Unit 1 Introduction about Mechatronics,

Scope of Mechatronics, application, process control automation and N/c Machines.

Mechatronics Defined I
The word, mechatronics is composed of mecha from mechanics and tronics from electronics. In other words, technologies and developed products will be incorporating electronics more and more into mechanisms, intimately and organically, and making it impossible to tell where one ends and the other begins. Mechatronics Defined II

Synergistic integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and intelligent computer control in the design and manufacturing of industrial products and processes. Mechatronics Defined III Synergistic use of precision engineering, control theory, computer science, and sensor and actuator technology to design improved products and processes. Field of study involving the analysis, design, synthesis, and selection of systems that combine electronics and mechanical components with modern controls and Microprocessors. Mechatronics: Working Definition for us

Mechatronics is the synergistic integration of sensors, actuators, signal conditioning, power electronics, decision and control algorithms, and computer hardware and software to manage complexity, uncertainty, and communication in engineered systems. Product Realization Paradigm Engineered products frequently involve components from more than one discipline Traditional product realization Discipline specific sequential process (design then manufacture) Drawback: cost overruns due to redesign/re-tooling A better but still deficient approach Discipline specific concurrent process (design for manufacturing) Bottleneck: sub-optimal integration Mechatronics based product realization exploits Integrated process founded upon interdisciplinary synergy Disciplinary Foundations of Mechatronics

Mechanical Engineering Electrical Engineering Computer Engineering Computer/Information Systems Information Systems, Electrical Systems Computer Systems Mechanical Systems Mechatronics Mechatronics-based Product Realization

 Systems engineering allows design, analysis, and synthesis of products and processes involving components from multiple disciplines. Mechatronics exploits systems engineering to guide the product realization process from design, model, simulate, analyze, refine, prototype, validate, and deployment cycle. In mechatronics-based product realization: mechanical, electrical, and computer engineering and information systems are integrated throughout the design process so that the final products can be better than the sum of its parts. Mechatronics system is not simply a multi-disciplinary system simply an electromechanical system just a control system Elements of MechatronicsMechanical Mechanical elements refer to mechanical structure, mechanism, thermo-fluid, and hydraulic aspects of a mechatronics system. Mechanical elements may include static/dynamic characteristics. A mechanical element interacts with its environment purposefully. Mechanical elements require physical power to produce motion, force, heat, etc. Machine Components: Basic Elements Inclined plane wedge Slider-Crank Cam and Follower Gear, rack, pinion, etc. Chain and sprocket Lever Linkage Wheel/Axle Springs

Elements of MechatronicsElectromechanical

 Electromechanical elements refer to:

Sensors
A variety of physical variables can be measured using sensors, e.g., light using photo-resistor, level and displacement using potentiometer, direction/tilt using magnetic sensor, sound using microphone, stress and pressure using strain gauge, touch using micro-switch, temperature using thermistor, and humidity using conductivity sensor

Actuators
DC servomotor, stepper motor, relay, solenoid, speaker, light emitting diode (LED), shape memory alloy, electromagnet, and pump apply commanded action on the physical process IC-based sensors and actuators (digital-compass, -potentiometer, etc.).DC Motor Flexiforce Sensor Pneumatic Cylinder

Elements of MechatronicsElectrical/Electronic

 Electrical elements refer to: Electrical components (e.g., resistor (R), capacitor (C), inductor (L),transformer, etc.), circuits, and analog signals Electronic elements refer to: analog/digital electronics, transistors, thyristors, opto-isolators, operational amplifiers, power electronics, and signal conditioning The electrical/electronic elements are used to interface electromechanical sensors and actuators to the control interface/computing hardware elements Elements of MechatronicsControl Interface/Computing Hardware Control interface/computing hardware elements refer to: Analog-to-digital (A2D) converter, digital-to-analog (D2A) converter, digital input/output (I/O), counters, timers, microprocessor, microcontroller, data acquisition and control (DAC) board, and digital signal processing (DSP) board Control interface hardware allows analog/digital interfacing communication of sensor signal to the control computer and communication of control signal from the control computer to the actuator Control computing hardware implements a control algorithm, which uses sensor measurements, to compute control actions to be applied by the actuator. Elements of Mechatronics Computer/Information System

Computer elements refer to hardware/software utilized to perform: computer-aided dynamic system analysis, optimization, design, and simulation virtual instrumentation rapid control prototyping

 hardware-in-the-loop simulation PC-based data acquisition and control Smart consumer products: home security, camera, microwave oven, toaster, dish washer, laundry washer-dryer, climate control units, etc. Medical: implant-devices, assisted surgery, haptic, etc. Defense: unmanned air, ground, and underwater vehicles, smart munitions, jet engines, etc. Manufacturing: robotics, machines, processes, etc. Automotive: climate control, antilock brake, active suspension, cruise control, air bags, engine management, safety, etc. Network-centric, distributed systems: distributed robotics, telerobotics, intelligent highways, etc. Structural Control Home Automation

Unit 2 Sensors and Transducers

Introduction, classification, specification, characteristics of transducers, type of transducers displacement, strain, vibration pressure, flow, temperature, force & torque, tactile.

2.1 Sensors
Sensor is a device that when exposed to a physical phenomenon (temperature, displacement, force, etc.) produces a proportional output signal (electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.). The term transducer is often used synonymously with sensors. However, ideally, a sensor is a device that responds to a change in the physical phenomenon. On the other hand, a transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another form of energy. Sensors are transducers when they sense one form of energy input and output in a different form of energy. For example, a thermocouple responds to a temperature change (thermal energy) and outputs a proportional change in electromotive force (electrical energy). Therefore,a thermocouple can be called a sensor and or transducer.

