WATER AND ENVIRONMENT

By Jemuel G. Madayag WATER The liquid which forms the seas, lakes, rivers, and rain and is the basis of the fluids of living organisms. ENVIRONMENT In environmental engineering, the environment is where we live. It is divided into two types, natural environment and built environment. The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally in the area. The built environment refers to the human-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity. INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION Water is spread on two third of the earth but most of the water is not useful for direct human consumption. It is available as ice on the poles and the glaciers with a percentage of 2.14. The largest store is ocean with useless saline, brackish water (total dissolved solids more than 50000 ppm) having 97.24 per cent of total water. The total available fresh water (that can be used for irrigation and drinking) is 0.62 per cent. This fresh water is distributed in surface sources (rivers, lakes etc), ground water (shallow and deep), soil moisture and vapour in atmosphere. The surface water is only 1.5% of the total fresh water and most of the fresh water is the ground water. So the surface water is something around 0.01% of the total water. This scarce limited water is becoming useless because of the human activity (pollution) and that is the main concern of study of water pollution. WATER POLLUTION Water pollution refers to the introduction of a substance to the environment at levels leading to lost beneficial use of a resource or degradation of the health of humans, wildlife or ecosystems.

WATER RESOURCES
By Janine E. Ignacio The various sources of water, which can be harnessed economically, can be divided into the following two categories: (A) Surface sources such as (i) Ponds and lakes (ii) Streams and rivers (iii) Storage resources (dams) (B) Subsurface or underground sources such as (i) Springs (ii) Wells (open and tube-wells) All of the above water resources are replenished by precipitation in various forms like rain, snow, hail, dew etc. Rainfall is the main source and forms the major constituent of the hydrological cycle. Water gets evaporated from the various exposed bodies of water depending upon the climatic factors like temperature, R.H. and the wind speed. RH or the relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the air to the maximum amount of vapour that air can hold at that given temperature. Actually, air can hold only a fixed amount of water vapour at a given temperature. As the temperature

goes up, the moisture retaining capacity increases and as the temperature goes down, it reduces. That is the reason, why dew is formed at night when the temperature of the air falls down, and at that reduced temperature, the extra moisture (more than its capacity at that temperature comes out and is condensed in the form of dew). So if, for example, air can hold 3 gms of water vapour per Kg of air at 20C and the moisture present in any sample of air (at this temperature) is 1.5 gms per Kg of air, then its RH will be50%. Lesser the RH of the air, higher the rate of evaporation as there is more deficits to be met with. Similarly, more is the difference of temperature (air and water) higher will be the rate of evaporation. Same is true with wind speed. Like this, depending upon the climatic factors, evaporation shall take place. The yearly evaporation from an exposed body of water in North India may be 1.7m per year. The trees extract the subsoil water and during their breathing process, they exhale water vapours into the atmosphere. This process is known as transpiration and the combined process of evaporation and transpiration is known as evapotranspiration. The availability of water depends on the sources of water. The four commonly considered water sources are: Surface water: from streams, rivers, lakes, canals, reservoirs. Surface water is easy to abstract, but easy to contaminate, high in suspended solid (TSS) and pathogens. Groundwater: from aquifers accessible by wel s. Groundwater is low in suspended solid (TSS) due to soil filtering, high in dissolved solid (TDS), not easy to recharge, and difficult to clean up if polluted. Seawater: obtained through desalination. There are many way s in desalinating seawater and the four popular ones are: distil ation, reverse osmosis, electrodialy sis and ion exchange. The most widely adopted systems are distillation and reverse osmosis using membrane (more energy efficient than distillation and becoming more popular). Desalinating seawater is high in cost, energy demanding and problematic in disposing brine wastewater. It may be suitable for areas near the coast. Reclaimed and reused water: from former wastewater treated to remove solids and certain impurities. Instead of being discharged into surface water bodies such as rivers and oceans, it is used in irrigation, landscaping, groundwater recharge, indirect portable water, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
By Justin Claire B. Trinidad To ensure the quality of safe drinking water (potable water) the water is to be tested for its physical and chemical characteristics. (a) Physical Characteristics: (i) Temperature: It can be measured by a thermometer. The temperature should be suitable to the human beings depending upon the climatic and weather conditions. An average temperature of 15C is generally suitable. (ii) Turbidity: The muddy or cloudy appearance of clay or such other particles that presents hindrance to the path of light is known as turbidity. It may not be harmful but even then from aesthetical point of view it should not exceed the allowable value. The turbidity is measured by a turbidity rod or a turbidity meter with physical observations and is expressed as the suspended matter in mg/l or ppm (part per million). The standard unit of turbidity is that which is produced by 1 mg of finely divided silica in one litre of distilled water. The turbidity in excess of 5 mg/l is detectable by the consumer and is hence objectionable. It is measured in the laboratory by Jackson , Baylis or such other turbidity meters. (iii) Colour: The colour is imparted by dissolved organic matters from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials such as coloured soils (red soil) etc. The algae or other aquatic plants may also impart

