of it is in the adjoining Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu. The basin
lies between 77000 and 77020 E of Greenwich and also between the North Lats of
8040 . The river takes a southwesterly course from the Agasthyamala. This 6th order
stream (?) has an overall dendritic network. But tributaries like Chitar show a
rectangular network, due to structural control of the underlying rocks. In total, the
basin covers an area of 469Km2. The Neyyar rises from Agastyamala in the
Western ghats at an altitude of 5500 ft., and after flowing down through a distance
of 44.5 Mi., (73 km) it enters the Laccadive sea at Poovar, where during the
summer months, the connection between the stream and the sea is cut off by a
river mouth bar. A straight gravity Masonary dam was commissioned in 1959 at
Kallikkad in the Neyyar master stream mainly for the purpose of irrigation.
Morphometric analysis
After thorough study of the morphometry of the basin, using the
topographic sheets of SOI published in 1914 and 1969 (scale 1 : 63360 and 1 :
50000 respectively), it was felt convenient to divide the basin into two parts, one
falling on the upstream side of the dam site at Kallikkad, and the other on the down
stream of it. The dam Kallikkad has affected various attributes of the drainage
network more on the downstream side of it than on the upstream side. So a study
of the morphometric parameters out of the two sets of SOI maps antedating and
postdating the construction of the dam became inescapable.
Parameters like total stream length and stream frequency have been
examined in detail, which demonstrate wide variations between 1914 and 1969.
The changes showed by these parameters may perhaps be due to the construction
of the dam in the river at Kallikkad and may be more so, due to the unique changes
that occurred in the landuse pattern of the basin, viz., shift from a forest landuse to
non-forest landuse.
Shrinkage of stream length
In the sector downstream of the dam site (Kallikkad), in the basin, eleven
major tributaries exist on the left bank and eight on the right bank. When the two
sets of map data were compared these tributaries clearly demonstrated that
presently there has been considerable reduction in the stream length and stream
frequency. For example, as per the SOI 1914 toposheet, in the sector downstream
of Kallikkad, the streams had a cumulative length of 735.7 km(457 Mi.). But as of
1969, for the same area the stream length has reduced to 505.7 KM. Perhaps such
a drastic decrease in stream length owes itself mainly to human actions in the
basin and field studies are in progress to collect ground truth to support or oppose
the above conjecture. Our preliminary search reveals that many first order streams
have been plugged for one reason or other.
Long profile

12
 The thalweg profile of the Neyyar system from the source area to its mouth
presents the ubiquitous concave upward shape. A steep to vertical profile is noticed
in the highland area in the headwater reaches; say over 750 ft. above MSL, and a
gradually sloping profile excurs between 750 ft. and 100 ft. The river further
traverses a distance of about 12 miles to descend from 50 ft. elevation to reach the
MSL at Poovar. A knick point noticed in the filed at Aruvipuram as a cascade,
coincides with 50 contour and is controlled by lighology.
0 0
Latitudinal profiles in the basin have been generated at N.8 20 ; N8 25 ;
N8 30 and 8035 transects. These profiles bring out the well marked coastal land,
0