Classification Type of Sensors for Various Measurement Objectives Sensor Features Linear/Rotational sensors Linear/Rotational variable differential transducer (LVDT/RVDT)

High resolution with wide range capability Very stable in static and quasi-static applications Optical encoder Simple, reliable, and low-cost solution Good for both absolute and incremental measurements Electrical tachometer Resolution depends on type such as generator or magnetic pickups Hall effect sensor High accuracy over a small to medium range Capacitive transducer Very high resolution with high sensitivity Principle of Operation Linear and Rotational Sensors Linear and rotational position sensors are two of the most fundamental of all measurements used atypical mechatronics system. The most common type position sensors are listed in In general, the position sensors produce an electrical output that is proportional to the displacement they experience. There are contact type sensors such as strain gage, LVDT, RVDT, tachometer, etc. The noncontact type includes encoders, hall effect, capacitance, inductance, and interferometer type. They can also be classified based on the range of measurement. Usually the high-resolution type of sensors such as hall effect,

Acceleration Se nsors Measurement of acceleration is important for systems subject to shock and vibration. Although acceleration can be derived from the time history data obtainable from linear or rotary sensors, the accelerometers whose output is directly proportional to the acceleration is preferred.

Force, Torque, and Pressure Sensors Among many type of force/torque sensors, the strain gage dynamometers And piezoelectric type are most common. Both are available to measure force and/or torque either in one axis or multiple axes. The dynamometers make use of mechanical members that experiences elastic deflection when loaded. These types of sensors are limited by their natural frequency. On the other hand, the piezoelectric sensors are particularly suitable for dynamic loadings in a wide range of frequencies. They provide high stiffness, high resolution over a wide measurement range, and are compact. Flow Sensors Flow sensing is relatively a difficult task. The fluid medium can be liquid, gas, or a mixture of the two.Furthermore, the flow could be laminar or turbulent and can be a time-varying phenomenon. Temperature Sensors A variety of devices are available to measure temperature, the most common of which are thermocouples, thermistors, resistance temperature detectors (RTD), and infrared types. Thermocouples are the most versatile, inexpensive, and have a wide range (up to 1200 C typical). A thermocouple simply consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at the ends to create the sensing junction. When used in conjunction with a reference junction, the temperature difference between the reference junction and the actual temperature shows up as a voltage potential. Thermistors

are semiconductor devices whose resistance changes as the temperature changes. They are good for very high sensitivity measurements in a limited range of up to 100 C. The relationship between the temperature and the resistance is nonlinear. The RTD use the phenomenon that the resistance of a metal changes with temperature. They are, however, linear over a wide range and most stable. Infrared type sensors use the radiation heat to sense the temperature from a distance. These noncontact sensors can also be used to sense a field of vision to generate a thermal map of a surface. Proximity Sensors They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to another object. They usually provide a on or off signal indicating the presence or absence of an object. Inductance, capacitance, photoelectric , and hall effect types are widely used as proximity sensors. Inductance proximity sensors consist of a coil wound around a soft iron core. The inductance of the sensor changes when a ferrous object is in its proximity. This change is converted to a voltage-triggered switch. Capacitance types are similar to inductance except the proximity of an object changes the gap and affects the capacitance. Photoelectric sensors are normally aligned with an infrared light source. The proximity of a moving object interrupts the light beam causing the voltage level to change. Hall effect voltage is produced when a current-carrying conductor is exposed to a transverse magnetic field. The voltage is proportional to transverse distance between the hall effect sensor and an object in its proximity. Light Sensors Light intensity and full field vision are two important measurements used in many c applications. Photodiodes are some of the more common type of light intensity sensors. A common photo resistor is made of cadmium supplied whose resistance is maximum when the sensor is in dark. When the photo resistor is exposed to light, its resistance drops in proportion to the intensity of light. When interfaced with a circuit as shown in Figure 9.5 and balanced, the change in light intensity will show up as change in voltage. These sensors are simple, reliable, and cheap, used widelyfor measuring light intensity. Selection Criteria

A number of static and dynamic factors must be considered in selecting a suitable sensor to measure the desired physical parameter. Following is a list of typical factors: Range Difference between the maximum and minimum value of the sensed parameter Resolution The smallest change the sensor can differentiate Accuracy Difference between the measured value and the true value Precision Ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy Sensitivity Ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input Zero offset A nonzero value output for no input Linearity Percentage of deviation from the best-fit linear calibration curve Zero Drift The departure of output from zero value over a period of time for no input Response time The time lag between the input and output

Bandwidth Frequency at which the output magnitude drops by 3 dB Resonance The frequency at which the output magnitude peak occurs Operating temperature The range in which the sensor performs as specified DeadbandThe range of input for which there is no output Signal-to-noise ratioRatio between the magnitudes of the signal and the noise at the output Choosing a sensor that satisfies all the above to the desired specification is difficult, at best. For example, finding a position sensor with micrometer resolution over a range of a meter eliminates most of the sensors. Many times the lack of a cost-effective sensor necessitates redesigning the mechatronic system. It is, therefore, advisable to take a system level approach when selecting a sensor and avoid choosing it in isolation. Once the above-referred functional factors are satisfied, a short list of sensors can be generated. The final selection will then depend upon the size, extent of signal conditioning, reliability, robustness, maintainability, and cost. Signal Conditioning Normally, the output from a sensor requires post processing of the signals before they can be fed to the controller. The sensor output may have to be demodulated, amplified, filtered, linearized, range quantized,and isolated so that the signal can be accepted by a typical analog-to-digital converter of the controller. Some sensors are available with integrated signal conditioners, such as the microsensors. All the electronicsare integrated into one microcircuit and can be directly interfaced with the controllers. Calibration The sensor manufacturer usually provides the calibration curves. If the sensors are stable with no drift,there is no need to recalibrate. However, often the sensor may have to be recalibrated after integratingit with a signal conditioning system. This essentially requires that a known input signal is provided to . Range The range (or span) of a sensor is the difference between the minimum (or most negative) and maximum inputs that will give a valid output. Range is typically specified by the manufacturer of the sensor. Resolution The resolution of a sensor is the smallest increment of input that can be reliably detected. Resolution isalso frequently known as the least count of the sensor. Resolution of digital sensors is easily determined. A 1024 ppr (pulse per revolution) incremental encoder would have a resolution of The resolution of analog sensors is usually limited only by low-level electrical noise and is often much better than equivalent digital sensors. Sensitivity Sensor sensitivity is defined as the change in output per change in input. The sensitivity of digital sensors is closely related to the resolution. The sensitivity of an analog sensor is the slope of the output versus input line. A sensor exhibiting truly linear behavior has a constant sensitivity over the entire input range. Other sensors exhibit nonlinear behavior where the sensitivity either increases or decreases as the input.

