6 Sigma

QUALITY

The Need

With the advent of Globalization every organization relentlessly pushes themselves for the processes that gives them error free products in a competitive environment. With the growth of competitive environment - error free products acts as a Qualifying parameter only. However the survival demands more. What is more? More is defined by the Customer and the competitive environment.
- Critical to Customer - Critical to Delivery - Critical to Cost - Critical to Process etc.

6 Sigma
QUALITY

Early Growth

Motorola suffered a severe downturn when a Japanese manufacturer invaded the chip market in 1985-86. In 1987, Motorola started process improvement projects to counter the invasion. Initial finding was the process cycle time, but quality fell off the radar. Later the managers began to recognized the quality problem was due to wait times, inventory mismanagement etc.
Motorolas biggest customer Ford Motors took considerable interest in the process improvement and Six Sigma kick-off. Lots of people participated in the invention of Six sigma over a long period of time. The Six Sigma methodology package was rolled out in 1987-88. Motorola was honored with Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award in 1988.

6 Sigma
QUALITY

Project Priority
Unknown Priority #1
Cause Unknown Solution Unknown

Priority #3
Cause Known Solution Unknown

Solution

Known

Priority #2
Cause Known Solution Known Cause Unknown Solution Known

Known

Unknown

Cause

6 Sigma
QUALITY

Methodology
Define whats important

Control to guarantee performance

Improve by fixing whats wrong

Measure how were doing

Analyze whats wrong

6 Sigma
QUALITY

Parallel-Lean Six Sigma

Plan Improvement Focus Improvement Deliver Performance Improve Performance

Lean Six Sigma

Analyze Opportunity

Lean Six Sigma is combination of Lean Method and Six Sigma. The method builds on the knowledge, methods and tools derived from decades of operational improvement research and implementation. Lean approaches focus on reducing cost through process optimizations. Its aim is effectiveness, not just efficiency. Broadly Lean Six Sigma is for operational improvements - refining existing processes to reduce cost. Six Sigma is about meeting customer requirements, stakeholder expectation and improving quality by measuring and eliminating defects.

6 Sigma
QUALITY

Six Sigma Jargon

Champion The Champion is a person responsible for instilling the vision of Six Sigma and communicating it across the firm. They are usually the upper management or executive officers. The assist in dedicating the resources and choosing the projects.

Master Black Belt The MBB people are those, who have extensive experience in Six Sigma methodology. MBBs acts as a coach to its team member in project planning and result evaluation.
Black Belt The BB people leads the project on fulltime basis. BBs are certified people with hands on Six Sigma projects. They have strong understanding of statistical methods of data collection and analysis. They are the project managers and are responsible for all traditional roles. Green Belt The GBs acts as an assistant to BBs in their job. GBs have the basic understandings of statistic but dont have the expertise and experience like BBs. GBs does the legwork of BBs in project realization. However, they lead the project on a part time basis.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Involves:

Define Phase

To develop a Project Charter. Project Objective Develop focus and purpose of the team. Charter Use Voice of Customer to identify customer needs. Objective Identify the actual pain / opportunity. Translate customer needs into Critical To Quality elements. Objective Identify Project CTQs.

VOC

CTQs

Translate customer needs into Critical To Quality elements. Process Objective Identify Project CTQs. Map

6 Sigma
QUALITY

Define Phase
- Why is the project worth doing - Consequence of not doing the project - Description of problem - What is not meeting customers requirement - Improvement the team desires - What lies in scope and whats out of scope - Project plan with timeline

Project Charter: Elements

Business Case
Problem Statement Goal Statement Scope Milestone

6 Sigma

Define QUALITY Project Charter: RACI Model

Phase

Responsibility Charting is a technique for identifying functional areas where there are process ambiguities . It brings the differences out in open and resolving them through a cross-functional collaborative effort. It defines the participation roles to different departments linked with the project.
Responsible (R) doer The doer(s) is responsible for action/implementation. The doers are those who actually completes the task. Accountable (A) the buck stops here The accountable persons are those who are actually answerable for activity. This includes yes or no authority. Only one A is assigned to an action. Consult (C) in the loop The consultants are consulted prior to a final decision or action. Inform (I) keep in the picture The communication to this individual is a one-way. They are just informed about the changes and are expected to take action as a result of the changes.

