Maintenance and Operation Anna Bergstrm

Urban Transport Systems -1999 1999-07-26 1(12)

EFFECTS ON CYCLING OF ROAD MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION

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Background

This paper summarises the first two years of work in the PhD project "Effects on cycling of road maintenance and operation". The main purpose of the project is to evaluate the possibility of increasing the number of cyclists through an improved maintenance and operational standard of cycleways. The project started in August 1997 and is planned to result in a Licentiate Thesis at the end of 1999 and a Doctoral Thesis in 2001. The PhD project is being carried out in the Department of Infrastructure and Planning, Division of Highway Engineering, at the Royal Institute of Technology, KTH. However, most of the practical work is being performed at the Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute, VTI. The project is financially supported by the Swedish National Road Administration through the Centre for Research and Education in Operation and Maintenance of Infrastructure, CDU. Car-based transport has a very wide range of impacts upon society and the broader environment. A reduction of motor traffic especially in urban regions would be desirable. This could be achieved by increasing cycling as a means of personal travel. In addition to environmental benefits, cycling provides considerable health benefits. The importance of the maintenance and operational standard of cycleways is poorly known. However, it has been found that the number of cyclists decreases during the winter. This is thought to be due to the less favourable weather conditions. Some cyclists are unwilling to cycle in conditions with low temperatures and precipitation. Nevertheless, road conditions are probably also of some importance. Winter maintenance methods normally used on cycleways in Sweden primarily consist of snow ploughing and gritting for the purpose of skid control. Other methods of snow clearance include the use of snow blowers or mechanical sweepers. However, these methods are seldom used. Skid control can be undertaken both chemically and mechanically. The mechanical method involves using sand or grit to increase friction on slippery surfaces. The common chemical method used for de-icing lowers the freezing point of water through the application of salt. This is often performed on roads used by motor traffic, but rarely on cycleways. The salt can be spread as dry salt, wet salt or brine. Although the use of salt is harmful to the environment, application in the form of brine allows the salt dosage to be reduced considerably. Gritting also imposes an environmental burden. When a thaw sets in, the grit may end up in the street sewers, where it can cause blockages. After the grit has been swept up, it has to be deposited as environmentally hazardous material at controlled waste disposal sites, owing to the contamination from motor vehicles. In addition, grit is a natural resource not available in unlimited quantities. Another problem with grit is that it causes punctures and creates a safety hazard in the spring before it is swept up.

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2
2.1

Purpose and methods

Travel behaviour

Purpose The frequency of cycling decreases during the winter due to factors such as low temperatures, precipitation and poor road conditions. In seeking to promote cycling, it is important to know what efforts will produce the best results, so that available resources can be distributed optimally. The importance of maintenance and operational standard of cycleways for travel behaviour is poorly known. It would be desirable to understand its significance compared to other factors in the choice of mode. General opinion concerning the winter condition of present cycleways is also of interest. Method At the beginning of 1998, a questionnaire survey was conducted at four large companies in two cities, Linkping and Lule. Two hundred employees at each company were randomly chosen to answer a questionnaire concerning their choice of mode for travel to work and the factors influencing their choice. There were also questions about winter maintenance of cycleways, general attitudes to cycling in winter, and so on.

2.2

Maintenance methods for cycleways

Purpose Winter maintenance methods on cycleways used today are often adapted to the prevailing conditions on motor traffic roads. Consequently, they are not necessarily the best methods for bicycle traffic. It would be desirable to find the methods most suitable for cycleways with regard to accessibility for cyclists and also to total cost. A combination of different methods adjusted to present weather and road conditions is most likely to be the best solution. Before altered methods can be evaluated, appropriate ways of comparing different road conditions from a cyclist's point of view need to be found. Factors that are interesting to compare include the degree of snow clearance, the occurrence of ice and the presence of excessive amounts of grit on the road surface. To obtain information for an extensive study on how the road standard should be evaluated and what problems certain methods could entail, a preliminary study should be carried out. Method During February and March in 1999, unconventional methods for snow clearance and skid control were tested on two selected cycle paths in Linkping. The methods were evaluated with consideration to road standard by making observations of road surface condition and conducting roadside interviews. As a complement to the road surface observations, friction was measured at two occasions.