lowland, midland and highland sectors recognized in many other river basins, in
other parts of the state.
The Catchment area
The geomorphic aspects of the catchment of the Neyyar reservoir, were
also examined carefully and critically with the help of the SOI toposheets published
in 1914 and 1969. The straight gravity masonry dam at Kallikkad has a water
spread of 6.92 km2. The map data on stream order indicates that the Neyyar basin
th th
was a 7 order basin as per the 1914 topo sheet, whereas it reverted to a 6 order
basin in the 1969 map. This retrogression of the stream order, is perhaps a
compound effect of the construction of the dam and filling in of the lake and the
dynamic shifts that occurred in the landuse pattern of the area. The region that was
under a tropical forest, had been changed perforce to one with lot of plantations
and other agricultural crops, which are the direct consequences of the
unprecedented human encroachment in the basin. More and more first order
stream channels have been plugged when forest land was converted to agricultural
and plantation fields. The reservoir had drowned several lower order streams and
several new but minor marshes have developed in the tributary valleys bordering
the lake. The influence of the marshes on the physical system of Neyyar is not of
direct concern to the present investigation.
As per the 1914 SOI toposheets, the total number of streams (all orders
included) was 2259 with a cumulatitive length of 675.9 Km. But the 1969
toposheets of SOI, showed a dramatic reduction in both the stream number and
stream length viz., 678 and 421 Km. respectively. Field verification of this aspect is
in progress. The comparative study of stream lengths and the numbers reveals that
this drainage system had a total stream length of 1250.3 KM in 1914 with 4469
individual streams. After a long span of time in 1969, the total stream length
reduced to 650.8 Km with 1019 streams in the basin.
Comparative study of topographic sheets for network changes
Although the ideal procedure for understanding of the network changes,
including those of the finger tip streams, is to verify such aspects in the field.
Nevertheless analyst can always get a feel of it by a comparative study of
topographic sheets published serially. Equally useful are the airphotos of the area
again taken on a serial basis. This investigator has so far not been successful in
accessing the airphotos of the study area, though efforts are being persistently
made.
In order to check this aspect of channel change and modification of
network, an intense verification of the topographic sheets published in 1914 and
1965 were under taken. Our efforts have indicated changes of course of the master
stream and that of the fingertip streams of the basin. There had been changes in
the coastal land area in a very conspicuous manner mainly brought in by the littoral
sand movement and deposition by the monsoonal wave activity. However, in the
present context we address ourself to the changes due to modification of the
discharge through the master stream as well as those changes of the finger tip
streams due to the result of human activity in the basin, like the construction of the
dam or forcing of changes in landuse practices.
One aspect we noticed was the shift of tributary junction toward
downstream reaches (ie., in the lowland area) where the flood plain has

13
considerable width. Topographic expression of the shift of the tributary downstream
can be recognised in the filed. With the exception of this change in a left bank
tributary in the lowland area no other appreciable change has been identified.
Nonetheless, I am not in a position yet to attribute this shifting of junction to
accelerated erosion, but data collection and field observations are in progress to
establish the reasons for such shifts.
The story is slightly different when we take up the subbasins in the Neyyar
system. The observational data from topographic sheet indicate large scale
reduction of the number of first order streams in the subbasins of the midland and
lowland regions. Field checks for confirming the observation is currently in
progress. The apparent reduction in the first order finger tip-streams in the basin
can be rejected simply as an artifact, resulting from the inaccuracy of data
collection for the preparation of maps, or due to the larger scale of mapping in
1965, or due to the use of airphotos for generating the data with limited field
checks. However, our own field checks are bound to throw light on this aspect.
The apparent reduction in the number of first order streams of the
subbasins may be due to the following. Generally the upper end of the fingertip
streams is bound to end up in gulleys. The concerned farmer of landmanager will
tend to rectify this manifestation by appropriate management practices while
launching any serious cultivation. Further, the contour bunding, transverse rubble
walling in the valley and lining of the channel with rubble would tend to restrict the
channel along its width and length or the foliage in the crown may also lead to
camouflaging the spatial pattern of the channel resulting in data that ultimately will
tend to eliminate the finger tip streams from the maps.
Another category of shift of streams also have been noticed, in the
subbasins. The major valleys of the subbasins are present paddy fields, and the
lower order stream that once occupied the valley, has been trained to occupy a
course other than its own. This modification is achieved by the combined work of
the farmer and the Minor Irrigation Dept. personnel and funding. In fat one has to
look at these streams and adjoining paddy fields as temporary sinks for the
sediment that is shed down by the adjacent cultivated slopes. At times of heavy
rain storms, the streams will overtop the banks or dikes on either side flooding the
paddy fields with sediment and water. The paddy fields thus function as moderately
efficient temporary traps for coarse sediment. However, the overtopping
phenomenon is the result of not only the flood waters but also due to the fact that
the channel capacity is maintained most of the time without any change all along its
course, going against the natural law of the stream capacity. Sediment
accumulation in the channel bed due to accelerated erosion also may tend to
reduce the channel capacity.

STUDY OF HYDROLOGY
Method of measurement of channel capacity
Generally speaking, the discharge at any channel cross section vs.
precipitation in the basin upstream of that point, estimated for several channel
cross sections in the basin and the interrelationship of these parameters expressed
as a power function, serves as a useful measure to characterize the hydrological
aspect of the basin in question. The slope estimate of the power function equation
has been used to specify the altered streams from the natural ones on an empirical
basis by several workers. More often than not, when one makes an attempt to
study a drainage basin, one faces the problem of not having suitable number of
gauging stations to estimate the discharge parameter. This has turned out to be
true, even in the case of many instrumented watersheds. At times of need, it has
been felt by many that there may not be available, suitable data to undertake an
analysis. For this reason most of the time the analyst is forced to capture his own
data by setting up gauging stations. Another way of overcoming the problem is to