Error is the difference between a measured value and the true input value. Two classifications of errors are bias (or systematic) errors and precision (or random) errors. Bias errors are present in all measurements made with a given sensor, and cannot be detected or removed by statistical means. These bias errors can be further subdivided into calibration errors (a zero or null point error is a common type of bias error created by a nonzero output value when the input is zero), loading errors (adding the sensor to the measured system changes the system), and errors due to sensor sensitivity to variables other than the desired one (e.g., temperature effects on strain gages). Repeatability Repeatability (or reproducibility) refers to a sensors ability to give identical outputs for the same input. Precision (or random) errors cause a lack of repeatability. Fortunately, precision errors can be accounted for by averaging several measurements or other operations such as low-pass filtering. Electrical noise and hysteresis (described later) both contribute to a loss of repeatability. Linearity and Accuracy The accuracy of a sensor is inversely proportional to error, i.e., a highly accurate sensor produces low errors. Many manufacturers specify accuracy in terms of the sensors linearity. A leastsquares straight-line fit between all output measurements and their corresponding inputs determines the nominal output of the sensor. Linearity (or accuracy) is specified as a percentage of full scale (maximum valid input), as shown in Figure 11.3, or as a percentage of the sensor Impedance Impedance is the ratio of voltage and current flow for a sensor. For a simple resistive sensor (such as astrain gage or a thermistor), the impedance is the same as the resistance, which has units of ohms (),For more complicated sensors, impedance includes the effects of capacitance, C, and inductance, Inclusion of these terms makes the impedance frequency sensitive, but the units remain ohms where is the imaginary number and Two types of impedance are important in sensor applications: input impedance and output impedance. Input impedance is a measure of how much current must be drawn to power a sensor (or signal conditioning circuit). Input impedance is frequently modeled as a resistor in parallel with the Nonlinearities Linear systems have the property of superposition. If the response of the system to input A is output A, and the response to input B is output B, then the response to input C (= input A+input B) will be output C (=output A + output B). Many real systems will exhibit linear or nearly linear behavior over some range of operation. Therefore, linear system analysis is correct, at least over these portions of a systems operating envelope. Unfortunately, most real systems have nonlinearities that cause them to operate outside of this linear region, and many common assumptions about system behavior, such as superposition, no longer apply. Several nonlinearities commonly found in mechatronic systems include static and coulomb friction, eccentricity, backlash (or hysteresis), saturation, and dead band. Static and Coulomb Friction

In classic linear system analysis, friction forces are assumed to be proportional to velocity, i.e., viscous friction. With an actuator velocity of zero, there should be no friction. In reality, a small amount of static (no velocity) or Coulomb friction is almost always present, even in roller or ball type anti-friction bearings. A typical plot of friction force vs. velocity is given in Figure 11.6. Note that the static friction force can assume any value between some upper and lower limit at zero velocity. Static friction has two primary effects on mechatronic systems: 1. Some of the actuator torque or force is wasted overcoming friction forces, which leads to inefficiency from an energy viewpoint. 2. As the actuator moves the system to its final location, the velocity approaches zero and the actuator force/torque will approach a value that exactly balances frictional and gravity loads. Since static friction can assume any value at zero velocity, the actuator will come to slightly different final resting positions each timedepending on the final value of static friction. This effect contributes Eccentricity The ideal relationships for gears, pulleys, and chain drives assume that the point of gear contact remains at a fixed distance from the center of rotation for each gear. In reality, the true center of the gears pitch circle and the center of rotation will be separated by a small amount, known as the eccentricity. Small tooth-to-tooth errors can also cause local variations in the pitch circle radius. The combination of these two effects can lead to a nonlinear geometrical relationship between two gears like that the nonlinear behavior is greatly exaggerated for clarity. Eccentricity impacts the accuracy of position measurements made on the input side of the gear pair, as the output gear is not exactly where the sensor measurement indicates. Backlash If two otherwise perfect gears are not mounted on a center-to-center distance that exactly matches the sum of the pitch radii, there will be a small clearance, or backlash, between the teeth. When the input gear reverses direction, a small rotation is required before this clearance is removed and the output gear begins to move. Gear backlash is just one of many phenomena that can be characterized as hysteresis, Saturation All real actuators have some maximum output capability, regardless of the input. This violates the linearity assumption, since at some point the input command can be increased without significantly changing the output; This type of nonlinearity must be considered in mechatronic control system design, since maximum velocity and force or torque limitations affect system performance. Control systems modeled with linear system theory must be carefully tested or analyzed to determine the impact of saturation on system performance. Dead band Another nonlinear characteristic of some actuators and sensors is known as dead band. The dead band is typically a region of input close to zero at which the output remains zero. Once the input travels outside the dead band, then the output varies with input, as shown in . Analog joystick

inputs frequently use a small amount of dead band to reduce the effect of noise from human inputs. A very small movement of the joystick produces no output, but the joystick acts normally with larger inputs. half the dead band, then the cooling system output goes to fully on. As the room cools, the output stays fully on until the temperature reaches the set point minus half the dead band. At this point the cooling system output goes fully off. System Response Sensors and actuators respond to inputs that change with time. Any system that changes with time is considered a dynamic system. Understanding the response of dynamic systems to different types of inputs is important in mechatronic system design. The most important concept in system response is stability. The term stability has many different definitions and uses, but the most common definition is related to equilibrium. A system in equilibrium will remain in the same state in the absence of external disturbances. A stable system will return to an equilibrium state if a small disturbance moves the system away from the initial state. An unstable system will not return to an equilibrium position, and frequently will move far from the initial state. Figure 11.12 illustrates three stability conditions with a simple ball and hill system. In each case an equilibrium position is easily identifiedeither the top of the hill or the bottom of the valley. In the unstable case, a small motion of the ball away from the equilibrium position will cause the ball to move far away, as it rolls down the hill. In the stable case, a small movement of the ball away from the equilibrium position will eventually result in the ball returning, perhaps after a few oscillations. In the third case, the absence of friction causes the ball to oscillate continuously about the equilibrium position once a small movement has occurred.