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3 Test design
3.1 Questionnaire survey

Cities with a well-developed network for bicycle traffic and a large number of cyclists were considered to be of interest. The cities chosen were Lule and Linkping. Both have universities with large numbers of students using bicycles, and commuting by bicycle is also common. In addition, both have a well-developed cycleway network that will require few changes in the coming years, a factor that is important for subsequent studies. The fact that these two cities have somewhat different climates makes them interesting for the purpose of comparison. The winter is very much longer and colder in Lule compared to Linkping. The largest companies in terms of the number of employees were intended to be included in the survey. Therefore, Saab AB and Ericsson Mobile Communication were chosen in Linkping, and SSAB Tunnplt and Scania Chassikomponenter in Lule. At each company, 200 questionnaires were distributed in March 1998 in Linkping and in April the same year in Lule. Saab and Scania accounted for the selection of subjects among their employees as well as the distribution of questionnaires. At SSAB, the subjects were randomly chosen from a list of employees and the questionnaires were sent to their home address. At Ericsson, the questionnaires were distributed to employees passing the main entrance one morning. Only about 130 questionnaires were distributed and only 60 replies were received. Due to the low response rate and the fact that the population was not randomly chosen, the results from Ericsson were excluded from the survey.

3.2

Test of winter maintenance methods on cycleways

Two cycle paths, both frequently used, were chosen for the test. One of the cycle paths is just outside the university hospital and is used by commuter to the hospital and other workplaces in the area. The other cycle path connects with the university campus and is used by large numbers of students as well as by others working in the area. Two different and unconventional methods of snow clearance and skid control were tested on the selected cycle paths. In the first method, a front-mounted sweeper for snow clearance was combined with a brine spreader for de-icing. The second method used a traditional steel plough for snow clearance and a pit run spreader for skid control. The first test method was used on the cycle path outside the hospital for two weeks, while the second method was used on the other cycle path. After this period, the methods were shifted and the test continued for another two weeks. The shift of methods was intended mainly to exclude surrounding factors such as topography and local climate when evaluating the results. On other cycleways in Linkping, the traditional method with a steel plough for snow clearance and grit for skid control was used. On the selected cycle paths, snow clearance and skid control were also performed more frequently than on other cycleways.

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After each occasion of snowfall or hoarfrost, an ocular inspection of the surface condition of the cycle paths was performed. On two occasions, friction was measured as a complement to the ocular inspections. The equipment used to measure friction was the PFT, Portable Friction Tester (see Figure 3.1), constructed at the Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute. This equipment was originally designed to measure friction on road markings in wet conditions. However, it was considered useful in this case on the cycle paths, where it was difficult to use other measuring devices. To obtain an idea of the cyclists' opinion of the condition of the cycle paths, roadside interviews were carried out on four occasions.

Figure 3.1

The Portable Friction Tester Fido.

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4
4.1

Results
Questionnaire survey

The number of bicycle commuters decreased by 47% from the summer period to the winter period, see Figure 4.1. Almost half the summer cyclists chose to travel by car instead of bicycle during the winter. About 40% continued to cycle and only a few went by bus or walked instead. Here, a summer cyclist is defined as a person who uses a bicycle for travelling to work in at least two cases out of five during the period from April to October.

(%)
100 80 60 40 20 0 Summer Winter
Other modes Bus Car, passenger Car, driver Bicycle Walking

Figure 4.1 The share of each mode of the total number of trips to work during the summer period and winter period. The results represent 433 answers from a questionnaire survey conducted at selected companies in Lule and Linkping in 1998.

The number of trips by bicycle and on foot decreases, while trips by car increase with the distance to work. However, a large proportion of the trips of less than 3 kilometres are still made by car: as many as 25% in the summer and 40% in the winter. In grading important factors for the choice of mode, there was a large difference in opinion between winter cyclists and others. Here, a winter cyclist is defined as a person who uses a bicycle for travelling to work in at least two cases out of five during the period from November to March. Winter cyclists valued exercise, economy and environmental aspects as the most important factors. For others, travel time, precipitation and temperature were more important. See Figure 4.2.