colour. Again, it is more objectionable from aesthetics point of view than the health. The standard unit of colour is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one liter of distilled water. Colour is measured in the labs by Nesslers tubes by comparing the sample with the known colour intensities. More precisely tintometer measures it. (iv) Taste and odour: The dissolved inorganic salts or organic matter or the dissolved gases may impart taste and odour to the water. The water must not contain any undesirable or objectionable taste or odour. The extent of taste or odour is measured by a term called odour intensity which is related with threshold odour, which represents the dilution ratio at which the odour is hardly detectible. The water to be tested is gradually diluted with odour free water and the mixture at which the detection of taste and odour is just lost is determined. The number of times the sample is diluted is known as the threshold number. Thus if 20 ml of water is made 100 ml (until it just loses its taste or odour) then the threshold number is 5. For domestic water supplies the water should be free from any taste and odour so the threshold number should be 1 and should not exceed 3. (v) Specific conductivity of water: The specific conductivity of water is determined by means of a portable dionic water tester and is expressed as micromhos per cm at 25C. Mho is the unit of conductivity and is equal to 1 amper/1 volt). The specific conductivity is multiplied by a co-efficient (generally 0.65) so as to directly obtain the dissolved salt content in ppm.. (b) Chemical Characteristics Chemical analysis of water is done to determine the chemical characteristics of water. This involves the determination of total solids, suspended solids, pH value, hardness, chlorides, nitrogen content, iron, manganese and other contents, dissolved gases etc. (i) Total solids and suspended solids: The total amount of solids can be determined by evaporating a measured sample of water and weighing the dry residue left. The suspended solids can be determined by filtering the water sample and weighing the residue left on the filter paper. The difference between the total solids and the suspended solids will be the dissolved solids. (ii) pH of water: pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration present in water. The higher values of pH mean lower hydrogen ion concentrations and thus represent alkaline water and vice versa. The neutral water has same number of H+ and OH ions. The concentration of both ions in neutral water is 107 moles per liter. The neutral water will therefore possess a pH equal to log10 (1/H+) = log10 (1/107) = log10 107 = 7. If an acid is added to neutral water the number of hydrogen ion increases and thus the pH reduces. Similarly, if an alkali is added the number of hydroxyl ion increases thus reducing the hydrogen ion (as their product is constant, = 1014 mole/liter) and the pH increases. Hence, if the pH of water is more than 7 it is alkaline and if it is less than 7 it is acidic. Generally, the alkalinity in water is caused by the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, or by the carbonates or hydroxides of sodium potassium calcium and magnesium. Some of the compounds which cause alkalinity also cause hardness. Acidity is caused by the presence of mineral acids, free carbon dioxide, sulphates of iron and aluminium etc. The pH value can be measured by a digital pH meter. It can also be measured with the help of colour indicators. The indicators are added to sample of water and the colour produced is compared with the standard colours of known pH values. For municipal water supplies the pH should be as close to 7 as possible. The lower pH water (acidic) may harm the pipe lines etc. by reacting with them (tuberculation and corrosion). The alkaline water may produce sedimentation, (scaling) in pipes, difficulties in chlorination (for disinfection) and adverse effect on human physiological system. (iii) Hardness of water: Hardness in water prevents the formation of sufficient foam when used with soap. It is caused by certain dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium which form scum with soap and reduce the formation of foam which helps in removing the dirt from clothes. These salts keep on depositing on the surface of boilers and thus form a layer known as scale which reduces the efficiency of the boilers. The hardness is known as temporary hardness if it is due to the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium as this can be easily removed by boiling water or adding lime to it. By boiling the carbon

