Enrolment no: 110860131008 NETWORK DEVICES 1)Gateway : this device is placed at a network node and interfaces with another

network
that uses different protocols. It works on OSI layers 4 to 7. A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability. It also requires the establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between both networks. A protocol translation/mapping gateway interconnects networks with different network protocol technologies by performing the required protocol conversions.

Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at any network layer. The activities of a gateway are more complex than that of the router or switch as it communicates using more than one protocol. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes, while the nodes that connect the networks in between are gateways. For example, the computers that control traffic between company networks or the computers used by internet service providers (ISPs) to connect users to the internet are gateway nodes. On an IP network, clients should automatically send IP packets with a destination outside a given subnet mask to a network gateway. A subnet mask defines the IP range of a private network. For example, if a private network has a base IP address of 192.168.0.0 and has a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, then any data going to an IP address outside of 192.168.0.X will be sent to that network's gateway. While forwarding an IP packet to another network, the gateway might or might not perform Network Address Translation. A gateway is an essential feature of most routers, although other devices (such as any PC or server) can function as a gateway. A gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability. It also requires the establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between both networks. Most computer operating systems use the terms described above. Microsoft Windows, however, describes this standard networking feature as Internet Connection Sharing, which acts as a gateway, offering a connection between the Internet and an internal network. Such a system might also act as a DHCP server. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a protocol used by networked devices (clients) to obtain various parameters necessary for the clients to operate in an Internet Protocol (IP) network. By using this protocol, system administration workload greatly decreases, and devices can be added to the network with minimal or no manual configurations.

2)Router: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks,
creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. Routers perform the "traffic

directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node. The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data, such as web pages, email, IM, and videos between the home computers and the Internet. An example of a router would be the owner's cable or DSL modem, which connects to the Internet through an ISP. More sophisticated routers, such as enterprise routers, connect large business or ISP networks up to the powerful core routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone. Though routers are typically dedicated hardware devices, use of software-based routers has grown increasingly common. It works on OSI layer 3.

Applications:
When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about destination addresses using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router has interfaces for different physical types of network connections, (such as copper cables, fiber optic, or wireless transmission). It also contains firmware for different networking Communications protocol standards. Each network interface uses this specialized computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system to another. Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets, each with a different sub-network address. The subnets addresses recorded in the router do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections. A router has two stages of operation called planes:[3]

Control plane: A router records a routing table listing what route should be used to forward a data packet, and through which physical interface connection. It does this using internal pre-configured addresses, called static routes. Forwarding plane: The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing interface connections. It routes it to the correct network type using information that the packet header contains. It uses data recorded in the routing table control plane.

Internet connectivity and internal use :

Routers intended for ISP and major enterprise connectivity usually exchange routing information using the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). RFC 4098 standard defines the types of BGP-protocol routers according to the routers' functions:

Edge router: Also called a Provider Edge router, is placed at the edge of an ISP network. The router uses External BGP to EBGP protocol routers in other ISPs, or a large enterprise Autonomous System. Subscriber edge router: Also called a Customer Edge router, is located at the edge of the subscriber's network, it also uses EBGP protocol to its provider's Autonomous System. It is typically used in an (enterprise) organization. Inter-provider border router: Interconnecting ISPs, is a BGP-protocol router that maintains BGP sessions with other BGP protocol routers in ISP Autonomous Systems. Core router: A core router resides within an Autonomous System as a back bone to carry traffic between edge routers. Within an ISP: In the ISPs Autonomous System, a router uses internal BGP protocol to communicate with other ISP edge routers, other intranet core routers, or the ISPs intranet provider border routers. "Internet backbone:" The Internet no longer has a clearly identifiable backbone, unlike its predecessor networks. See default-free zone (DFZ). The major ISPs system routers make up what could be considered to be the current Internet backbone core. ISPs operate all four types of the BGP-protocol routers described here. An ISP "core" router is used to interconnect its edge and border routers. Core routers may also have specialized functions in virtual private networks based on a combination of BGP and Multi-Protocol Label Switching protocols. Port forwarding: Routers are also used for port forwarding between private internet connected servers. Voice/Data/Fax/Video Processing Routers: Commonly referred to as access servers or gateways, these devices are used to route and process voice, data, video, and fax traffic on the internet. Since 2005, most long-distance phone calls have been processed as IP traffic (VOIP) through a voice gateway. Voice traffic that the traditional cable networks once carried. Use of access server type routers expanded with the advent of the internet, first with dial-up access, and another resurgence with voice phone service.