14
measure the channel capacity at suitable sections and use it as a surrogate of
discharge. Instead of precipitation, the drainage area has been made use of.
In fluvial channels the discharge of water along with the sediment it carries,
is considered as the cardinal factor in modifying or maintaining the fluvial channel
and hence the discharge has been considered as an independent variable by the
analysts. Once we concur that the channel is cut or built and maintained by the
available discharge, then it follows that the cross sectional area at the bankful (also
called the channel capacity) is a suitable substitute for discharge. Therefore, in the
case of non-instrumented water sheds like the Neyyar basin, the channel capacity
at bankful, estimated by field survey can be used for the analysis of hydrological
aspect of the network. Such an assumption will ease the burden of not having
many gauging stations in the watershed. In the Neyyar basin there is only one
gauging station at Ottasekharamangalam, set up in 1977.
Procedure
The easiest way of measuring cross sectional area of the stream at
bankful, is with an Engineers level or Transit and Levelling staff and tape. Wooden
pegs or stakes are driven on the banks as local but permanent markers of the
survey points to be made use of in subsequent visit. With these tools, the surveyor
can easily measure the cross section and the filed data can be plotted in section
paper (in 1 : 1 scale for distance and height) and with the use of a polar planimeter
the cross sectional area or capacity at that cross section can be estimated.
Following this procedure, 16 cross sections were measured in the channel of the
Master stream in the Neyyar basin. Yet another 16 cross sections were also
measured in 16 major tributaries, above their confluence with the master stream. In
the master stream, the cross sections were first established, by walking in the
stream, and then selecting a fairly straight reach of channel of atleast 100 m length.
This exercise was performed to avoid the channel bends.
Estimation of bankful stage
Estimation of bankful stage from the cross sections or in the field is not
very easy. One has to very carefully scan for the geomorphic expressions of
bankful stage in the channel walls like the dirt marks on tree trunks, lichen growth
on rocky channel walls, if available, and other features like shoulders or benches
on the channel walls. Queries with the local prople also will be of help. Once this
level is inferred in the field it can be placed in the cross section. Further it is a
matter of measuring the area of the channel cross section below that level with a
polar planimeter.
Estimation of bankful velocity
Manning flow equation is used for predicting the average flow velocity
R 0.66 S 0.5
through the channel. V = 1.00
n
1
where, v = the average velocity in m sec
R = Hydraulic radius of channel (bankful) in m
S = Slope of the energy grade line (stream bed slope) in meter per meter
and n = a roughness factor created by frictional forces of perimeter and water
turbulence.
The slope of the energy grade line is taken as the slope of the channel from the
survey of India toposheets as well as by surveying the slope of water surface in the
channel in a straight section. The product of bankful cross section and the average
velocity estimated from the Manning flow equation will then give an estimate of
Bankful discharge for that cross section.
Direct Measurement of Velocity
Stream flow velocity at lower stages can be directly measured to estimate
the discharge. This was done as below, using a propeller type magnetic current
meter in the channel wherever the water depth was suitable for the measurement
of velocity. In the surveyed sections, the flow velocity was measured using the

15
current meter at the middle of every two meter wide subsections, by holding the
instrument at half depth (then deducting 5% of the observed velocity) by wading or
by suspending the instrument from a canoe along with a 10 kg. fish weight. When
velocities were below it 0.9 m sec 1 velocity was read off in an analog display. Back
in the office to estimate the discharge, the product of velocity and the cross
sectional area of the subsection was estimated. Cumulated value of subsectional
discharges was then calculated to arrive at the total discharge at the specific cross
section.

