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Variability in anatomy: One important fact which an anatomist must recognize is that no two of us, even identical twins, are exactly alike. The structure of the body varies with
age race sex genetic diversity environmental history (especially during growth)
Lecture Notes onAnatomy
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Physical anthropology, or the branch of the study of mankind that deals chiefly with the external features and the measurements of different races and groups of people and the study of of prehistoric remains, commands interest of the anatomist. As data on variations accumulate, the subject of statistical anatomy emerges. Among the difference races of mandkind there are percentage differences in the form and arrangement of structures, just as there are amongst the different races of the apes and other animals. The human body is generally dissected by regions (regional anatomy), and describes by systems (systematic anatomy). o The regions of the body comprise: the head and the neck, the trunk (truncus); this region is divisible into thorax, abdomen and pelvis), the limbs. The systems of the body comprise: the skeleton (the study of which is osteology), the joints (arthrology), the muscles (myology), the nervous system (neurology, which includes the brain, spinal cord, organ of special sense, the nerves, and the autonomic nervous system). The cardiovascular system (which includes the heart, blood vessles, and lymph vessles).
The viscera of the body (exclusive of the heart and parts of the nervous system) comprise four tubular systems the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and genital and the ductless or endocrine glands. All these are wrapped up in the skin and subcutaneous tissue. Surface anatomy is the identification of structures that can be seen or palpated. An ideal way to study surface anatomy would be to have an artists model available at all times, so that one could be observe, palpate and identify important anatomical features whenever one wished! Since this is impractical, we are forced to rely on pictures or drawings. Anatomy considered with special reference to its medical and surgical bearing is called applied anatomy. Anatomy can be studied profitably, although to a limited extent, by means of cross sections, cross section anatomy. In the living subject a great deal can be learned by inspection and palpation (and also auscultation) of surface parts. This and the relating of deeper parts to the skin surface, surface anatomy, are necessary part of medical education. Radiographic anatomy relies on the X-ray to reveal much that cannot be investigated by other means.
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B. Descriptive Terms
In describing the relationship of one structure to another it is obviously necessary to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding. For descriptive purposes the human body is regarded as standing erect, the eyes looking forward to the horizon, the arms by the sides, and the palms of the hands and the toes directed forward; this is the anatomical position. The cadaver may be placed on the table lying on its back, on its side, or on its face, but for descriptive purposes it is assumed to be standing erect in the anatomical position. The palm of the hand is understood to be the anterior surface of the hand. The body is divided into two halves, a right and a left, by a median or midsagittal plane. The anterior and posterior borders of this plane reach the skin surface at the front and back of the body at the median line or midline (linea mediana).
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Terms of relationship. Three pairs of relative terms suffice to express the relationship of any given structure to another. They are: Anterior or in front = nearer the front surface of the body; Posterior or behind = nearer the back surface of the body. Superior or above = nearer the crown of the head. Inferior or below = nearer the soles of the feet. Medial = nearer the median plane of the body. Lateral = farther from the median plane of the body. Intermediate (intermedial) means lying between two structures, one of which is medial and the other lateral. (In the upper limb radial means lateral and ulnar means medial; in the lower limb fibular or peroneal means lateral and tibial means medial).
Terms of comparison. When it is desired to compare the relationship of some structure in man with the same structure in, for example a dog, it is necessary to use a different set of terms, terms related not to space but to parts of the body, such as the head, tail, belly, and back. For example, in man standing erect, the heart lies above the diaphragma; in the dog standing on all fours, it lies in front of the diaphragm; however, in both instances its
Mutiara Budi Azhar Lecture Notes onAnatomy
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Other terms. Inside, interior, or internal and outside, exterior, or external, are reserved (1) for bony cavities, such as the pelvic, thoracic, cranial and orbital, and (2) for hollow organs, such as heart, mouth, bladder, and intestine. An invagination (invaginatio) and an evagination (evaginatio) (L. vagina = a sheath or scabbard) are inward and outward bulging of the wall of a cavity. Superficial and deep (profunda) donate nearness to and remoteness from the skin surface irrespective of whether at the front, side, or back. These two may be applied to organs such as the liver and lung. On, over, and under are terms to beware of. They should be used in a general sense and without specific regard of the anatomical position. Carefully avoid using them loosely in place of superior to and inferior to, for such misuses is the cause of much misunderstanding. Ipsilateral refers to the same side of the body, e.g., the right arm and the right leg. Contralateral refers to opposite sides of the body.
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Superficial Profunda
Invaginatio
Evaginatio
Planes. 1. A sagittal plane is any vertical anteroposterior plane parallel to and including the median plane (an imaginary vertical plane of section that passes longitudinally through the body and divides it into right and left halves). The median plane intersects the surface of the front and back of the body at what are called the anterior and posterior median lines (linea mediana). It is a common error, however, to refer to the" midline" when the median plane is meant. A coronal or frontal plane is any vertical side-to-side plane at right angles to the sagittal plane. and separates the body into anterior and posterior parts. 3. A transverse plane is any plane at right angles to 1 and 2, i.e, at right angles to the long axis of that organ or structure. Thus, a transverse section through an artery is not necessarily horizontal. A transverse section through the hand is horizontal, whereas a transverse section through the foot is coronal 4. The term horizontal plane refers to a plane at a right angle to both the median and coronal planes: it separates the body into superior and inferior parts. This is often termed an axial plane, particularly in radiology.