dioxide gas escapes and the insoluble carbonates are deposited (which cause scaling). If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates are present they cannot be easily removed by boiling and so such water requires water softening methods and this type of hardness is known as permanent hardness. Hardness is measured by titration method (E.D.T.A. method) and is expressed in ppm or mg/l. Generally the underground water is more hard as it dissolves the salts in its journey from surface to the ground water table. For boiler feed waters and for efficient washing of clothes the water must be soft i.e. hardness should be less than 75 ppm(mg/l). (iv) Chlorides: Chlorides are generally present in water in the form of sodium chloride and their concentration above 250 mg/l produces a salty taste in drinking water. The chlorides can be measured in water by titrating the water with standard silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator. (v) Nitrogen content: The nitrogen in water may occur in one or more forms of the following: (a) Free ammonia (b) Albuminoid nitrogen (c) Nitrites (d) Nitrates The free ammonia indicates very fast stage of decomposition of organic matter (thus indicating fresh pollution); albuminoid nitrogen represents the quantity of nitrogen present in water before the decomposition of organic matter has started, the nitrites indicate the partly decomposed organic matter (the continuation of decomposition) and the nitrates indicate the presence of fully oxidized organic matter (means the prior pollution condition). In potable water the free ammonia (undecomposed organic matter should not be more than 0.15 ppm, and the albuminoidal nitrogen should not be more than 0.3 ppm. The nitrogen may remain in the form of nitrates but that too should not be more than 45 ppm as a higher concentration causes blue baby disease in the infants. Actually the nitrates act with the haemoglobin in the blood (which imparts red colour) and reduce it thus converting the colour of skin to blue (impure blood) and thus making them ill and in extreme cases they can die. Nitrate is measured either by reduction to ammonia or by matching the colours produced with phenoldisulphonic acid. (vi) Metals and other chemical substances: Various metals and minerals may be present in water like iron, manganese, copper, lead, cadmium, arsenic, barium, selenium, etc. The allowable limits for them are as shown in the above tables. If the concentration of these metals and minerals exceeds the permissible limits they have certain harmful effects on the human health. Higher concentrations of iron and manganese may cause discoloration of clothes washed in such waters. They may cause incrustation in water supply pipe lines due to deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and barium salts are toxic and thus very low concentration of these salts is permissible. Arsenic is a well known poison and as such extremely low concentration (0.05 ppm) is permitted. Most of the ground water in Punjab is having arsenic more than the permissible limits because of the industrial waste water pollution. High quantities of copper may badly affect human lungs and other respiratory organs. (vii) Dissolved gases: Various gases like CO2, O2, N2, H2S and CH4 etc. may be present in dissolved form in water. H2S even in small concentration gives bad taste and odour. CO2 indicates biological activity. Oxygen is generally absorbed by water from the atmosphere. Its saturation concentration depends upon temperature. The organic matter may be present in water due to the disposal of waste water in it. Organic matter is instable and has a tendency to become stable i.e. to be inorganic matter. This conversion is known as decomposition of organic matter and the process is bio-chemical. As it takes place by bacteria (bio means living) and the conversion is extra cellular enzymatic reaction so it is known as a bio-chemical reaction. The demand of oxygen imposed by the aerobic (working in presence of oxygen) bacteria is known as the Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). This BOD reduces the dissolved oxygen content of the water. So if the DO of water is found to be less than the concentration DO it indicates the water pollution. The BOD of treated water should be nil. After knowing the standards of potable water one should know the ways and means to make the water fit for drinking, i.e. the treatment of water.