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Factors
Travel time

Importance for the choise of mode

Precipitation Temperature

Exercise Economy

4 Environment Road condition 3 Errands Accident risk 2 Darkness 1 Others Winter cyclists Car park

Figure 4.2 The importance of different factors for the choice of mode for travelling to work. The evaluation made by winter cyclists is compared to that made by others. The level of importance shown is the mean value on a scale from 1 to 7, where 1 indicates no importance and 7 indicates great importance. The results represent 433 answers from a questionnaire survey conducted at selected companies in Lule and Linkping in 1998. When it comes to winter maintenance, a majority, 57%, is of the opinion that winter maintenance of cycleways needs to be improved. Thirty per cent are uncertain and 9% think that winter maintenance is satisfactory. Naturally, the majority of those who are uncertain are those who do not cycle to work. This also applies to those who are satisfied with winter maintenance. However, there are also a number of winter cyclists who do not think that winter maintenance needs to be improved, see Figure 4.3. They are satisfied with today's standard of cycleways.
300

Number of answers

200

100

Winter cyclists 0 Yes No Uncertain Others

Need to improve winter maintenance?

Figure 4.3 The need to improve winter maintenance of cycleways. Opinion expressed by winter cyclists compared to others. The results represent 433 answers from a questionnaire survey conducted at selected companies in Lule and Linkping in 1998.

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As many as 38% stated that they would cycle more during the winter if the standard of cycleways was improved. Some of them usually drive to work, but most are summer cyclists who would continue to cycle during the winter if the standard was improved. Some of those who do not think improved winter maintenance would affect their cycling already cycle every day. Snow clearance is more important than skid control for the choice of mode. An excessive amount of snow affects the use of bicycles negatively, while a slippery surface is more significant for the accident risk. It is difficult to estimate the possible increase in bicycle trips during winter that could follow from improved winter maintenance. By calculating the number of trips that could be generated on the basis of the 38% who stated they would cycle more, an increase of bicycle trips between 5 and 46% is feasible. It is also difficult to determine any regional differences between Lule and Linkping. However, there is a tendency towards greater use of cars and less use of bicycles in Lule compared to Linkping. This difference is more significant during the winter, see Table 4.1, which implies that the cyclists in Lule have a higher tendency to change their mode of transport when winter comes, most probably due to the colder weather conditions.

Table 4.1 The share of each mode of the total number of trips to work during winter and summer a comparison between selected companies in Linkping and Lule. The results represent 499 answers, 163 from Saab and 66 from Ericsson in Linkping and 127 from Scania and 143 from SSAB in Lule, from a questionnaire survey conducted in 1998. Linkping Saab Ericsson 55% 30% 44% 23% 27% 49% 43% 62% 18% 21% 13% 16% Lule SSAB Scania 77% 73% 58% 59% 11% 18% 32% 34% 12% 9% 10% 7%

Mode of travel, time of year Car, winter Car, summer Bicycle, winter Bicycle, summer Other modes, winter Other modes, summer

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4.2

Test of winter maintenance methods on cycleways

Figure 4.4 shows the distribution of the different surface conditions observed on the selected cycle paths during the ocular inspections. An attempt has been made to rank the different conditions from a cyclist's point of view. The higher the value for the surface conditions, the worse they are for the accessibility, comfort and safety of the cyclist. Naturally, it is difficult to perform this type of ranking in an appropriate way, but the principle nevertheless provides an idea of how to compare different road standards. Here, the best conditions are dry bare ground and the worst conditions icy and snowcovered cycleways with ruts and irregularities. The conditions on the selected cycle paths are compared to the conditions at the same time on nearby cycle paths. The values are in general higher for the nearby cycle paths, which means that the conditions are worse there compared to the selected cycle paths. However, the difference is marginal and it is difficult to determine whether the methods tested really result in better conditions than ordinary methods.

