Alternator

The machines which are working under alternating current are called A.C. machines The machine which converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy is called generator The machine which generates alternating current is called A.C. generator A.C. generator is also known as Alternating or Synchronous generators Alternator is constructed in large sizes i.e.500 MVA or even more

Working principle of alternator

It works on the principle of Faradays laws of electro-magnetic induction which states that Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, E.M.F is induced in it The magnitude of induced E.M.F is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages The generate the E.M.F conductor, magnetic flux and motion of the conductor is required It consists of a starter made of magnetic material and supply a laminated armature core having slots in to which a three phase winding is housed The three phase windings are displaced electrically by an angle of 120 0 a part shown in fig (1)

The rotating part consists of a of rotor supported on bearings with salient or cylindrical pole which produces magnetic flux with help of an exciter The exciter usually D.C shunt generator is fitted to the same shaft When the rotor is rotated by the prime mover the stator windings are cut by the magnetic flux produced by the rotor conductors
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The E.M.F is induced in the stator conductors due to electromagnetic induction effect As the rotor poles are alternatively N and s poles, they induced an alternating E.M.F and hence the current in the stator winding The direction of E.M.F is given by Flemings right hand rule In a D.C generator the stationary part is field system and the rotating part is armature (conductor) In alternator the armature winding (conductor) mounted on a stationary element called stator and the field winding on rotating element called Rotor

Construction

The machine which converts mechanical energy into alternating current is called alternator It essentially consists of Stator Rotor Exicter

Stator
It is a stationary part It consists of a stator frame made of cast iron for holding the armature stampings to form the armature core The stampings are punched out of special magnetic iron or steel alloy The three phase star or delta connected windings are housed in these slots and acts as armature (stator)
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windings of the alternator The phase windings are displayed by 1200 The emf induced in each phase is also displayed by 1200

Rotor
It is the rotating part of the alternator It carries the field winding which are excited by a separate d.c.source through two slip rings There are two types of rotors Salient pole type (or) projected pole type Non salient pole type (or) smooth cylindrical type

Salient Pole Rotor

The general view of salient pole rotor is shown in fig .3

These rotors have fixed alternate poles shown in fig.3

These are made of cast iron or steel of good These are made of cast iron or steel of good magnetic material They are excited by a separate d.c. generator mounted on the same shaft of the alternator The following are some of the features of salient pole rotor are

They have large diameter and short axial length The pole shoes cover about 2/3 of pole pitch These are used in low and medium speeds (100 to 375 rpm) These are employed with hydraulic turbines
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Flux in the air gap is uniform Non Salient (Or) Cylindrical Rotor

It consists of solid forged steel cylinder The no. of slots around the periphery in which dc windings are accommodated The windings are energized to produce poles in the polar areas of the rotor Fig (4) shows a cylindrical rotor

Non-salient Pole Type Rotor This type of rotor is cylindrical in shape and has a large axial length and small diameter This type of rotor is suitable for high speed turbo-alternators having two or four poles The maximum speed of this rotor is 1500 to 3000 rpm Flux in the air gap is uniform Can be used as turbo alternator
Comparison of Salient & Non Salient Type Rotors Particulars No of poles Speed Axial length Axial length Usage Salient More less less less Hydro plants Non salient Less High more more Thermal plants 4

Exciter Field in the alternator , the winding is always required to be excited by separate D.C.supply This provides the required D.C.voltage of the order of 110 v to 250 v This voltage is given to the winding with the help of slip rings. Relation Between Frequency and Speed Number of poles = p Speed of the rotor = N in r.p.m The revolutions = N/60 For one revolution the rotor produces is p/2 x N/60 Time taken for N/60 revolution is 1 second Therefore frequency (f) = p/2 x n/60

Emf Equation of Alternator

Derivation Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series/phase
= 2T where T is the No. of coils or turns per phase (one turn or coil has two sides i.e. T = Z/2)

P = No. of poles f = frequency of induced e m f in Hz. = flux per pole in webers N = rotor rpm In one revolution of the rotor (i.e.60/N second ) each stator conductor is cut by a flux of p webers. d = P and dt = 60/N second
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Average e m f induced per conductor = d/dt e = P/60/N e = PN/60 We know that f = PN/120
N = 120 f/P

Substituting the value of N above, we get Average e m f per conductor, e = px120f/60XP = 2f volt If there are Z conductors in series /phase, then Average e m f per phase =2fZ volts = 4fT volts. R.M.S value of e m f per phase =1.11x4fT = 4.44fT. This would be the actual value, if all the coils in a phase were full pitched and concentrated in one slot.

