2.

1 Reading attitude on leisure time reading

Reading is an aspect associated with literacy. However, the reading process is not simple in its nature. It does not merely involve recognizing a single character and pronouncing it correctly or to recognize and pronounce a few characters that are arranged in a particular manner, but more importantly it is the ability to understand the meaning of these arrangements. According to Bullock (1975), reading is more than a reconstruction of the authors' meanings; it is the perception of those meanings within the total context of the relevant experiences of the reader that is a much more active and demanding process. Here, the reader is required to engage in critical and creative thinking in order to relate what he reads to what he already knows. The civilization of mankind today demands that one should not only know how to read and be literate but also be functionally literate. Functional literacy is acquired as Gray (1956:p.24) puts it when a person has acquired the knowledge and skills in reading and writing which will enable him to engage effectively in all those activities in which literacy is normally assumed in his culture or groups. In short, reading is a complex process that requires the mental capacity, perception and experience of an individual who is conditioned by his or her own distinct cultural environment.

The research question regards the effect of reading attitude on reading behavior given controls for the variables gender, income, educational level, age, and amount of spare time. To investigate this question, a convenience sample (n = 60), consisting of rather frequent fiction readers, was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Reading attitude was operationalized by twenty-four Likert items referring to the consequences or functions of reading fiction. Based on reliability and factor analyses, three functions of reading were identified as separate aspects of reading attitude: enjoyment, escape, and development/utility. Regression analyses showed that reading attitude positively affects reading behavior, when the socio-demographic variables, and the amount of spare time are controlled for. Reading attitude, can only be conceptualized within a particular theoretical framework that provides a hypothetical answer to the research question. The most widely cited approach, when studying the relationship between attitude and behavior, is the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977, 1980). In this paper, reading attitude is defined and conceptualized in

accordance with this framework. A central aspect of an attitude is its relatively enduring and stable character. This implies that an attitude is presumed not to vary dramatically across situations (Allport,1935; McGuire, 1969). It is viewed as a characteristic of a person such that each individual may possess a different reading attitude. Both reading attitude and what is termed learned dispositions in Bourdieu's theory on cultural capital (1984) are usually characterized as enduring and stable. Attitudes towards reading Overall, the 28 statements that were constructed to evaluate them attitudes of respondents towards reading as an activity are reliable. List of Attitude Statements 01 I think I have enough reading in school or university. 02 I don't care much for reading. 03 I read only materials related to my job/career. 04 I am more competent in my job with the new knowledge acquired through reading 05 I only read when a topic really interests me. 06 My busy schedule discourages me from reading. 07 Bookshops are one of my favourite shopping spots. 08 I always read whenever I have the time. 09 I read to keep myself abreast of the latest information on business. 10 Getting information from TV is faster and more enjoyable for me. 11 I will try to get reading material if it is good. 12 I only read if I don't have anything else to do. 13 I always encourage others to read. 14 I don't spend my money buying a book or magazine. 15 I usually don't have much time to read the newspaper thoroughly. 16 Reading can enhance my job-related knowledge and skill. 17 I enjoy sports such as golf more than reading. 18 I read only during my lunch/coffee/tea breaks. 19 Reading sends me to sleep. 20 It usually takes me a long time to finish a book. 21 Reading a book is too time consuming for me. 22 I always make sure that I have time to read.

23 I will only go to the bookshop/library if I need to get a particular reading material. 24 I read to seek new knowledge and more information relating to my job. 25 I like reading but I do not have the time. 26 I enjoy reading a lot. 27 I have a hard time focusing when I am reading. 28 Reading is important but I am too busy. The relationship between reading attitude and reading behaviour. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Liska, 1985) is used here to explore the effect of reading attitude on reading behavior. This theory applies only to volitional behaviors. Volitional behavior is an action that a person is able and intends to do, whose execution no factors prevent (Fishbein and Stasson, 1990; Ajzen, 1991; Bagozzi, 1992). According to this definition of volitional behavior, three factors may influence the relationship between reading attitude and reading behavior: the inability to read, the non-availability of books and the lack of spare time. Of these three factors only lack of spare time is a serious candidate, because most adults in the Netherlands can read (especially those participating in a written questionnaire). Furthermore, non-availability of books is not an issue in the Netherlands because everyone can borrow books at a local library at almost no cost. Spare time or nonobligatory time is defined as the time that remains when work and the basic requirements for existence have been satisfied (Murphy, 1975). Thus, spare time is residual time. Spare time is what remains after time for existence (meeting biological requirements) and time for subsistence (working at one's job or obligatory tasks attached to housekeeping or the family) are taken into account (Murphy, 1975; de Hart, 1995). It is expected that the amount of spare time positively affects reading behavior. This expectation is supported by research by Kraaykamp (1993) showing that the less spare time one has the less time one will spend reading. If the amount of spare time is controlled for~ it is believed that reading works of fiction is volitional behavior. Consequently, the effect of reading attitude on reading behavior can be modeled, using the Theory of Reasoned Action.

In this paper, the effect of reading attitude on reading works of fiction as a leisure time activity was examined. The theoretical framework put forward is an attempt to define and conceptualize reading attitude and may be used as a guideline to theorize about the attitude towards other forms of cultural behavior as well. Reading attitude was conceptualized in accordance with the multi-attribute attitude model developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) in which an attitude is viewed as consisting of a cognitive and an affective component. These components of reading attitude were operationalized as beliefs about the perceived instrumentality of reading fiction for attaining one's goals. This operationalization implies that reading attitude is a residuum of experience that refers to the expected consequences of reading fiction as a leisure activity. In other words, reading attitude can be viewed as a specific part of the learned dispositions that, according to Bourdieu, affect cultural behavior.

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