3)Switch: a device that allocates traffic from one network segment to certain lines (intended
destination(s)) which connect the segment to another network segment. Unlike a hub, a switch splits the network traffic and sends it to different destinations rather than to all systems on the network. It works on OSI layer 2.

FUNCTION :
A switch is a telecommunication device that receives a message from any device connected to it and then transmits the message only to the device for which the message was meant. This makes the switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a message and then transmits it to all the other devices on its network). The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches.

Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for VoIP. An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer of the OSI model to create a separate collision domain for each switch port. With 4 computers (e.g., A, B, C, and D) on 4 switch ports, any pair (e.g. A and B) can transfer data back and forth while the other pair (e.g. C and D) also do so simultaneously, and the two conversations will not interfere with one another. In full duplex mode, these pairs can also overlap (e.g. A transmits to B, simultaneously B to C, and so on). In the case of a repeater hub, they would all share the bandwidth and run in half duplex, resulting in collisions, which would then necessitate retransmissions.

Role of switches in a network :

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including data link and network. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch. In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While layer-2 functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring is easier at layer 3. Devices that interconnect at layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer-3 switches can also be regarded as (relatively primitive) routers. Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors provide firewall, network intrusion detection, and performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules. In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device. Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can be useful for fanning out data to several read-only analyzers, such as intrusion detection systems and packet sniffers.

4)Bridge: A device used to connect two separate Ethernet networks into one extended
Ethernet. Bridges only forward packets between networks that are destined for the other network. Term used by Novell to denote a computer that accepts packets at the network layer and forward them to another network . It works on OSI layer 2.

Why Use Bridges?

Bridges are important in some network because the networks are geographically divided into many parts. Something is required to join these networks so that we can connect the whole network. Take for example LAN, if there is no medium to join these LAN an enterprise may be limited in its growth potential. The bridge is one of the tools to join these LANS.

Secondly LAN (for example Ethernet) can be limited in its distance. We can eliminate this problem using bridges so that we can connect the network within the building or campus using bridges. The geographically challenged networks can be connected using Bridges. Third, the network administrator can control the amount of traffic going through bridges sent across the expensive network media. Fourth, the bridge is plug and play device so there is no need to configure bridge. And suppose any machine was taken out from the network then there is no need for network administrator to update the information as bridges are self configured.

The MAC Bridge:

Bridges are used to connect LANs. Therefore in determining how to transmit traffic between LANs they use a destination MAC address. Bridges pushes the function of network layer such as route discovery and forwarding to the data link layer. There is no conventional network layer for bridge. The bridges can not maintain the data integrity. For example suppose there is a error in one frame and that frame is not transmitted properly the bridge will not give any acknowledgement to retransmit that frame. If the bridge becomes congested the frames can be discarded to make the traffic smooth. On the other hand the bridges are easy to implement and no need to configure them.

Types of Bridges:
1. Transparent basic bridge 2. Source routing bridge 3. Transparent learning bridge 4. Transparent spanning bridge, The Transparent Basic Bridge: The simplest type of bridge is the transparent basic bridge. It stores the traffic until it can transmit it to the next network. The amount of time the data is stored is very brief. Traffic is sent to all ports except the port from which the bridge received the data. No conversion of traffic is performed by a bridge. In this regard, the bridge is similar to a repeater. Source Routing Bridge: The route through the LAN internet is determined by the source (originator) of the traffic hence this bridge is called as source routing bridge. The routing information field (RIF) in the LAN frame header, contains the information of route followed by the LAN network. The Transparent Learning Bridge: The transparent bridge finds the location of user using the source and destination address. When the frame is received at the bridge it checks its source address and the destination address. The destination address is stored if it was not found in a routing table. Then the frame sent to all LAN excluding the LAN from which it came. The source address is also stored in the routing table. If another frame is arrived in which the previous source address is now its destination address then it is forwarded to that port.