Armature reaction:
Armature reaction is meant that the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the distribution of flux under the main poles of a generator. As in d.c generator armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main flux. In case of alternators the p.f. of load has considerable effect on armature reaction. When load power factor is unity. When load power factor is zero lagging. When load power factor is zero leading.
Unity power factor

The armature flux is cross-magnetizing. Flux at the leading tips of the poles is reduced, while it is increased at the trailing tips. These two effects nearly offset each other leaving the average field strength constant. power factor lagging

The armature flux is in direct opposition to the main flux. The main flux is decreased, armature reaction is demagnetized. Due to weakening of the main flux, less emf generated. To keep the value of generated emf,the same, field excitation will have to be increased to compensate the weakening.
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power factor leading

Armature flux wave has moved forward by 900,it is in phase with the main flux wave. Armature reaction is wholly magnetising, which results in greater induced emf. To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be reduced somewhat.

Voltage Variation On Load

As the load on alternator is varied, its terminal voltage "V" also varies due to the following reasons 1) Voltage drop due to armature resistance Ra 2) Voltage drop due to armature reactance XL 3) Voltage drop due to armature reaction.

Armature resistance
The armature resistance per phase causes voltage drop per phase IRa Resistive drop IRa is in phase with its load current I

Armature Leakage Reactance

When current flows through armature Fluxes are set up Certain flux does not cross the air gap This flux is called leakage flux contributes to the leakage reactance

Armature resistance
Due to armature reaction Reduced net flux Reduced voltage Voltage drop This is represented with Xa Drop due to armature reaction IXa leads the current by 900
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Synchronous reactance
The sum of leakage reactance (XL) and Armature reactance (Xs) Xs = X L + X s

Assume that there is a fictitious reactance Xa in the armature winding The leakage reactance XL and the armature reactance Xa may combined to give synchronous reactance Xs, hence Xs = XL + Xa Xa varies with p.f of the load, because armature reaction depends on load p.f

Total voltage drop in an alternator under load = IRa + JIXs I ( Ra + JXs ) = IZs where Zs is known as synchronous impedance.

When the synchronous reactance is combined with the armature reactance X s and armature resistance Ra, the quantity obtained is called synchronous Impedance. Zs = Ra + JXs / phase Ra is usually very small compare to Xs. Therefore Zs may assumed equal to the Xs for many purposes.
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Volts

Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as The rise in voltage when full load is removed (field excitation and speed remaining the same) divided by the rated terminal voltage. Therefore percent regulation up = (Eo-V)/V X 100 Eo-V is the arithmetical difference and not the vectorial In the case of leading load p.f, terminal voltage will fall on removing the full load. Hence, regulation is negative in this case. The rise in voltage when full load is thrown off is not the same as the fall in voltage when full load is applied. Voltage characteristics of an alternator are

To determine the regulation of an Alternator, the following tests are performed

Open circuit test The machine is run on no load and the induced e.m.f per phase is measured corresponding to various values of field current A curve is drawn between induced e.m.f per phase Eph and field current I f. The curve so drawn is known as Open circuit characteristics. It is just like the B H curve.

Short circuit test In this test armature winding (i.e. stator winding) is short circuited through a low resistance ammeter. During the test the speed (not necessarily synchronous) is kept constant and short circuit current is measured corresponding to various values of field current.

The excitation is increased (or adjusted) so as to give 1.5 to 2 times the value of full load current . The short circuit characteristics is a curve drawn between short circuit current Isc and field current If Armature resistance test The above figure shows the circuit to find the armature resistance of alternator. V Ra = ------I Synchronous Impedance Method Open circuit characteristics is plotted from the given data given by the open circuit test. Similarly Short circuit characteristic is drawn from the data given by the Short circuit test. Both these curves are drawn on a common field current base.
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Consider a field current I f . The Open circuit voltage corresponding to this field current is Eoc When winding is short circuited, the terminal voltage is zero. Hence it may be assumed that the whole of this voltage Eoc is being responsible to circulate the armature short circuit current Hence it may be assumed that the whole of this voltage Eoc is being responsible to circulate the armature short circuit current Isc against synchronous impedance Zs. i.e. Eoc = Isc X Zs Zs = Eoc / Isc = OC voltage/SC voltage Since Ra can be found as discussed earlier Xs2 = Zs2 Ra2 ( Zs2 = Ra2 + Xs2 ) By knowing Ra and Xs, vector diagram can be drawn for any load and any p.f
Vector diagram at lagging power factor

From the vector diagram, with lagging power factor (OD)2 = (OB)2 + (BD)2 Eo2 = ( V cos + IRa )2 + ( V sin+IXs)2
+ ve sign for lagging p.f. and - ve sign for leading p.f. Hence % regulation = Eo-V / V * 100

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Importance Of Synchronous Impedance Large values of synchronous reactance Xs indicates smaller values of current under short circuit condition of alternator. With lower values of Xs, stability limit ( maximum power output) is increased, voltage regulation improved and machines with high value of Xs have difficulty during parallel operation due to small value of synchronizing power during synchronization of alternators.

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