6 Sigma

Define QUALITY RACI Charting: Example

Mother Feed the Dog A I C C Father C I

Phase
Sam R A A/R A/R R R R Jenny Clark Kids

Play with Dog

Morning Walk Evening walk Clean the Dog Clean the Table

C C A

A/R R

RACI Closing Guideline:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Place the Accountability & Responsibility at lowest feasible level. There can be only one accountable individual per activity. Authority must accompany accountability. Minimize the number of Consults & Informs. Horizontal & Vertical Analysis of RACI chart indicates flaws in roles/responsibilities.

6 Sigma

Define Phase QUALITY VOC / CTQs if we can find it, we can focus on it
Customer Surveys Complaints Executive level discussions Benchmark Data

Voice of customer (internal/external) is tracked through various means. Customer Surveys and Complaints are generally used for external customers while executive level discussions are intended for refining/improving internal processes. Benchmark data is essential for process developments/innovations with respect to peers.

Example- CTQs
Critical To Quality (CTQ) Critical To Delivery (CTD) Critical To Cost (CTC) RM/Scrap/Inventory Critical To Process (CTP) Process Cycle Time

Dimensions

JIT Compliance

Definition of CTQs changes as per projects, However, it should be very clear and straightforward as it forms the base of project.

6 Sigma

Define Phase QUALITY Process Mapping: y = f(x, x, x ..)

Supplier Input Process Output Customer

P
High level Process Map

Process Mapping begins with SIPOC map. Once SIPOC is prepared, Process part is again fragmented into a high level process diagram involving all work centers that affects Output. Majority of this process comes under Measure Phase, but to prioritize and link CTQs to various process inputs.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Tools:

Measure Phase

Process Mapping

YX Matrix

Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA)

Capability Analysis

Measure Phase is a pioneer stage in quantifying, qualifying and validating the Six Sigma needs. It is in this phase that a more refined data evolves in terms of CTQs. And the phase translates the physical behavior into statistical problem. The phase also makes an assessment of current process performance. Many companies have their own methodology of recording day-to-day process data however, methods of measurement revolves around above stated five tools.

6 Sigma
QUALITY
Work Order QTY/Part

Measure Phase
Refer the Drawing Jig Required ?

High Level Process Mapping: Example-Drilling

No
Start Go for Marking

Yes
Rework Area Use Jig Prepare Tooling

Rework Report

Yes

Rework Possible

No

Is Drilling OK

Start Drilling

No
Rejection Rejection Report End

Yes

A high level process mapping is very important in understanding the interaction of various process interaction and linkage of CTQs with the process centers. Majority of concentration is put on in eliminating the excess or the wastage of cycle time as against to the optimal requirement.

6 Sigma
QUALITY YX Matrix:

Measure Phase
Output Variable (Y)

# Rank= Score x Weight Weight

Weld Strength 10

Weld Appearance 8

Pinhole Density 7

Weld Flexibility 4

Rank

Input Variable (X)

Weld Frequency Power Amplitude Initial Gap Contact Pressure

8
8 5 2

4
8 2 7

7
4 3 10

5
9 4 2

181
208 103 154

The YX Matrix is an exhaustive process study to zero in on to the process characteristic that has greater impacts on CTQs. Hence, we deduce the weight of different process impacting CTQs.