Thus it was possible to estimate the bankful discharge as well as the

discharge through the cross section during lower stages.
Discharge measurement at the tributaries
Bankful discharge was estimate in the tributaries too, before their
confluence with the main stream. As the flow was very low, the velocity could not
be directly measured with the help of current meter. Therefore the bankful velocity
had to be indirectly estimated using the Manning flow equation. The bankful cross
section was surveyed in the field along with the channel bed slope in a straight
section of the channel. By plotting the cross section at bankful, in cross section
paper, the hydraulic radius was estimated along with the channel capacity at
bankful. Average velocity at bankful was derived using the Manning equation using
the suitable friction factor. The product of velocity and the bankful capacity was
derived as an estimate of bankful discharge. This was done for all 16 cross
sections surveyed in the tributaries
The relation between the discharge, drainage areas for the several
combinations of tributaries and tributaries and master stream are being analysed.
Tables show the summary of data whose anlaysis is in progress.
Sampling of Sediment
Stream sediment samples are considered by anlysts as the voice
recorder s of stream behavior and variations in the stream behaviour either due to
natural or due to anthropic causes. The data from sediment analysis is used to
estimate the pattern of variation of sediment parameters along the direction of
transport. Secondly the preferential coarsening of fining of sediment or changes in
mineralogy are attributed to the change in stream power or variability of source
available for exploitation by the stream. The channel bank sediment and its
composition ie., the proportion of mud and sand in it is taken to characterize the
streams as bed load streams or suspended load streams. The metamorphosis of
a bed load stream into a suspended load stream or vice versa are considered to be
due to large scale changes in the source area climate, landuse practice changes
etc.
In the present study, it was decided to examine the stream bed sediment
variation to decipher the influence of sand streaming on its composition, the
response of the bed sediment to excessive stream bank caving leading to supply of
large amounts of finer sediment to the bed material and how the sediment could
reflect and to what extent, the reduced flood frequency, after construction of the
Dam at Kallikad. Bed and Bank sediment samples from either banks have been
collected at points immediately below the 16 tributary junctions. It is pointed out
that the analysis of sediment samples are in progress in the laboratory.
Linear changes in channel width
Geomorphologists agree that the channel capacity of a fluvial system is a
function of the sediment and water it has to carry, ie., the channel capacity is
directly related to the discharge it has to handle. In other words, the stream
maintains a channel capacity attuned to the available discharge. In that case, one
should expect a relation between the channel width, its capacity, and some linear
measure of its position within the network.

16
 In order to examine this, the ideal starting place is to measure the channel
width in the field at several sites for further analysis. In the Neyyar in addition to
field measurements, notwithstanding the scarcity of ideal boxlike cross sections
where the width could be easily measured, channel width measurements were
taken out of Survey of India topographic sheets of 1914 (1:63360 scale) and of
1969 (1:50000 scale). It was assumed that the 1969 toposheets supposedly reflect
the channel width modification after large scale interference in the basin and
construction of the Dam at Kallikkad. The Surveyed width also will be used as third
data set.
Measurement procedure
After accepting the accuracy available for the topographic sheets, the
width of the blue line (the channel) in the map was measured with the help of a
polarizing microscope and a graduated eye piece. Before measurement, the
specific eyepiece objective combinations were standardized with the help of a
stage-micrometer. About 120 cross sections were measured in all, from the two
sets of topo-sheets. The distance down stream of the observation points from
Kallikkad was also estimated using a Rotameter, The data for 1914 and 1965 were
plotted separately in logarithmic paper for comparison. The plots definitely showed
positive increase in width of the stream from the upstream to the down stream end.
However, there should be some subtle difference between the slopes of best fir line
in the two plots. In order to assess this power function will be fitted and the slopes
of the lines of best fir will be compared. The expected difference in the slope is due
to the fact that construction of the dam decreased the quantum and frequency of
discharge through the stream rendering the channel to maintain a reduced width.
This reduction in width can also arise partly out of the sand streaming activity that
has been going on and was perhaps rising exponentially.

17
18
19
20
21
22
 TABLE: HYDROLOGIC DATA FOR MASTER STREAM (PREDICTED AND ACTUAL) FEB- 1984
Drainage Channel Actual Effective Mean Bankful
Sl. Depth Discharge
Place Name Area capacity width width Velocity Q 3 capacity
No D.m m sec 1
Km2 m2 w.m. w.m. m.sec 1 m2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 ULATHANKARA 434.85 25.60 32.5 28.0 0.76 0.48 11.89 199.60
2 PAZHAYAKADA 407.02 23.60 30.0 26.0 1.23 0.84 32.99 128.80
3 OLATHANNI 395.67 29.00 28.5 24.0 1.19 0.13 4.76 118.40
4 AMARAVILA 369.15 21.00 21.0 18.0 1.06 0.32 6.68 153.40
5 ARUVIPPURAM (S) 349.65 21.20 24.5 20.0 0.97 0.19 3.81 173.60
6 ARUVIPPURAM (N) 336.72 15.80 16.0 14.0 1.01 0.40 7.22 172.60
7 PERUMKADAVILA 287.22 39.00 31.0 24.0 1.44 0.06 2.18 160.40
8 ARUVIKARA 272.75 5.80 23.0 20.0 0.26 0.45 2.28 195.00
9 PARACHAL 270.32 29.00 16.50 16.5 1.76 0.05 1.88 161.20
10 KIZHAROOR (N) 257.87 16.80 16.00 16.0 0.99 0.12 2.07 170.60
11 KIZHAROOR 255.80 11.00 14.00 14.0 0.76 0.09 0.94 148.00
12 ARIYANKOD 253.32 5.40 9.50 9.5 0.44 0.24 1.37 184.00
OTTASEKHARA
13 248.62 8.20 12.00 12.0 0.57 0.16 2.08 170.80
MANGALAM
MANDAPATHIN
14 241.40 6.60 10.00 10.0 0.52 0.43 2.46 79,00
KADAVU
15 PUZHANAD 214.65 5.60 10.00 10.0 0.54 0.24 1.29 164.00
16 VIRANAKAVU (E) 210.75 5.20 8.00 8.0 0.64 0.43 1.66 206.00