Unit 3 Hydraulic Pneumatic & Electrical actuators

Pumps & Compressors, control valves & accessories, actuators, fluid power symbols, fluid

power systems, switching devices, solenoids, motors. Actuators are basically the muscle behind a mechatronics system that accepts a control command (mostly in the form of an electrical signal) and produces a change in the physical system by generating force, motion, heat, flow, etc. Normally, the actuators are used in conjunction with the power supply and a coupling mechanism as shown in Figure 9.7. The power unit provides either AC or DC power at the rated voltage and current. The coupling mechanism acts as the interface between the actuator and the physical system. Typical mechanisms include rack and pinion, gear drive, belt drive, lead screw and nut,piston, and linkages. Classification . Principle of Operation Electrical Actuators Electrical switches are the choice of actuators for most of the on-off type control action. Switching devices such as diodes, transistors, triacs, MOSFET, and relays accept a low energy level command signal from the controller and switch on or off electrical devices such as motors, valves, and heating elements. The gate terminal receives the low energy control signal from the controller that makes or breaks the connection between the power supply and the actuator load. When switches are used, the designer must make sure that switch bounce problem is eliminated either by hardware or software. Electromechanical Actuators The most common electromechanical actuator is a motor that converts electrical energy to mechanical motion. Motors are the principal means of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy in industry. Broadly they can be classified as DC motors, AC motors, and stepper motors. DC motors operate on DCal system to start Electromagnetic Actuators The solenoid is the most common electromagnetic actuator. A DC solenoid actuator consists of a soft iron core enclosed within a current carrying coil. When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is established that provides the force to push or pull the iron core. AC solenoid devices are also encountered, such as AC excitation relay. A solenoid operated directional control valve is. Normally, due to the spring force, the soft iron core is pushed to the extreme left position as shown. When the solenoid is excited, the soft iron core will move to the right extreme position thus providing the electromagnetic actuation. Another important type is the electromagnet. The electromagnets are used extensively in applications that require large forces.

Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators

Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are normally either rotary motors or linear piston/cylinder or control valves. They are ideally suited for generating very large forces coupled with large motion. Pneumatic actuators use air under pressure that is most suitable for low to medium force, short stroke, and highspeed applications. Hydraulic actuators use pressurized oil that is incompressible. They can produce very large forces coupled with large motion in a cost-effective manner. The disadvantage with the hydraulic actuators is that they are more complex and need more maintenance. The rotary motors are usually used in applications where low speed and high torque are required. The cylinder/piston actuators are suited for application of linear motion such as aircraft flap control. ControlUnlike the conventional actuators, the smart material actuators typically become part of the load bearing structures. This is achieved by embedding the actuators in a distributed manner and integrating . Micro- and Nanoactuators Micro actuators, also called micro machines, microelectromechanical system (MEMS), and Microsystems are the tiny mobile devices being developed utilizing the standard microelectronics processes with the integration of semiconductors and machined micromechanical elements. Another definition states that any device produced by assembling extremely small functional parts of around 115 mm is called amicromachine. In electrostatic motors, electrostatic force is dominant, unlike the conventional motors that are based on magnetic forces.

Selection Criteria The selection of the proper actuator is more complicated than selection of the sensors, primarily due to their effect on the dynamic behavior of the overall system. Furthermore, the selection of the actuator dominates the power needs and the coupling mechanisms of the entire system. The coupling mechanism can sometimes be completely avoided if the actuator provides the output that can be directly interfaced to the physical system. For example, choosing a linear motor in place of a rotary motor can eliminate the need of a coupling mechanism to convert rotary motion to linear motion.In general, the following performance parameters must be addressed before choosing an actuator for a specific need: Continuous power outputThe maximum force/torque attainable continuously without exceeding thetemperature limits Range of motionThe range of linear/rotary motion ResolutionThe minimum increment of force/torque attainable AccuracyLinearity of the relationship between the input and output Peak force/torqueThe force/torque at which the actuator stalls Heat dissipationMaximum wattage of heat dissipation in continuous operation Speed characteristicsForce/torque versus speed relationship No load speedTypical operating speed/velocity with no external load Frequency responseThe range of frequency over which the output follows the input faithfully, applicable to linear actuators Power requirementType of power (AC or DC), number of phases, voltage level, and current capacity In addition to the above-referred criteria, many other factors become important

depending upon the type of power and the coupling mechanism required. For example, if a rackand-pinion coupling mechanism is chosen, the backlash and friction will affect the resolution of the actuating unit.

Hydraulic Actuators
3.1 The Laws The Work Of Hydraulic Actuators Is Based.