The Transparent Spanning Tree Bridge: The last type of bridge is transparent spanning bridge. These bridges use a subnet of the full topology to create a loop free operation. The following table show the logic of transparent spanning tree bridge. The received frame is checked by the bridge in following manner. The destination address of arrived frame is checked with routing table in the database. Here more information is required for bridge so the bridge port is also stored in the database. This information is known as port state information and it helps in deciding that, a port can be used for this destination address or not. The port can be in a block state to fulfill the requirements of spanning tree operations or in a forwarding state. If the port is in forwarding state the frame is routed across the port. The port can have different status such as; it may be in disabled state for the maintenance reason or may also be unavailable temporarily if databases are being changed in the bridge because of result of the change in the routed network.

5)Hub:

An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, multiport repeater or hub is

a device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment. It has multiple input/output (I/O) ports, in which a signal introduced at the input of any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming. A hub works at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision.

Fig :- 4-port Ethernet hub A network hub is an unsophisticated device in comparison with, for example, a switch. A hub does not examine or manage any of the traffic that comes through it: any packet entering any port is rebroadcast on all other ports. Effectively, it is barely aware of frames or packets and mostly operates on raw bits or symbols. Consequently, due to the larger collision domains, packet collisions are more frequent in networks connected using hubs than in networks connected using more sophisticated devices.

Uses :
Historically, the main reason for purchasing hubs rather than switches was their price. This motivator has largely been eliminated by reductions in the price of switches, but hubs can still be useful in special circumstances:

For inserting a protocol analyzer into a network connection, a hub is an alternative to a network tap or port mirroring.[5]

When a switch is accessible for end users to make connections, for example, in a conference room, an inexperienced or careless user (or saboteur) can bring down the network by connecting two ports together, causing a switching loop. This can be prevented by using a hub, where a loop will break other users on the hub, but not the rest of the network (more precisely, it will break the current collision domain up to the next switch/bridge port). This hazard can also be avoided by using switches that can detect and deal with loops, for example by implementing the spanning tree protocol. A hub with a 10BASE2 port can be used to connect devices that only support 10BASE2 to a modern network. The same goes for linking in an old 10BASE5 network segment using an AUI port on a hub. Individual devices that were intended for 10BASE5 can also be linked to modern Ethernet by using an AUI-10BASE-T transceiver.

6)Repeater : a device which amplifies or regenerates digital signals received while sending
them from one part of a network into another. It works on OSI layer 1.

Usage:
Repeaters are used to increase the range of a transmitted signal by re-transmission. For a conducted signal, an amplifier is used. Optical systems don't amplify but all these devices give the appearance of doing so. Some of the energy traveling as direct current through a conductor is converted to heat energy. This causes a drop in potential energy (a voltage) across the ends of the conductor proportional to the current times the inverse of the conductor's conductance. Energy passing as alternating current is also lost as it travels but, since it changes direction, there is an additional loss proportional to the capacitive reactance times the current. Since alternating voltage and its current are out of phase, total losses equal the vector sum (rather than linear sum) of the two losses. Similarly, light, which consists of photons rather than electrons, suffer attenuation due to scattering and absorption. An optical communications repeater receives light as input and outputs light. The output signal power source is external to the input power, but the output power may be driven by input power. Radio repeaters are used in radio communication services such as Commercial or Amateur Radio. A radio repeater consists of a radio receiver connected to a transmitter. The radio signal is received, amplified and retransmitted, usually on a different frequency. Higher radio frequencies are limited to line-of-sight transmission, their range is blocked by mountains and the curvature of the Earth, so repeaters are located on hills and mountains, to retransmit the signal beyond the obstruction. Radio repeaters are also used extensively in broadcasting, where they are known as broadcast relay

stations. These extend the broadcast coverage area to remote communities, outside the range of the main broadcast station. A digipeater is a blend meaning "digital repeater", particularly used in amateur radio. Store and forward digipeaters generally receive a packet radio transmission and then retransmit it on the same frequency. When providing a point-to-point telecom link using radio beyond line of sight, one uses repeaters in a microwave radio relay. A reflector, often on a mountaintop, that relays such signals around an obstacle, is called a passive repeater. Extraneous noises and other type of natural interference can cause the repeater to undesirably retransmit such a signal. To reduce this issue a tone (code) filter such as CTCSS can be added to the repeater's receiver. To access this type of arraignment the (input) user's signal would require the tone to be transmitted, along with other intelligence such as a (audio) voice transmission at the same time.

Advantages:

Makes it easy to expand a network over a large distance. Connection between various types of media [e.g. fiber optic, UTF, coaxial cable] is possible.

Disadvantages

Traffic cannot be filtered to ease congestion. A repeater cannot work across multiple network architectures.