MAIN POLLUTANTS OF WATER

By Mary Kay J. Corpuz Organic waste: Organic matters in water are composed of organic compounds. Generally, most carboncontaining compounds are organic (excluding steel and simple oxides of carbon). Organic compounds include natural compounds (e.g., living organism) which are capable of decay and synthetic compounds (e.g., plastics) which may not be biodegradable. Certain organic matters in water are a source of food for aquatic microorganisms that use dissolved oxy gen to convert the organic matters into energy for growth and carbon dioxide & water. The microorganism population increases in proportion to the amount of organic matters. If microbial metabolism consumes dissolved oxy gen faster than atmospheric oxygen can dissolve into the water, oxy gen deficit will occur and aquatic life may die when oxy gen is depleted by microbial metabolism. In rivers, oxy gen depletion follows a special form as illustrated in Figure 7.1 named the dissolved oxy gen sag curve. The oxy gen concentration in the river drops rapidly following organic waste pollution. Later, as the organic matter is decomposed, the oxygen resources of the river are replenished. Not all organic matters can be decomposed by microorganisms and in contrast, nearly all organic matters can be fully oxidised to carbon dioxide with a strong oxidising agent under acidic conditions. Many organic matters are synthetic and not biodegradable (termed refractory organic matters). They include pesticides, detergents and petroleum hydrocarbons. Some pesticides and other refractory organics are the principal agents responsible for the decline of certain ecosystem species and are the threats to human health. Suspended solids: solids in water may come from mining activities, river dredging, construction (e.g., road and bridge) and soil erosion. The increased turbidity reduces light penetration and depresses photosynthesis of ecosystems. Species diversity and abundance are affected. Nutrients: nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur,) in water encourages plant growth (usually in the form of algae). Those nutrients come from domestic, industrial and agricultural waste. Effluent from wastewater treatment plants may still contain large concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus albeit sufficient treatment processes have been carried out. Diffuse pollution from agricultural waste is a major source of nutrients, especial y nitrogen. Nutrient enriched water is more productive with excessive biological activities and water quality is usually significantly degraded (e.g., eutrophication). Thermal pollution: industrial cooling processes (e.g., fossil and nuclear power plants) discharge heated water into water bodies with effects on reduced solubility of O and altered speed of chemical reactions. Thermal pollution changes the natural temperature regime of a water system and the affected ecosystem could be stressed. Some aquatic species may die or are forced to relocate. Toxic metals: they are metals that form poisonous soluble compounds. Toxicity is linked with solubility and is directly proportional to its ability to cause environmental damage. Metals, particularly Heavy metals are toxic (e.g., mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic). Lighter metals may also have toxicity, such as beryllium and on the other hand, not all heavy metals are toxic (e.g., iron, which is essential for life). Toxic metal pollutions have many sources, but most commonly arise from purification of metals, mining, irrigation with wastewater, vehicle exhaust emissions. Pathogens and carcinogens: those are disease-causing microorganisms or cancer-causing substances including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, dioxins, etc. Domestic wastewater is responsible for many of the pathogens, and industrial and agricultural wastes are the usual sources for carcinogens. Radioactive contamination: in the natural world, there is always radiation being emitted from radionuclides. Radioactive contamination refers to unintended or undesirable presence of radioactive substances in water, usually from the leakage of stored radioactive materials or release from nuclear power plant accidents, etc.

TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION

By Lawrence P. Nicolas and Jay Ahr M. Bulosan A. According to types of pollutants: Toxic Pollution: A toxic substance is a chemical pollutant that is not a naturally occurring substance in aquatic ecosystems. The greatest contributors to toxic pollution are herbicides, pesticides and industrial compounds. Organic Pollution: Organic pollution occurs when an excess of organic matter, such as manure or sewage, enters the water. When organic matter increases in a pond, the number of decomposers will increase. These decomposers grow rapidly and use a great deal of oxygen during their growth. This leads to a depletion of oxygen as the decomposition process occurs. A lack of oxygen can kill aquatic organisms. As the aquatic organisms die, they are broken down by decomposers, which lead to further depletion of the oxygen levels. A type of organic pollution can occur when inorganic pollutants such as nitrogen and phosphates accumulate in aquatic ecosystems. High levels of these nutrients cause an overgrowth of plants and algae. As the plants and algae die, they become organic material in the water. The enormous decay of this plant matter, in turn, lowers the oxygen level. The process of rapid plant growth followed by increased activity by decomposers and a depletion of the oxygen level is called eutrophication. Thermal Pollution: Thermal pollution can occur when water is used as a coolant near a power or industrial plant and then is returned to the aquatic environment at a higher temperature than it was originally. Thermal pollution can lead to a decrease in the dissolved oxygen level in the water while also increasing the biological demand of aquatic organisms for oxygen. Ecological Pollution: Ecological pollution takes place when chemical pollution, organic pollution or thermal pollution is caused by nature rather than by human activity. An example of ecological pollution would be an increased rate of siltation of a waterway after a landslide, which would increase the amount of sediments in runoff water. Another example would be when a large animal, such as a deer, drowns in a flood and a large amount of organic material is added to the water as a result. Major geological events such as a volcano eruption might also be sources of ecological pollution. B. According to water resources it affects: When we think of Earths water resources, we think of huge oceans, lakes and rivers Water resources like these are called surface waters. The most obvious type of water pollution affects surface waters. For example, a spill from an oil tanker creates an oil slick that can affect a vast area of the ocean. Not all of Earths water sits on its surface, however. A great deal of water is held in underground rock structures known as aquifers, which we cannot see and seldom think about it. Water stored underground in in aquifers is known as groundwater. Aquifers feed our rivers and supply much of our drinking water. They too can become polluted, for example, when weed killers used in peoples gardens drain into the ground. Groundwater pollution is much less obvious than surface water pollution, but is no less of a problem. In 1996, a study in Iowa in the United States found that over half the states groundwater wells were contaminated with weed killers. C. According to source of pollution: If pollution comes from a single location, such as a discharge pipe attached to a factory, it is known as point-source pollution. Other examples of point-source pollution include an oil spill from a tanker, a discharge from a smoke stack (factory chimney), or someone pouring oil from their car down a drain.