Liquid is the physical body possessing fluidity. Fluidity is understood as easy mobility of particles, i.e.(that is) ability beyond all bounds to be deformed and come in movement under action of insignificant forces.Due to fluidity liquids practically without efforts get the form given by space, and inbalanced condition do not perceive tangents strain.Liquids show resistance to shift in direct dependence on speed of shift deformation and to compression. They dont practically resist to stretching except in cases under special conditions, for example at all-round negative pressure or at attempt to tear off the piston from liquid in the cylinder. However liquids considered technically pure, in practical conditions contain small impurity and dissolved air, therefore they are not capable to maintain even insignificant stretching strain. Taking into account mechanical properties we can distinguish two types of liquid: lowcompressible (dropping) liquids which insignificantly change the volume when temperature and pressure change, and compressed (gaseous). The difference of mechanical properties of these two types of liquid is insignificant, if it is possible to neglect compressibility of gases namely when differences of temperatures and pressure are small, and speed of movement less than 70 km/s. In these cases the laws received for drop liquids, can be frequently fair for gases. From physics approach the difference between these kinds of liquid is significant. Drop The constant on the right hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant and denoted b. For steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no additional sources or sinks of energy, b is constant along any given streamline. More generally, when b may vary along streamlines, it still proves a useful parameter, related to the head of the fluid. When there are shock waves present, in a reference frame moving with a shock, many of the

parameters in the Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes in passing through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter itself, however, remains unaffected. An exception to this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli equation, namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy. Different Kinds of Hydraulic Actuators

The Structure of Hydraulic Cylinders Hydraulic cylinders widely apply in building, digging, hoisting-and-transport, road machines, automobiles, and also in the processing equipment metal-cutting machine tools, forge -pressing machines. The hydraulic cylinder The number of consolidations which are the sources of friction and places of external and internal outflows, defines volumetric and mechanical efficiency of the hydraulic cylinder, and also its reliability. From this point of view the hydraulic cylinder with a double-sided rod has the smaller efficiency in comparison with the considered cylinders under other equal conditions. In many cases hydraulic cylinders work in severe conditions when suddenly changing loadings and adverse climatic conditions. For protection against the hit of moisture and dirt provide double external consolidations (for example, 3 and 4) antisplash consolidations 2 and 5, and sometimes rubber sylphon 4 entirely closing a rod at promotion. Ending brake devices are established for protection against impacts of the piston against a cover of the hydraulic cylinder at the end of a course. Sockets 2 and 3 are realized in covers of the hydraulic cylinder, and corresponding to them there are cylindrical ledges 7 and 6 on the piston, forming with jacks small backlashes. At the end of a course the ring volume 8 will be squeezed out through a throttle 1 and a ring crack, whose resistance is great, and speed of the piston will decrease. Return valves 5 are stipulated for fast filling of the cylinder in the beginning of a course around of a throttle 1 and of the socket.Telescopic hydraulic cylinders (fig. 14) are applied in the cases when the desirable course exceeds the allowable adjusting length of the hydraulic cylinder. Promotion of the sections of 15 . STABILIZATION AND SYNCHRONIZATION OF MOVEMENT OF TARGET PARTS OF HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

In hydraulic actuators of metal-cutting machine tools and other machines it is frequently applied throttle regulation with the device for stabilization of speed of an output link with the purpose of improvement of loading characteristics. The regulator of the stream that provides stability of established speed irrespective from the change of loading serves as such device. The scheme of a hydraulic actuator with a regulator of a stream The scheme of a hydraulic actuator of linear motion with the regulator of a stream established consistently on an output from the hydraulic cylinder is shown in fig. 16. The regulator 7 consists of an adjustable throttle 2 and a reducing valve 3. The last supports the constant pressure Pth upon the input in a throttle. Pressure is belived to be constant and equal to atmospheric on the output from the throttle at small resistance of a removing hydroline. Hence, the charge of liquid through a throttle will be steady. Submission of liquid in hydraulic engine Qhe = Qp - Qth is steady when the submission of the pump is steady and does not depend on loading, so speed of an output link will also be steady. Actually speed Vp with increase in loading decreases owing to outflow in the pump, growing with increase in

pressure, and also due to discrepancy of work of a reducing valve. Hydraulic actuator with a steady output frequency of rotation when frequency of rotation of a shaft of the pump is variable and when loading on a shaft of the hydraulic motor is variable is called stabilized. each of which passes through a constant throttle 7, and then is brought to a sleeve 5 with the floating piston 4. The floating piston plays a role of a valve,moving in one or other side depending on difference of working pressure. The difference of pressure arises when the charge of liquid in one branch is distinct from the charge in another one owing to different loadings and, hence, loss of pressure in one throttle more, than in the other one. Moving aside smaller pressure, for example to the right, the piston 4 reduces the area of an aperture 2 and increases the area of an aperture 3. The piston will stop when pressure in the right and left cavities of a sleeve and consequently, the charge through thesecavities will be equal.

3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Hydraulic Actuators

Variable hydraulic actuators are widely used as drives of machine tools, rolling mills, pressing and the foundry equipment, road and building machines, transport and agricultural machines, etc. A number of advantages in comparison with mechanical and electric transfers explains such their wide application: infinitely variable control of gear-ratio in a wide range and an opportunity to create the big reduction ratio; small specific weight, i.e. the weight of a hydroactuator is in ratio to transmitted capacity (0,2...0,3 kg / kWt); opportunity of simple and reliable protection of the engine from overloads; small sluggishness of the rotating parts, providing fast change of operating modes (startup, dispersal, a reverser, a stop); simplicity of transformation of rotary movement into reciprocating one; opportunity of positioning a hydraulic engine on removal(distance) from an energy source and freedom in making configuration. It is also necessary to reckon with disadvantages of hydraulic actuators: efficiency of a volumetric hydraulic actuator is a little bit lower, than efficiency of mechanical and electric transfers, and during regulation it is reduc

An electrical actuator in a mechatronic design

INTRODUCTION.

Primary an actuator has to realize a desired movement. The actuator converts energy of some kind to mechanical energy. You can consider the actuator as an object, but it is better to consider the wholedrive system as an object. The actuator is a sub-object in the drive system. Examples of actuator types are: S pneumatic motors S hydraulic motors S electrostatic motors (pizza-electrical motors) S magnetically motors (electrical motors) S chemical motors (fuel motors) In a mechatronic product must the actuator run a certain kind of mechanical load process. This can be a position, speed, acceleration, torque (force), power or a combination.

The choice of actuator type in a design is globally given by: a. load process b. available volume c. whole construction d. surrounding e. costs . 1.2. ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR IN MECHATRONIC DESIGNS.