23
 TABLE: HYDROLOGIC DATA FOR MASTER STREAM
(PREDICTED AND ACTUAL) FEB- 1984

Channel Bankful Sub

Tributary Drainage
Sl.No Place Name capacity capacity Basin
Number area Km2
m2 m2 number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 VLATHANKARA 22.10 1.2 14.00 L.B.2

2 4 PAZHAYAKADA 11.00 0.4 15.00 R.B.1

3 6 OLATHANNI 20.68 1.2 25.60 R.B.2

4 7 OLATHANNI 20.68 1.2 36.20 R.B.2

5 9 AMARAVILA 16.20 1.0 18.00 L.B.4

6 12 ARUVIPPURAM 13.40 0.8 15.40 R.B.3

7 13 ARUVIPPURAM 48.00 2.2 28.40 L.B.5

8 15 PERUMKADAVILA 7.65 1.4 33.20 L.B.6

9 17 ARUVIKKARA 1.80 0.15 4.65 R.B.4

10 19 PARACHAL 9.90 1.0 23.20 R,B.5

11 21 KIZHAROOR 2.50 0.2 4.50 L.B.7

12 24 KIZHAROOR 1.53 0.6 11.10 R.B.6A

13 26 ARIYANKOD 5.30 0.4 16.20 L.B.8

14 28 CHITTAR 49.20 2.2 63.20 L.B.9

15 30 AMACHAL 18.92 2.2 28.60 R.B.6

16 32 PUDUVITTUMURI 1.50 0.2 9.60 L.B.11

17 34 KALLIKKAD 4.90 0.8 14.00 R.B.7

24
 DISTRIBUTION LIST
1. Director, 14. Dean,
Centre for Earth Science Studies, School of environmental Sciences,
P.B. 2235, Trivandrum Jawahar Lal University,
Pin 695 010 New Delhi
2. Director, 15. Prof. B.K. Sahu,
Geological Survey of India Dept of Geology,
Kerala Circle, Thampanoor IIT, Powai, Bombay,
Trivandrum 400 076
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Legislature Library, Dept of Geology,
Secretariat, Trivandrum IIT, Kharagpur,
Midnapore Dist, W.Bengal
4. Director
Centre for Water Resources 17. Dr.S.K. Chanda,
Devlopment and Management, Department of Geology,
Kunnamangalam, Kozhikode Jadavpur University
Calcutta.
5. Director
Kerala Engineering Research 18. Head of the Dept. of Geology
Institute, Peechi Banares Hindu University,
Banaras
6. Prof Stanely Schumm,
Colarado State University, 19. Head of the Dept of Geography
Fort Collins, Colarado 80523 Madura Kamaraj University
Madurai
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School of Geography 20. Librarian , Central Library
University of Manchester, Geological Survey of India
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Dept. of Geography, Library, Trivandrum
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Lucknow.
9. Prof. K.J. Gregory,
23. Officer in charge
Professor of Geography
Data Processing Centre,
University of Southampton.
GSI, Hyderabad
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500 001
10. Prof. S.M. Casshyap
Dept. of Geology,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, 2 UP.
11. Prof. Ramesh
Prof of geography
Madras University
Presidency College,
Madras
12. Prof. K. Vaidyanathan
Dept of Geography
Andhra University
Waltair
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Dept of Geology,
Delhi University,
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25