A great deal of water pollution happens not from one single source but from many different scattered sources. This is called nonpoint-source pollution. When point-source pollution enters the environment, the place most affected is usually the area immediately around the source. For example, when a tanker accident occurs, the oil slick is concentrated around the tanker itself and, in the right ocean conditions; the pollution disperses the further away from the tanker you go. This is less likely to happen with nonpoint-source pollution, which, by definition, enters the environment from many different places at once. Sometimes pollution that enters the environment in one place has an effect hundreds or even thousands of miles away. This is known as trans-boundary pollution. One example is the way radioactive waste travels through the oceans from nuclear reprocessing plants in England and France to nearby countries such as Ireland and Norway.

Water Pollution Indicators

By Gary T. Delos Santos The indicators on water pollution are in three categories: physical (temperature, turbidity , total suspended/ dissolved solids), chemical (pH, dissolved oxy gen, nitrate, COD, BOD, pesticides, metals) and biological (EPT index, Trent biotic index) indicators. Most of them have been explained already in the book and only a few indicators are further explained here. Oxygen saturation: the maximum amount of oxy gen dissolved in water at a given temperature is called the saturation concentration. It is determined by Henry s law and varies from 14.6mg O2/L at 0oC to 7.6 mg O2/L at 30oC. As a result, fish with high oxy gen demand prefer cold waters. The oxygen demanding wastes have greater impacts on water quality in the summer as well as during dry seasons since lower river flow has less capacity to dilute the waste. Under rare occasions, actual oxygen concentration may exceed the saturation value when algae and macrophytes are photosynthesising and producing dissolved oxy gen. Such oversaturation is not stable and is eliminated when sufficient turbulence occurs. Dissolved oxygen (DO) can be measured by oxygen sensors (such as zirconia sensor, Clark-type electrode and Optodes). Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of oxy gen required by microorganisms to break down in organic matters. It is used as an indicator of organic pollution of water. BOD is expressed in mg O2/L and can be measured in different way s. The most common method is carried out by mixing water sample with a small amount of microorganism seed (e.g., analogous to adding yeast to flour dough). The sample is tested to measure its dissolved oxygen (DO) before it is sealed in the dark to prevent further oxygen to be dissolved or generated by photosynthesis. After 5 day s incubation at 200C, the dissolved oxy gen is measured again and the difference between those two DO measurements is the BOD (initial DO - final DO). Dilution of the sample with oxy gen saturated water may be used if organic matters in the sample are highly concentrated and the dilution ration should be included in the BOD calculation. Incubation durations other than 5 days have been tested before such as 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 day s and BOD is commonly adopted which represents about 68% of the total BOD (in contrast, 90% of the BOD in 10 day s and 99% of the total BOD in 20 day s). BOD biosensor and software sensor are alternative measurement methods which are much faster (e.g., 30 minutes), but they are less reliable than the BOD method. The BOD test results are normally with 10 or twenty percent uncertainties. If the water contains toxic chemicals capable of suppressing microbiological growth (e.g., industrial wastes, antibiotics in medical waste, commercial cleaning agent, chlorination disinfectant residuals), the BOD test results would be much lower. The amount and types of enzymes would also influence the BOD test results. In addition, some biodegradable organic matters can only degrade anaerobically such as cellulose and BOD test (depending on aerobic microorganisms) will not include those. Typical BOD5 values: pristine water: up to 1mg/L; moderately polluted water: 2 to 8 mg/L; treated sewage (by three stages): up to 20 mg/L; untreated sewage: 600 mg/L in Europe and 200 mg/L in USA (due to the dilution from more water consumption).