It is not very useful to proceed an actuator as a stand alone object. The actuator is just a part of a complete drive system. However the actuator has to satisfy the condition of costs, construction, volume and surroundings for the total design. These requirements are determined by the specifications of the product. Within those specifications there is a great selection of actuator

possibilities. The load process is very important of the choice, especially for dynamic loads makes a certain type ofactuator more or less capable for the application.The high dynamic properties of an electric actuator are very good for a relatively low price. Within the choice of electric actuators there are more possibilities each with own advantages and disadvantages.In a mechatronic design the actuator has a special position for functional tasks.shows acontrolled drive system. In practice not all parts are realized or some parts are combined. Thedifferent parts of the drive system will be shortly described below. - The power. There is an electrical source needed for the power for actuator and electronic controllers. Examples are the AC- main voltage supply 230/400 V 50 Hz, a battery or a generator. Itwill be clear that the used power influenced the choice of the actuator. - The convertor. This part is responsible for current and voltage for the actuator needed for realizingthe desired movements of the mechanical load.. The controller gives input signal for the convertor.Sometimes the convertor and controller are combined to one unit. The feedback of the load (position,speed) and the current of the actuator controls the convertor. Examples are frequency controllers forinduction motors, controlled current sources for direct current (DC)motors, servo-amplifiers andrectifier circuits. - The actuator. The conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is done by the actuator andvice versa. Examples are step-motors, induction motors, relay, magnetical valve. - The transmission. Through the transmission the actuator is connected to the load. The transmissionis an adjustment between the mechanical behaviour of the actuator and the load. The transmission isfrequently a source of error (friction, margin, backlash), that is why the transmission is avoided andsometimes the actuator is direct coupled to the load (direct drive). Examples are a magnetictransmission, cogwheels and slip transmission. Energy flows of an actuator - The load. The load is the whole of desired movements of an object or a tool. The movements can belinear or rotational. Examples are rotation with a constant speed, go to a position with a definedaccuracy and a movement of a mass accordently with a speed profile. - The controller. This part is the heart of the drive system. Dependent on reference input signals andthe sensor signals, the controller will react so that the whole system is working alright. Sometimes the protection of the drive system is integrated with the controller. The controller exists for a great part of electronic devices (micro-controllers). In some cases the converter and controller build as one unit.The data processing is more and more done in a digital way. Also the modern sensors generate digital signals. This is one of the reasons that software plays an important role for controllers. The D(igital)S(ignal) P(rocessor) is a complete computer system with parallel data processing and often used as controllers. . PRINCIPLE AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR.

The actuator consists of a not movable partcalled the stator and a movable part the rotor or armature. Both parts are separated by an air gap, whose thickness can variate betweenabout 0,1 mm to 2 mm. Magnetical an air gapis a disadvantageously property and should be as small as possible. Both the stator androtor can contain windings or permanent magnets. As described above the important . The general running principle. The actuator has an electrical side and a mechanical side. The most important principle is that current in an electrical conductor move inside of a magnetically field. Such actuators has the ability to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa. The energy conversion takes place in and around the rotor. It is easy to explain the conversion with The electrical actuator the Lorentz-force law. The actuator is working in motor mode when electrical power is transformed to mechanical power. Its in generator mode as mechanical power is transformed to electrical power. When an actuator gets both electrical and mechanical energy input it is a dissipater (plugging mode). This mode can be used as a brake. Figure 1.4 shows schematically the electrical mechanical converter with the possible energy flows. A magnetic field is necessarily for the conversion, which gives always losses of electrical, mechanical and magnetically nature. The mechanical losses are ventilation, the static and viscous friction; electrical losses are conduction (copper) losses. The magnetically losses can be iron losses (eddy current) or indirect from leakage fields. In chapter 2 the magnetically losses will be described. All the losses caused an irritating heat, which reduces the functions of the actuator. Construction parts of the actuator The stator The stator has a physical and a constructional function. First it is the closing way for the magnetic fields and made of magnet iron. Magnet iron is a general name for all kinds of iron that has favorably properties for magnetic fields. Second the stator gives protection and solidity to the actuator. Next it has often some possibilities for assembling as screwing holes, assembling shields and sockets. The bearings of the shaft are also mounted on the stator. The stator has copper windings for generating magnetic field in the air gap or generating an magnetic force. The windings can be replaced by permanent magnets with the same function as the stator windings. For decreasing the magnetically losses the stator is mostly made as a laminated core structure. In small mechatronic products testator is highly integrated with the whole construction. The rotor or armature The rotor or armature is the movable part on the shaft, which is placed in the bearing of the stator. The rotor has also copper windings that can generate a force when the windings carry a current in magnetic field. For a continue force the current direction in the windings must react on the value of the magnetic field. For direct current motors this phenomenon is called commutation. Consist the rotor of permanent magnetic material then the stator windings must have carry current depending of the rotor position. Induction motors working according to the induction principle. The rotor consists of short-circuited bars or windings. There is no commutation. At last the rotor can consist only of magnet iron. The generation of force is

according the reluctance principle. The rotor iron follows a moving magnetic field. Because the rotor has to guide the magnetic field from one side to the other side of the stator it is nearly totally made of magnet iron. Exception of this construction are the so called air gap rotors and permanent magnets rotors. The form of the rotors can be like a cylinder, a disk or like a cup. The cup and disk forms are the air gap rotors, they have a low inertia. That is why those motors are very capable for situations with high accelerations and decelerations (servo applications). In case the armature moves from left to right it is called a linear actuator (alienator). The working principle is the same as for rotational actuators, but the choice for linear movable actuators is much greater. The reason is that there are so many different type of liberators and mostly custom made Torque-speed characteristic of an actuator. The windings have two functions: a. Generation of a magnetic field. b. Generation of a force or torque in a magnetic field. Windings are placed on both the stator and the rotor. Mostly the windings are made of copper; in some exceptional cases the are made of aluminum or silver. The field windings are thin and have a relatively low current value. The force generating windings are thick and have a high current value. The magnet field windings can be replaced by permanent magnets. Permanent magnets have a strong magnetic field in relation with its volume, that is why small motors have most of the time a permanent magnet. The current in the windings caused conducting losses. These losses heats the actuator, with is very disadvantageous. The windings are positioned in such a way that they get rid of their heat very easy.