6 Sigma

Measure QUALITY Measurement System Analysis:

Input Process

Phase
Measurement Process Output

Process Variation
Actual Process Variation Variation due to Instrument Measurement Process Variation

Variation due to Operator

Variation due to Environment

MSA is used to separate the variations of measurement system in the process. Repeatability: Variation when one person repeatedly measures same unit with same system Reproducibility: Variation when two people measuring same unit with same system Tolerance: Expectation of error range

6 Sigma

Measure QUALITY Gage R & R Analysis: Example

Phase

R & R < 10% :

Satisfactory
R & R 10 - 30% :

May be Satisfactory
R & R > 30% :

Unsatisfactory Gage R & R analysis presented above seems to be complicated , but in fact its not. It is simply a process where Repeatability & Reproducibility is measured.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Capability Analysis:
Process Capability Cp

Measure Phase
Process Performance Cpk
Cpk is the ratio of the distance measured between process mean and specification limits closer to half the total process spread. Estimates measure of capability of a process to meet established customer requirement.

Cp is the ratio of tolerance width to short term process spread. Estimates instantaneous capability of the process.

LSL
Cp<1

USL
Process Incapable

LSL
Cpk=2

USL

Cp=1

0.3% Defect is likely to occur

Cpk=1

Cp=2

When Cp=2, 3xCp = 6

Cpk=0

6 Sigma
QUALITY Cp & Cpk :
Cp
Cp = USL LSL 6ST

Measure Phase
Cpl = X LSL 3ST

Cpk

Cpu = USL X 3ST

Cpk = min {Cpl, Cpu}

Cpk = Cp : Process Mean is on target. Cpk = 0 : Process Mean falls on one of the specification limits. 50% of process falls beyond specified limits. Cpk < -1 : Process Mean is completely out of specified limits.

Cp = 2 :

It implies the accomplishment of short term objective. Short Term process capability = 3 x Cp. At Cp = 2, Process Capability = 6

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Objective: Brainstorming

Phase

Determine X that causes costly defects. Identify the various Hypothesis. Select tools to approve/disprove the Hypothesis. Perform statistical test and check for significance. If cause is statistically and practically significant recommend for Improve phase.

Analyze phase is one of the most important phase of any project. Process data obtained in Measure phase is analyzed and cross functional teams are consulted for brainstorming sessions. The session particularly aims in capturing ideas of CFTs that will help in narrowing the scope of issue process flaws. However, when a very large CFTs are concerned then the ideas are not always uniform in structure. To bring uniformity Nominal Group Process technique is used. NGP implies the segregation of the ideas and grouping them in accordance to the process/department to which it belongs. This is called as Affinity Diagram of ideas. After the brainstorming sessions, we arrive at number of causes. These causes are put together further analysis in the Improve phase.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Fishbone Diagram:

Analyze Phase

Fishbone diagram is a Cause & Effect (C&E) diagram which resembles the shape of a fish bone. It is also called as Ishikawa diagram, named after its creator Kaoru Ishikawa .

6 Sigma
QUALITY FMEA:
Characteristics of FMEA:

Analyze Phase

The main objective of FMEA is to identify ways the product or process can fail and to plan in order to prevent those failure. FMEA in general supports Analysis Phase.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Identify potential failure modes. Rate the severity of their effect. Identify potential causes. Evaluate objectively the probability of occurrence of these causes. Evaluate the ability to detect the causes. Rank order process deficiencies. Focus on eliminating / controlling these variables. Evaluate objectively the probability of occurrence of these causes. Severity x Occurrence x Detection = Risk Priority Number (RPN) RPN > 80 Critical need for immediate action. Severity > 5 Safety related defects. High RPN & Low Detection Flaws in internal tests. High Occurrence Poor process capability. Detection (1 to 10) Good Control to Poor Control

Stock Inventory Stock Inventory

Product Function Potential Failure Mode Potential Effects of Failure

Stock Inventory Wrong Location Delay in Finding 5 Correct Location Full 7

Potential Causes

6 Sigma

Damaged Insufficient Stock 7 Handling Error Supplier Defect 5 3 7 Severity (1-10) Insufficient Stock