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) measures organic matters which are both biodegradable and nonbiodegradable, hence it covers a more broad spectrum of organic matters. As a result, the COD in a water sample is always higher the BOD. The ratio of COD/BOD provides a good indication to the proportion of organic matters that are biodegradable (COD/BOD usually varies from 1.25 to 2.50). In rivers, BOD gives a more useful estimate of the possible oxygen demand than COD and is more widely used as a measure of organic strength in the polluted water. Biological indicators are useful to get a general reading of water quality without the high cost of lab scale analysis. Various indices are used to represent the states of macro-invertebrates. They are in two types: 1) pollution indices (existence or absence of indicator species); 2) diversity indices (to indicate the overall effect of all pollutants). However, biological indices are not always reliable. Factors other than pollution can affect the biological indices. Absence of some species may reflect its normal life cycle and quantitative sampling of biodiversity is difficult.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

By William Eran M. Salvador

WATER TREATMENT AND PROCESSES

By Micah Jezel B. Mazon Water treatment is a system to make water acceptable for a desired usage, such as drinking water, industrial utilisation, etc. The water treatment process is to remove or reduce contaminates in the water to meet the required levels. In the case of drinking water, it should be potable and palatable. Potable means water is healthy for human consumption (i.e., safe) without harmful microorganisms and organic/inorganic compounds that could cause adverse physiological effects. Palatable refers to water that is free from turbidity , colour, odour and objectionable taste. Natural water usual y contains various chemical and biological constituents. Treatment Processes The water treatment processes include the following: Screen: coarse screens are firstly used to remove large solids such as tree branches and rubbish (about 100mm spacing). Finer screens are then used to remove fine solids or algae before other treatments. Storage reservoir: for surface water sources during high flows with heavy silt load, it is useful to store raw water in a storage reservoir to improve water quality before further treatment. Adsorption: this is a physical process to remove soluble molecules by the attachment to the absorbent surface. Adsorbents have very large surface areas available for adsorption. The most widely used adsorbent is activated carbon and others (activated alumina, clay colloids, hydroxides, etc.) Adsorption is used to remove algae, reduce colour, odour and organic matters. Carbon (from peat, coal, etc.) is activated by high temperature or chemicals (acid, strong base or a salt). Activated carbon is used either as a powder added to water or as granules packed as a filter. Coagulation and flocculation: this is used to remove particles and a portion of dissolved organic matter. A coagulant is a chemical to reduce the repulsive forces among particles so that the attractive forces are able to gather particles together. The most commonly used coagulant is alum. Selection of coagulants is influenced by coagulant type, particle type and concentration, water temperature and pH, cost and availability , etc. Too little coagulant is insufficient to neutralise the negative charge in the particles and too much coagulant would turn negatively charged particles to positive, which are unable to destabilise the particles. Jar Test is used to work out the correct coagulant and its proper dosage for the tested raw water. Coagulant is dispersed into the water stream by rapid mixing sy stems (pumped, stirred tank or in-line static mixer). After the coagulation, flocculation is used to aggregate the destabilised

particles in order to form larger particles (i.e., floc), and is carried out via a flocculation system (vertical shaft turbine, horizontal shaft paddle wheel or hydraulic system). Hardness removal: water with high mineral content is called hard water. Water hardness is usual y measured by the total concentration of calcium and magnesium. Hard water is general y not harmful to human health (in contrary , hard water may provide dietary calcium and magnesium and reduce the solubility of potentially toxic metal ions such as lead and copper). With hard water, soap solutions form a white precipitate instead of lather, which makes the solution less effective in washing dishes and clothes. Hard water can be softened by ion exchange and precipitation methods. Sedimentation and filtration: large particles from coagulation and flocculation are removed by sedimentation and filtration. Sedimentation is the process in which the majority of the particles (include flocs) settle by gravity and are then removed. Filtration is used to remove small particles and pathogens. Two types of filtration include granular filtration and membrane filtration. Backwashing is regularly used to flush captured particles away from the filter. Disinfection: disinfection is used to control the numbers of pathogens in water (bacteria and viruses) to reduce the risk of infection to an acceptable level instead of sterilisation (to kill all forms of microbial life). There are two activities which include primary disinfection (inactivation of microorganisms) and secondary disinfection (keeping a disinfectant residual in the treated water). Generally disinfectants are classified as oxidising agents (e.g., chlorine and ozone) and physical agents (heat or UV radiation). Ozone is powerful and expensive but with no residual action for secondary disinfection to protect the water during distribution. Chlorination is less powerful but cheaper with a lasting residual effect (the most commonly used approach). UV radiation is widely used for small water treatment plants and individual households. It has no residual action so it must be used close to the point of use.

WASTEWATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

By Kriezel Jane C. Gapud WASTEWATER Liquid or waterborne wastes polluted or fouled from household, commercial, or industrial operations, along with any surface water, stormwater, or groundwater infiltration. Wastewater treatment plants receive inflows from domestic, commercial, agricultural and industrial users, storm water runoff and infiltration. Industrial wastes may contain heavy metals, radioactive materials refractory organics, which may be treated on site following specific guidelines. Domestic wastewater is commonly treated in municipal wastewater treatment plants. A main purpose for wastewater treatment is to control pollution of a receiving water body (river, lake, groundwater, sea). Raw wastewater is highly polluted with about 0.5kg pollutants/m3. The most common wastewater constituents include organic matters (measured by BOD and COD), suspended solids, pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms), nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), toxic chemicals (heavy metals, pesticides), and others (emerging chemicals such as perfumes, pharmaceuticals). The treatment units include: pre-treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, tertiary treatment, disinfection and sludge treatment. Pre- treatment: to remove coarse solids using screening, to remove grits using grit chambers, to remove fats and greases using flotation and to maintain a stable flow using an equalisation basin. Primary treatment: to remove solids through gravity settling using settling (sedimentation) tanks (the removal rates are 60% suspended solids, 30% BOD, 20% phosphorus). Coagulants can be added at this stage to improve its effectiveness. Secondary treatment: to remove dissolved organic matters using microorganisms (biological treatment). The most common biological treatment system is the activated sludge process. Effluent from primary treatment is sent to an aeration tank to be mixed with a diverse mass of microorganisms of bacteria, fungi, rotifers and protozoa. Oxygen is added to maintain the dissolved oxy gen at 2mg/L by forcing air

into the system (further higher level of oxy gen would demand more energy to force the air without significant improvement to the system efficiency). After the process is finished, effluent is sent to the next stage and the settled sludge with microorganisms is removed from the system (with a small portion pumped to the aeration tank as microorganism seeds). At the end of this treatment, biological y degradable organic matters are decomposed and microorganisms are nutrient starved (or activated) as activated sludge. This process was first invented at Davyhulme sewage works in 1913. Tertiary treatment: mainly to remove nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). It has been found that 90% of total nitrogen and 75% of the total phosphorus from household effluent are found in urine and a dual sewer system to hand separate urine and faeces would help to reduce the cost in removing them in the combined wastewater. In a wastewater treatment plant, nitrogen is removed by nitrification (ammonia->nitrite ->nitrate) and denitrification (nitrate -> nitrogen gas) reactions. Phosphorus can be removed either biological y or chemical y . In the enhanced biological phosphorus removal, specific bacteria (poly phosphate) are used to accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells and these bacteria are separated from the treated water as a fertiliser. Alternatively, phosphorus can also be removed by chemical precipitation (such as alum). Chemical phosphorus removal is easier to operate and often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Disinfection: to remove pathogenic microorganisms using ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite. Unlike drinking water, any disinfectant residual is not desirable in the effluent of a wastewater treatment plant. In the UK, ultraviolet light is widely used because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water. Sludge treatment: to treat and store the sludge from the treatment processes. To reduce sludge unpleasing odour and pathogens, sludge stabilisation is carried out by either aerobic digestion (more energy demanding due to mechanical aeration) or anaerobic digestion (more popular due to its low energy cost and methane production). Dewatering is adopted to reduce the water in the sludge before disposal. A drying bed (with an underneath drainage system) is the simplest and cost-effective dewatering method. Mechanical devices can also be used to produce a sludge cake using belt squeezing or centrifugal force. Disposal: dewatered sludge may be buried in a landfill (carbon sequestration), incinerated (with a potential problem in air pollution), applied to agricultural land (as fertiliser). Tight control of hazardous waste from industries and households is needed to prevent harmful contamination of the sludge. Pathogens in the sludge should be controlled by heating or chemical treatment if it is applied to areas open to the public (e.g., city parks). Natural treatment system: wetlands are an alternative wastewater treatment method. A wetland uses soil-water-air-vegetation environment to treat wastewater. Wastewater should be treated by a primary system to remove the influent solids (by settling) before it is treated in a wetland. Living Machine is a trademark and brand name for a ecological wastewater treatment system designed to mimic the cleansing functions of wetlands. Aquatic and wetland plants, bacteria, algae, protozoa, plankton, snails and other organisms are used in the system to provide specific cleansing or trophic functions. Septic tank: A septic tank is a small-scale sewage treatment system in areas with no connection to main sewage pipes, usual y in suburbs and small towns as well as rural areas. The term septic refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank to decompose or mineralise the waste discharged into the tank. A septic tank general y consists of a tank connected to an inlet wastewater pipe at one end and a septic drain field at the other. Septic tank requires no power. A properly designed and normal y operated septic system is odour-free. Waste left by the anaerobic digestion has to be removed from the septic tank by pumping, which is taken every a few y ears (some are up to 20 years). In areas with high population density , groundwater pollution from septic tanks may be a problem.