Unit 4 Data Acquisition and Control System

Introduction, Quantitating theory, Analog to Digital Conversion, Digital to Analog (D/A) conversation, transfer function, transient response & frequency response & frequency response, stability criteria.

Introduction to Data Acquisition

The purpose of a data acquisition system is to capture and analyze some sort of physical phenomenon from the real world. Light, temperature, pressure, and torque are a few of the many different types of signals that can interface to a data acquisition system. A data acquisition system may also produce electrical signals simultaneously. These signals can either intelligently control mechanical systems or provide a stimulus so that the data acquisition system can measure the response. A data acquisition system provides a way to empirically test designs, theories, and real world systems for validation or research. Illustrates a typical computer-based data

acquisition module. The design and the production of a modern car, for instance, relies heavily on data acquisition. Engineers will first use data acquisition to test the design of the cars components. The frame can be monitored for mechanical stress, wind noise, and durability. The vibration and temperature of the engine can be acquired to evaluate the design quality. The researchers and engineers can then use this data to optimize the design of the first prototype of the car. The prototype can then be monitored under many different conditions ona test track while information is collected through data acquisition. After a few iterations of design changes and data acquisition, the car is ready for production. Data acquisition devices can monitor the machines that assemble the car, and they can test that the assembled car is within specifications. At first, data acquisition devices stood alone and were manually controlled by an operator. When the PC emerged, data acquisition devices and instruments could be connected to the computer through serial port, parallel port, or some custom interface. A computer program could control the device automatically and retrieve data from the device for storage, analysis, or presentation. Now, instruments and data acquisition devices can be integrated into a computer through highspeed communication Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if the sensor devices are inherently digital themselves. Switches, relays, and encoders are easily interfaced with gate circuits due to the on/off nature of their signals. However, when analog devices are involved, interfacing becomes much more complex. What is needed is a way to electronically translate analog signals into digital (binary) quantities, and visa-versa. An analog-to-digital converter, or ADC, performs the former task while a digital-to-analog converter, or DAC, performs the latter. An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a binary number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as such:

A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like this:

Together, they are often used in digital systems to provide complete interface with analog sensors and output devices for control systems such as those used in automotive engine controls:

It is much easier to convert a digital signal into an analog signal than it is to do the reverse. Therefore, we will begin with DAC circuitry and then move to ADC circuitry.

Go Back

Flash ADC Illustrated is a 3-bit flash ADC with resolution 1 volt (after Tocci). The resistor net and comparators provide an input to the combinational logic circuit, so the conversion time is just the propagation delay through the network - it is not limited by the clock rate or some convergence sequence. It is the fastest type of ADC available, but requires a comparator for each value of output (63 for 6-bit, 255 for 8-bit, etc.) Such ADCs are available in IC form up to 8-bit and 10-bit flash ADCs (1023 comparators) are planned. The encoder logic executes a truth table to convert the ladder of inputs to the binary number output. Analog-to-Digital Converters

Index

Electronics concepts

Digital Circuits

Reference Tocci Digital Systems, Sec 10-11.

HyperPhysics*****Electricity and magnetism

R Go Back Nave

Transfer Functions The model (6.1) is characterized by two polynomials a(s) = sn + a1sn1 + a2sn2 + : : : + an1s + an b(s) = b1sn1 + b2sn2 + : : : + bn1s + bn The rational function

G(s) = b(s) a(s) (6.3) is called the transfer function of the system. Consider a system described by (2.6) assume that the input and the output have constant values u0 and y0 respectively. It then follows from (2.6) that any0 = bnu0

Frequency Response The basic concepts of frequency response were discussed in In this section we will review those ideas and extend the concepts for use in control system design. A linear systems response to sinusoidal inputscalled the systems Frequency response frequency responsecan be obtained from knowledge of its pole and zerolocations. To review the ideas, we consider a system described by Y(s) . Time Response Overview The time response represents how the state of a dynamic system changes in time when subjected to a particular input. Since the models we have derived consist of differential equations, some integration must be performed in order to determine the time response of the system. For some simple systems, a closed-form analytical solution may be available. However, for most systems, especially nonlinear systems or those subject to complicated input forces, this integration must be carried out numerically. Fortunately, MATLAB provides many useful resources for calculating time responses for many types of inputs, as we shall see in the following sections. The time response of a linear dynamic system consists of the sum of the transient response which depends on the initial conditions and the steady-state response which depends on the system input. These correspond to the free (homogeneous or zero input) and the forced (inhomogeneous or non-zero input) solutions of the governing differential equations respectively. Frequency Response Overview All the examples presented in this tutorial are modeled by linear constant coefficient differential equations and are thus linear time-invariant (LTI). LTI systems have the extremely important property that if the input to the system is sinusoidal, then the steady-state output will also be sinusoidal at the same frequency but in general with different magnitude and phase. These magnitude and phase differences as a function of frequency comprise the frequency response of

the system. The frequency response of a system can be found from the transfer function in the following way: create a vector of frequencies (varying between zero or "DC" to infinity) and compute the value of the plant transfer function at those frequencies Stability The transfer function representation is especially useful when analyzing system stability. If all poles of the transfer function (values of s at which the denominator equals zero) have negative real parts, then the system is stable. If any pole has a positive real part, then the system is unstable. If we view the poles on the complex s-plane, then all poles must be in the left half plane (LHP) to ensure stability. If any pair of poles is on the imaginary axis, then the system is marginally stable and the system will oscillate. The poles of a LTI system model can easily be found in MATLAB using the pole command, an example if which is shown below: System Order The order of a dynamic system is the order of the highest derivative of its governing differential equation. Equivalently, it is the highest power of s in the denominator of its transfer function. The important properties of first, second, and higher order systems will be reviewed in this section. First Order Systems First order systems are the simplest dynamic systems to analyze. Some common examples include cruise control systems and RC circuits. The general form of the first order differential equation is as follows (1) The first order transfer function is (2) Second Order Systems Second order systems are commonly encountered in practice, and are the simplest type of dynamic system to exhibit oscillations. In fact many real higher order systems are modeled as second order to facilitate analysis. Examples include mass-spring-damper systems and RLC circuits. The general form of the first order differential equation is as follows (4)