Surface condition
18

Ice or Snow

16 14 12

Hospital
10 8 6 4 2 0 99-02-19 99-02-24 99-03-01 99-03-06 99-03-11 99-03-16 99-03-21

Bare ground

Hospital, nearby University University, nearby

Date

Figure 4.4 Distribution of different surface conditions observed during ocular inspections on two selected cycle paths, as well as on nearby cycle paths, in Linkping in February and March 1999. The higher the value of the surface conditions, the worse they are for the accessibility, comfort and safety of the bicyclists. Here, the best conditions are dry bare ground and the worst conditions icy and snow-covered cycleways with ruts and irregularities.

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Figure 4.5 presents two of the measurement series using the friction tester Fido. At the time of measurement, there was wet bare ground on the selected cycle path near the hospital and snow on a nearby cycle path. It is not surprising that the snowy surface is more slippery than the bare ground. This shows, however, that the test method with a front-mounted sweeper for snow clearance and a brine spreader for de-icing results in a surface less slippery than would be the case with a conventional method.

0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 Selected path Selected path Nearby path Nearby path

Figure 4.5 Measurements of friction on a selected cycle path next to the hospital in Linkping, compared with a nearby cycle path. The lower the friction value, the more slippery is the surface. The measurements were carried out in March 1999 with the Portable Friction Tester Fido. The results from the roadside interviews have not yet been analysed in detail. However, one result worth mentioning is bicyclists' attitude to the use of brine in eliminating ice on cycleways. A majority, 53%, was of the opinion that it is acceptable to use brine on cycleways. Only 30% are against its use and the remainders are unsure.

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5
5.1

Conclusions
Questionnaire survey

It is possible to increase the number of winter cyclists through improved winter maintenance. It is mainly summer cyclists who will continue to cycle during the winter if the standard of cycleways is improved. However, some of the most frequent car drivers state that they would cycle more often if winter maintenance of cycleways was improved. The fact that the majority seems to be dissatisfied with present winter maintenance of cycleways should be reason enough to make improvements. Snow clearance is the most important factor in winter maintenance affecting the use of bicycles. Skid control is also important for cyclists, but mainly in regard to accident risk rather than choice of mode. A development of the methods used for snow clearance is a possible way of increasing the number of bicycle trips. The number of bicycle trips decreases by about 50% from summer to winter. This is due to factors such as temperature and snowfall, although the state of the cycleway is also of some importance. It is difficult to estimate the possible increase in bicycle trips during winter that could follow from improved winter maintenance, but a reasonable estimate is 5 - 46%. Due to the importance of temperature and snowfall, it is unrealistic to hope for a similar increase in bicycle trips in cities with a harsh winter climate as in those with milder winters.

5.2

Test of winter maintenance methods on cycleways

It is difficult to draw any conclusions from the result of the ocular inspections of the surface conditions presented in Figure 4.4. However, it is possible to discern a tendency for the test methods used to give better conditions than traditional methods. The test method using a front-mounted sweeper for snow clearance and a brine spreader for deicing produces the best results. It provides a less slippery surface than would be the case with a conventional method. The methods used to evaluate the road surface standard on cycleways proved to be adequate for the purpose. However, the ocular inspections need to be carried out more continuously than what was the case during this preliminary study. Some adjustments in the protocol for the inspections are also desirable to secure proper results. The general attitude of cyclists towards the use of brine for de-icing on cycleways is surprisingly positive.

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6 Further studies
The study of different winter maintenance methods performed during winter 1999 is intended as a basis for further studies. During the coming winters, the methods used in 1999 will be tested on a larger scale, not on a single cycle path but on a larger part of the cycleway network in Linkping. A major part of the cycleway network serving Saab AB is in mind. Company employees living in a certain housing area less than three kilometres from the plant will be studied. Three kilometres is an optimal distance for cycling. The methods used on the network will be better suited to bicycles. There will be stringent demands on the maximal permissible snow depth and a non-slippery surface is desirable. Cyclists' reaction to the improved standard will be of interest. It is also desirable to determine whether the change in standard affects the cycling frequency.