QUALITY FMEA: Example

Damaged

Process
Occurrence (1-10)
Current Control

Standard Procedure
9 315 Review SOP 168 Process Inspection 8 9

Incoming Inspection

Checked twice a year

Detection (1-10) 315 Monthly Stock Audit

RPN
Recommended Action

Analyze Phase

Action
Responsibility & Target Dates

Sushmit, 5th Padmavati, 10th Raghu, 10th July 2011 July 2011 July 2011
SOP Revised Plan Developed Audit Plan Developed

Action Taken

Severity (1-10) Occurrence (1-10)

FMEA is a dynamic document and each process owner keeps updating it whenever required. Revised Result
Detection (1-10)
Revised RPN

6 Sigma
QUALITY Pareto Analysis:

Analyze Phase

Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th century Italian economist who discovered that 80% of the land in Italy was owned by 20% of the population, established the principle. Later it was redefined as 80% of the problems has their roots in 20% of the causes. Hence Pareto Analysis will give the vital few 20% that accounts for massive 80% defects in the process.
Example Lets consider delays in credit card processing by a bank with following reasons

and frequency of occurrences. Category

No Address Illegible Current Customer

Frequency
9 22 15

No Signature Other

40 8

6 Sigma
QUALITY Pareto Analysis:

Analyze Phase

Reorganize the frequency data in decreasing order . Then calculate the relative percentage on 100 percent level then calculate the cumulative percentage.
Category Frequency Relative Percentage Cumulative Percentage

No Signature Illegible
Current Customer No Address Other

40 22
15 9 8

43% 23%
16% 10% 8%

43% 66%
82% 92% 100%

Run the Pareto analysis tool in Sigma XL or in XL select the graphical plotting tool that resembles the graph shown in next slide.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Pareto Analysis:
Result:

Analyze Phase

The Breaking Point: The breaking point divides the vital few from trivial many in the chart.

Normally, the vital few starts fro 70% and above. In the above result it is No Signature, Illegible.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Hypothesis Testing:

Analyze Phase

Hypothesis testing is a value judgment made about a circumstance, a statement made about a population. As the name suggests, it is a technique to test the efficacy of changes in any process. Lets assume that we have a data of different types of crime in a city. Now, a hypothesis can be made for the trends in a span of 10 years. But to ascertain this hypothesis a standard error based hypothesis testing using is conducted, which validates the hypothesis of crime in span of 10 years. However, in actual applications when certain data tends to be normal i.e. the data follows normal distributions, then standard test called as t-test is applied to validate the hypothesis. To have a better command over this test one needs have a clear idea of right tools and have better understanding of statistical tools. Common Tools:

ANOVA
Normal Data More than two group of equal Variance.

Welch ANOVA
Normal Data More than two group of unequal Variance

Paired t-test
Normal Data For matched two groups.

t-test
Normal Data For unmatched two groups

Chi-Square
For Discrete Data

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Hypothesis Testing: Elements

1. 2.

Phase

Null Hypothesis (Ho): Null hypothesis is the hypothesis to be tested. In the earlier example Ho : Crime trends in a span of 10 years. Alternate Hypothesis (H or Ha): Alternate hypothesis is opposite to null hypothesis. It is assumed when null hypothesis is rejected after test. In earlier example H : No trends in crime in a span of 10 years. Sample t-test: Sample t-test is conducted to reject or fail to reject null hypothesis. Level of Risk : Level of risk implies the kinds of error associated while making an inference from hypothesis test. Two types of error can be made. The experiment can falsely reject a hypothesis that is true. In this case we say the error is Type I or the (alpha) error. If test actually fails the hypothesis that is actually false then it is Type II or (beta) error. Decision Rule: Decision pertains to condition of rejecting or failing to reject the hypothesis. Predefined confidence level helps in decision.