The first order transfer function is

(5)

Unit 5 Design of Mechatronic systems

Introduction, Automatic front and book and cutting in steel rolling mill, lift control system, CNC lathe, temperature control of a heat treatment furnace, EOT crane control panel, Grey grain separators, electrode arm control in electric arc furnace

Furnace temperature control model The furnaces are controlled by temperature controllers. The temperature controllers get their inputs from a thermocouple located inside the furnace and send necessary control action to the burner to maintain the process set point.

Commonly used schemes in heat treatment furnaces The control action for the temperature controller can be either on/off or proportional. Process tolerances and the final device being controlled normally determine the type of control action.

On/off control is simple to understand. For example in a heat treat furnace during the heating process, if the measured process temperature is below the control setpoint, burners are continuously fired by the controller. If the measured value exceeds the control setpoint, the controller shuts the burners. Switching the heat on and off takes place at setpoint. This type of control causes the process value to oscillate around the control setpoint.

Proportional control (PID) is a more sophisticated control approach which results in tighter control around a setpoint and less process oscillation. Proportional control consists of 3 basic control functions:

1. Proportional band 2. Reset, or Integral 3. Rate, or Derivative Proportional band is the process range over which proportioning control action takes place. In a heating situation, if the process temperature is below the proportional band, burners are continuously fired by the controller. If the process value is above the proportional band, the burners are shut. Within the proportional area, as the process temperature increases the amount of heat being called for decreases proportionately. To determine the proper proportional band setting, the time required to approach setpoint must be balanced with the processes' ability to withstand overshoot. If proportional band is too narrow, the heat input will not be cut back soon enough and the process will overshoot. A wide proportional band begins cutting back the heat input sooner. A narrow proportional band (means heat is on longer) will approach setpoint quicker than a wide proportional band. Reset (Integral) shifts the proportional band in relation to the desired setpoint. Reset action is used to compensate for sustained process offset from the control setpoint. Rate (Derivative) is used to compensate for initial overshoot and sudden process disturbances. Rate will temporarily compress the proportional band around setpoint to bring the process under control. PID controller The typical temperature control method in the furnace is PID controller. When the measured temperature is different from the set point temperature, the heating or cooling input is controlled to minimize the error. It is a typical feedback control system as shown in Figure 3.11.

In a PID control process, one of the most important things is to set the P, D, and I. Tuning these constants so that the weighted sum of the proportional, integral, and derivative terms produces a controller output that steadily drives the process variable in the direction required to eliminate the error.

Electric Overhead Traveling (EOT) Cranes

CONTROL PANEL - An assembly of electrical components (magnetic or static) which governs the flow of power to or from a motor in response to signals from a master switch, pushbutton station, or remote control. The main components of Control Panel: Contractors, step down Transformers, H.R.C. fuses, Transformers fittings, Limit Switches etc.All power and auxiliary contactors, thermal overload relays, time relays etc. should be mounted in sheet steel cubicles with lockable hinged doors. The door hinges should be such that during repair works inside the panel, the entire door can be lifted out and placed away enabling better access inside the panel. Each motion should preferably have its individual panel. All ventilating openings should have screen protection. Interior of the panel should be dust and vermin proof. Panels should be front wired with readily accessible terminal blocks for making connection to the external equipment. All equipment is to be mounted in the front of the panel. Rear panel mounting is not permitted. All cable entry should be from bottom only. Removable plate is to be provided at the bottom of the panels for marking holes, providing cable gland for cables. Panels should be pre-wired up to terminal strip.All contactors etc. should be mounted securely in a vertical arrangement with due consideration to the vibration encountered in the operation of the crane. The bottom most row of equipment mounted inside the panel excepting terminal strip should be at least 350mm above the panel bottom cover to facilitate inspection and repair. Terminal strip should be fixed inside the panel preferably in horizontal manner leaving enough space underneath the panel for termination of cables in a convenient manner. Power and control terminals should be segregated. Power terminal blocks should be separated from each other by means of replaceable insulated spacers.Terminal blocks should have enough clearance to avoid tracking. At least 10% extra terminals in each of power and control groups must be provided. All equipment inside the panel should have permanent identification labels in accordance with circuit diagram as also the power and control terminals. Terminal blocks should be robust and of such construction as to preclude possibility of cable connections getting loose due to vibration on crane. Sheet steel used for fabrication of panel should have minimum thickness of 1.6mm. Panels should be mounted such that bottom of panel is at least 200 mm above the floor. Clearance and creep age distance for the control gear should be 10mm and 12mm respectively. The electrical clearance in air between all live parts of different polarity and voltage and between live parts and earth should be not less than 75mm. Contactor panels should be well braced to the

crane structure and each panel should be provided with adequate number of lifting lugs.

Machine Control Unit

Types of CNC machines

Based on Motion Type: Point-to-Point

or

Continuous path

Based on Control Loops: Open loop or Closed loop

Based on Power Supply: Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic

Based on Positioning System Incremental or Absolute

Components of Servo-motor controlled CNC

Motor lead screw rotation table moves

Motor speed control

feedback

position sensed by encoder

Two types of encoder configurations

Motion Control and feedback

Encoder outputs: electrical pulses (e.g. 500 pulses per revolution) Rotation of the motor linear motion of the table: by the leadscrew The pitch of the leadscrew: horizontal distance between successive threads One thread in a screw single start screw: Dist moved in 1 rev = pitch Two threads in screw double start screw: Dist moved in 1 rev = 2* pitch

Grain sepretor

THE END