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
By Carl Joseph Gonzales

PREVENTION OF WATER POLLUTION AND CONSERVATION OF WATER

By Yvony C. Manaoat Dealing with water pollution is something that everyone (including governments and local councils) needs to get involved with. The best solution for water pollution is prevention. While pollution that has already occurred is a current threat to all life on Earth, attempts to clean it up may cause even more harm. Prevention Tips Conserve Soil Erosion is one of the biggest causes of water pollution today. When you take steps to conserve soil, you are also conserving water and water life. Planting vegetative covers, strict erosion management and implementing beneficial farming methods are just a few of the many possible approaches to soil conservation. Dispose of Toxic Chemicals Properly It's always a good idea to use lower VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) products in your home whenever possible. If you do use toxic chemicals, such as paints, stains or cleaning supplies, dispose of them properly. Paints can be recycled and oils can be reused after treatment. Proper disposal keeps these substances out of storm drains, water ways and septic tanks. Keep Machinery in Good Working Order Oil is one of the largest polluters of water in the world. It's estimated that just the transportation of oil is responsible for .0001 percent of oil contamination in water. Take steps to ensure you aren't adding to this problem by repairing oil leaks in cars and machinery as soon as they are spotted. Clean up the residue and dispose of the used oils properly. Clean Up Beaches and Waterways Just picking up waste and litter wherever it is spotted can go a long way to keeping debris and pollutants out of the water. Do your part by taking your own trash, other wastes and any you see to a nearby disposal facility. Avoid Plastics When Possible Plastic bag in the ocean is a well documented water pollutant. Keep this problem from getting worse by changing to reusable grocery bags whenever possible. Get Active and Get Involved Is there a company near your home that releases heat, coolants or chemicals into a nearby waterway? Do you know of a large area of land where soil erosion has been spotted? Have you noticed an oil leak or spill? You can get involved. Contact the EPA, local authorities or write letters to the heads of companies. Spreading an awareness of problems is a big first step toward combating them. Conservation of water o Run your clothes washer and dishwasher only when they are full. You can save up to 1,000 gallons a month. o Monitor your water bill for unusually high use. Your bill and water meter are tools that can help you discover leaks. o Designate one glass for your drinking water each day or refill a water bottle. This will cut down on the number of glasses to wash. o Do not water your lawn on windy days when most of the water blows away or evaporates. Turn off the water while brushing your teeth and save 25 gallons a month. o Use a commercial car wash that recycles water. o Share water conservation tips with friends and neighbours. o To save water and time, consider washing your face or brushing your teeth while in the shower. o Drop your tissue in the trash instead of flushing it and save water every time.

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When you have ice left in your cup from a take-out restaurant, do not throw it in the trash. Dump it on a plant. Support projects that use reclaimed wastewater for irrigation and industrial uses.