3. 4.

5.

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Hypothesis Testing: & error

Phase

The American Trial System

In Truth, the Defendant is: H0: Innocent HA: Guilty
Correct Decision
Innocent

Incorrect Decision
Guilty Individual Goes Free Type II or Error

Innocent Individual Goes Free

Verdict

Incorrect Decision
Innocent Individual Is Disciplined Type I or Error

Correct Decision
Guilty Individual Is Disciplined

Guilty

The above example shows the condition of Type I and Type II error. The decision rule for above verdict is based on the confidence level of and . When p-value < 0.05: Reject H0 and when p-Value > 0.05 : Fail to Reject H0

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Chi-Square Test: Discrete data

Phase

Chi-Square test applies where discrete data is available for hypothesis testing. Chi-Square test is usually conducted in a situation where customer feedback/VOC trends are compared with expected trends. Example Lets consider a company X makes customer survey for satisfaction quarterly and compares them with the previous expected surveys. Assume the sample size be 80.
Category Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor Q3-FY10 8 36 12 4 8 12 Q4-FY10 8 37 11 7 9 8

Here we will inspect the case in one variable only that is Category. H0 : Result Similar and Ha : Results not Similar. In this test Null & Alternate hypothesis always remains same.

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Chi-Square Test: Result

Phase

Chi-Square test run gives following result: Chi-Sq = 1.734, DF = 5, P-Value = 0.885 Hence, we observe that , P-Value = 0.885 i.e P-Value > 0.05. Therefore, it fails to reject Null hypothesis ( H0 : Result Similar) and the data of Q2-FY10 & Q3-FY10 are similar. Which implies that company X sustained its confidence level in the market.

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):

Phase

In 1920, Sir Ronald A. Fisher invented a statistical way to compare the data sets. Fisher called this method as Analysis of Variance which is popular as ANOVA. The F-ratio produced by ANOVA is named after Fisher. The t-test mentioned earlier had a limitation i.e. only two data sets can be analyzed. However, in ANOVA minimum of two data sets and maximum of infinite data sets can be analyzed. Scope of ANOVA: Whenever we want to compare more than two sets of data in order to conclude the better one then ANOVA plays great role. Example: Lets consider a case where a company wants to analyze the efficiency of drilling machine. Company collects the total time taken to complete similar jobs in three locations.
Drilling time in minute in a span of 5 days A 15 17 18 19 B 28 25 24 27 C 26 23 20 17

24

25

21

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):

ANOVA Test:

Phase

When ANOVA test is run, we get numerical output and graphical output. Former critically examines the individual data for differences and later plots them for comparison.
One-way ANOVA: A, B, C Source DF SS MS F P Factor 2 131.73 65.87 7.81 0.007 Error 12 101.20 8.43 Total 14 232.93 S = 2.904 R-Sq = 56.55% R-Sq(adj) = 49.31%

Numerical data examines the relation of data with each other and gives the P-value that indicates the confidence of test. In above case it is 0.007 and hence P-value < 0.05 which implies that Null hypothesis is rejected and data given are different. However, in what way the data differ is explained by box plot in next step.

6 Sigma

Analyze QUALITY Analysis of Variance (ANOVA):

ANOVA Test: Understanding differences

Phase

In a box plot circle marks the average, horizontal line is median, box reaches +/- one standard deviation and vertical line is range of data. A close analysis of graphical plot reveals a lot. Location A & C are statistically similar but B differs from A & C. Location A is more efficient in drilling. Location B requires special attention. In one particular day at location A the drilling is least efficient and if rectified it will be very efficient. Location C has less consistency. Hence, we can conclude in a similar manner for different data.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Regression Analysis:

Analyze Phase

Regression analysis is a statistical tool to analyze the relationship between quantitative variable. It helps in predicting the process behavior when the variables are change, for instance how JIT is affected when inventory is reduced. However, the analysis does not provides the optimal level of inventory rather it gives the level of inventory required to maintain the desired JIT compliance. Regression transforms the physical process into a mathematical model that will establish the relation between dependent and independent variable. In above case: JIT = A (Inventory) + B , value of A and B decides how strong the relationship exist between JIT and Inventory. When the independent variable is more than one then it is called as multiple regression analysis. Example: Lets consider a company X is a vendor of company Y. However, company X is poor in managing its optimal inventory level to support JIT. But since the purchase trends of company Y quarterly varies so they could not find the optimal inventory requirement. With poor inventory management the operational cost started increasing. To reduce the financial pain, top management wanted to analyze the effect of inventory over operational cost. They collected data of past one year, and wanted to know the optimal inventory level for particular operational cost.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Regression Analysis:
Month

Analyze Phase
Operational Cost 00000 ` Inventory MT

Data: Operational cost against inventory level in a one year span.

Jan
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct

22
20 30 28 26 29 31 37 38 40

10
8 24 20 19 23 26 28 30 34

Nov
Dec

42
54

37
45

6 Sigma
QUALITY Regression Analysis:
The regression equation is

Analyze Phase

Result: Regression Analysis gives following result. R-Sq indicates strength of relation.
Operational Cost = 11.5 + 0.882 Inventory (Relation)
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P Constant 11.474 2.512 4.57 0.001 Inventory 0.88202 0.09518 9.27 0.000 S = 3.23748 R-Sq = 89.6% R-Sq(adj) = 88.5%
Normal Probability Plot
(response is Operational Cost)

Action: Let the management fixes

99

the operational cost to be 25 lakh.

Percent

95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Equation: 25 = 11.5 + 0.882 Inventory Solution:

Inventory 15.3 MT
Note: The red dots represents the variation of relation form the regression model adopted.

-3

-2

-1

0 1 Standardized Residual

6 Sigma
QUALITY Statistical Solution:

Improve Phase

Improve phase is all about improvement. All the previous steps are used to narrow down the scope of actual cause causing costly pain. Lets say that we have run the six sigma method to improve the product quality. Later we came to know that the profile cutting machine has some fault. All the cut parts have slight variation. Now, what we do next? Change the machine or further drill on to the subject. Obviously, the later option is economically viable. Further, we sorted out some key factors of oxy machine that affects dimension: Cutting Speed. Kerf value. Nozzle quality. Plate Thickness. Program fault. But, still its quite difficult to narrow the scope of improvement. Lots of question still arises How cutting speed affects product and what damage it causes alone. What is the net impact of kerf value. Net effect cutting speed and kerf value. Do we need to change the nozzle and what will be the frequency. Do we need to reboot the program. All these answers are best addressed by Design of Experiment.

6 Sigma

Improve QUALITY Design of Experiment (DOE):

Phase

The process is always behaves in a manner of how or what the input is given and what are the external affecting parameters. To model the behavior of each individual factor and the behavior in interactions with other factors, for the desired output is best done by DOE. In the previous example, suppose we want to figure out, how beneficial it would be if we would replace the old nozzles. After all no one wants useless expenses in the name of solution.
Example:

Lets say that the company wants to know the effect of cutting speed and kerf value to avoid the costly expenses. They want to analyze the defects corresponding these factors to establish the standard parameters for quality product. Company conducted a test run for 10mm thick plate for which they qualified the kerf value and cutting speed as High or Low. After conducting practical experiment, company tabulated the defect quantity as given:
Kerf Value (mm) Cutting Speed (mm/m) High Low High 5 9 Low 10 14

6 Sigma

Improve QUALITY Design of Experiment (DOE):

Solution:

Phase

However, for validating the experiment they repeated the experiment. Total factors are 3 and level is 2, so total runs = 2. DOE calls for codification of High as (+) and Low as (-). The combination Cutting Speed x Kerf Value is coded as +, - means first factor is high while other is low.
Cutting Speed x Kerf Value

Cutting Speed

Kerf Value

Response

+ +
-

+ + -

+ +, -, + +

5 10
9 14

6 11
8 12

Main Effect : We can clearly see the impact of cutting speed and kerf value over the

response. The impact is significant and this is called as main effect. However, the statistical model will give the relation of factors and response more appropriately.