2. Mutiara Budi Azhar Lecture Notes onAnatomy
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Attachments of Muscles. Muscles are attached at both ends. The proximal attachment of a limb muscle is its origin (origo); the distal end is its insertion (insertio). No function is implied in these terms. When applied to muscles not associated with the limbs, the terms are arbitrarily assigned, historical precedence being the chief determinant. Vessels. Arteries are likened to trees with branches; veins are likened to rivers with tributaries. Movements at Joins. . To flex (flexio) is to bend or to make an angle. To extend (extentio) is to stretch out or to straighten. Movements of flexion and extension take place at the elbow joint To abduct (abduction) is to draw away laterally from the median plane of the body. To adduct (aductio) is the opposite movement in the same plane (L. ab = from; ad =
Mutiara Budi Azhar Lecture Notes onAnatomy
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Flexio
ANKLE dorsoflexio
neutral
Plantarflexio
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The ankle and toes are often said to dorsiflex and plantarflex. This extra terminology maybe a little confusing but dorsiflexion raises the foot and toes in the direction of the dorsum of the foot, while plantarflexion pushes them down towards to sole or plantar surface
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Terminologia Anatomica
Terminologia Anatomica (TA) is the international standard on human anatomical terminology. It was developed by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) and the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). Released in 1998, it supersedes the previous standard, Nomina Anatomica. Categories of Anatomical Structures The Terminologia Anatomica (TA) divides anatomical structures into the following main categories (Latin standard in parentheses): 1. General anatomy (Anatomia generalis) 2. Bones (Ossa) 3. Joints (Juncturae) 4. Muscles (Musculi) 5. Alimentary system (Systema digestorium) 6. Respiratory system (Systema respiratorium) 7. Thoracic cavity (Cavitas thoracis) 8. Urinary system (Systema urinarium) 9. Genital systems (Systema genitalia) 10. Abdominopelvic cavity (Cavitas abdominis et pelvis) 11. Endocrine glands (Glandulae endocrinae) 12. Cardiovascular system (Systema cardiovasculare) 13. Lymphoid system (Systema lymphoideum) 14. Nervous system (Systema nervosum) 15. Sense organs (Organa sensuum) 16. The integument (Integumentum commune)
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Sometimes, disease results in increased amounts of fluid collecting in these space, which must be evacuated (e.g. pleural effusion from congestive heart failure or cancer).
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Pleura
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Pleura
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Peritoneum
B.
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C o n n e c t i v e
Tissue
This tissue forms the structures of the body. Classification: 1. Connective tissue proper (propria) is the framework for most organs.
Mutiara Budi Azhar Lecture Notes onAnatomy
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C. Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue is designed for contraction, thus the movement of other tissues and organs. The three types of muscular tissue are 1. Skeletal (voluntary, striated) muscle: muscle of the skeleton, composed of fibres and small fibrils, containing actinand myocin filaments. Cross- striations are present. 2. Smooth (involuntary) muscle: composed of long thin cells arranged in sheet-like fashion, forming the walls of internal organs. 3. Heart (cardiac) muscle: also contains cross-striations, resembling skeletal muscle. However, when one area of the heart is stimulated, the entire heart contracts, rather than contracting in an isolated fashion like skeletal muscle.
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D. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, specialized cells for the transmission of electrochemical impulses to and from various parts of the body. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord (medulla spinalis); the peripheral nervous system comprises the spinal nerves, cranial nerves, and the autonomic nervous system. Structure of a neuron (nerve cell) 1. Cell body 2. Axon (neurite) 3. Dendrite, or dendrites.
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The term nerve fibre means an axon or dendrite. Most fibers are axons surrounded by a lipid protein layer called myelin, responsible for the rapid conduction of the nerve impulse. Synapses (gaps) exist between neurons, and a muscle. The nerve impulse is conducted from the axon of one cells across the synapse by a synaptic transmitter (neurotransmitter) to the cell body or dendrite(s) of a second neuron. The neurotransmitter is released by the axon, bridges the synapse for a moment, then dissipates and is reformed in the axon. Some examples of neurotransmitters are acethylcholine, norepinephrine, the catecholamines, twenty-five other neurotransmitters. Sensory (afferent) fibers receive impulses from the skin, muscles, tendons or internal organs, and relay them to the brain or spinal cord. A loss of sensation is anathesia. A partial loss is hypesthesia. An abnormal or tingling feeling is paresthesia. Motor (efferent) fibers react to sensory impulses. They originate in the brain or spinal cord and terminate on muscle or glands. A loss of motor function is paralysis. A partial loss is paresis. A nerve meas many nerve fibers. Most peripheral nerves (e.g. radial = nervus radialis, sciatic = nervus ischiadicus) are mixed nerves that is, they contain both sensory and motor fibers.
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References: Basmajian, JV. Grants Method of Anatomy Moffat, DB. Lecture Notes on Anatomy Snell, RS. Clinical Anatomy Stewart, J. Clinical Anatomy and Pathophysiology.
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/part_1/chapter_1.html#Chpt_1_anatomic_terms#Chpt_1_ anatomic_terms. http://www.waybuilder.net/free-ed/HealthCare/Anatomy/default.asp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_motion#General_motion
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