6 Sigma

Improve QUALITY Design of Experiment (DOE):

Statistical Solution:

Phase

When DOE test is run for the given problem, the solution is as follows:
Analysis of Variance for Response, using Adjusted SS for Tests Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P Cutting Speed 1 15.125 15.125 15.125 17.29 0.014 Kerf Value 1 45.125 45.125 45.125 51.57 0.002 Cutting Speed*Kerf Value 1 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.14 0.725 Error 4 3.500 3.500 0.875 Total 7 63.875 S = 0.935414 R-Sq = 94.52% R-Sq(adj) = 90.41% Normal Probability Plot

Interpretation: The p-value is 0.725 for effect

of interaction, hence it is least significant for consideration. But p-value for cutting speed and kerf value is less than 0.05 so its significant. If we see the main effects plot for responses , we get more relation that is : Increase in cutting speed results decrease in rejections and increase in kerf value also results in decrease in rejections. Further, to design the parameter we require following regression model: Response = 9.3 + 1.3(Cutting Speed) 2.3(Kerf)

(response is Response)

99

95 90 80

Percent

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5

-3

-2

-1

0 1 Standardized Residual

6 Sigma

Improve Phase QUALITY Design of Experiment (DOE): Insight

DOE is not so easy as it seems to be in earlier example of cutting machine. DOE is not only crucial part of six sigma project but also serves as validating the changes for Control Phase. There are many ways to conduct DOE, for the sake of understanding we followed the simplest path. Other complex tests are used when the factors are more or it is related to the physiological traits for instance predicting customers buying behavior, determining competitive pricing, predict and optimize response rates to advertisements. Concept of DOE was laid by Ronal Fisher and is now the most vital tool in todays world. Many key figures of DOE test reveals the vital information about how the process is affected by several factors. Which is why, the tool is so vital in business management. Robust design method, also called as Taguchi method is quite vital in manufacturing industries. Taguchi method mainly deals with the factors on which we do not possess control like wear and tear of tool etc.

This the reason why some of the manufacturing industry exceeds in process excellence over other.

6 Sigma

Control QUALITY Statistical Process Control (SPC):

Phase

Improvement phase had addressed the factors causing costly pain. Control Phase is all about sustaining the improvement. Consider a manufacturing unit produces certain variety of parts for instance profile, drilled and bent parts. Also, the unit is equipped with profile cutting machine, vertical drilling machine and press brake. If the unit makes its inspection only at final step i.e. before the product is delivered to the customer then three cases arises parts ok, parts to be reworked or parts to be rejected. hence the cost of production will include cost of ok parts, cost of defective parts and cost of rework leading to high operational cost. If we consider a system in which only the process producing parts are monitored and controlled, then the cost of rework, cost of rejection and cost of inspection can be drastically reduced. The technique is called as Statistical Process Control or SPC. SPC is all about managing the production process. Dr. Walter Shewhart and Dr. Edward Deming developed the SPC technique. SPC helps in : keeping production processes stable. predicting cause of variation before defective production. fixing maintenance frequency to avoid production loss. prevent defects.

6 Sigma

Control Phase QUALITY Statistical Process Control (SPC): variation causes defects
Assignable cause of variation: When the cause of variation causes differences in the output

which is significant as per customers specification, it is called as assignable causes. Example Poor quality of RM, improper machine calibrations etc.
Common cause of variation: When the variations are uncontrollable like weather conditions

and causes insignificant damages to output of product, then it is called as common causes. They are random in nature and are predictable. However, if these causes are unpredictable and process is sensitive then it can affect the quality of output.

Process monitoring tool: Control Charts. Histograms. Scatter Plots. Process Checklist. C & E Diagram. A3 Reports etc. These are the commonly used tools in process monitoring. But, for the sake of understanding we will se the Control charts only. As the others are bit complex at present.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Control Chart:

Control Phase

Control Chart is used to capture the behavior of products over a span of time. Samples are randomly picked from the production line and checked for the conformance. When the process fails it will have an impact on the parts, which will be captured in the control chart. Then the variation is analyzed for immediate rectification.
Elements of Control Chart:

CTQ or X The product characteristic that we check in random inspection. Process Mean or The process mean of observed sample. n Sample quantity in random pick. Standard Deviation (SD) of observed X. UCL Upper Control Limit. They are 3 SD above . LCL Lower Control Limit. They are 3 SD below .
Relation:

= (xi) / n. = (Xi ) / n UCL = + 3 LCL = - 3 and UCL-LCL = 6 (Six Sigma Controlled)

6 Sigma
QUALITY Control Charts:

Control Phase

WECO Rule talks about the sensitivity of variations like when 4 out of 5 dots are between 1and 2 sigma away from mean. The rule is set by Western Electric Company.
Capability Trend of 6: the six sigma way 99.7% defect free

6 Sigma
QUALITY X and R Chart:

Control Phase

The process is about taking small sample from production line and then taking mean of it and plotting against range (R). The key question depending on DOE are what is the sample size. time to order the sampling. how many samples. The sample size depends on rational sub grouping i.e. depends on process cycle time. Further, the time to order should be in such a way that variations does not causes major problems. Similarly the sample size is chosen.

- = Sample Mean = Xi / n X R = X (Highest) X(Lowest)

Center Line: Center Line for R chart: R = R / t, t is the number of sample.

Center Line for X chart: X = X / t.

6 Sigma
QUALITY X and R Chart:

Control Phase

The process is about taking small sample from production line and then taking mean of it and plotting against range (R). The key question depending on DOE are what is the sample size. time to order the sampling. how many samples. The sample size depends on rational sub grouping i.e. depends on process cycle time. Further, the time to order should be in such a way that variations does not causes major problems. Similarly the sample size is chosen.
X = Sample Mean = Xi / n R = X (Highest) X(Lowest)

Center Line:

Center Line for R chart: R = R / t, t is the number of sample.

Center Line for X chart: X = X / t.

6 Sigma
QUALITY Mistake proofing:

Control Phase

Mistake-proofing is required to assure the process is self driven and unintentional variations made/done by any people does not affects the end result. Key features are : Mistake-proofing is applied in Improve and Control phase with respect to DOE. It is not only applied to human error but also to software or other variations. Standard Operating Procedure (SOP), Checklists, maintenance logs are means of control. FMEA enlists the possible cause of failure and is controlled on day to day basis.

Awareness:
All the steps discussed so far are ineffective if the quality awareness does not translates well down the line. Six sigma way results not only defect free processes but is also the source of financial savings. Majority of managers find difficulties in statistical approach because they trust their experience. But, six sigma digs were we fail to perceive the problem. Most of the business leaders believes in increasing business, but what about sustaining the business. Endangered businesses situation is a result of either tough market or failure in quality as per customer. Six sigma process requires awareness to all the people linked to the end product.

6 Sigma
QUALITY
With increasing globalization, every steel company must innovate to prosper and compete in this new environment. POSCO was in difficult situation you might almost say a crisis a few years ago as we faced this new global competitive threat. As a management team, we felt that Six Sigma was a good vehicle to change all employees way of thinking, current working styles and mind-sets
- Ku-taek Lee, Chairman and CEO, POSCO.

Thank You

By Rahil, TSPDL.Tada

(The references are from training program and various dotcoms. Examples are carefully worked out to reduce errors)