SLIDE 2 Energy supply and environmental degradation are two of the most serious issues facing the world

today. The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell presents a solution to the problem. The ultimate goal of developing Fuel cell technology is so that a fuel cycle can be established: Electrolysis of water using solar energy and producing hydrogen gas that can be used to power the fuel cell producing useful energy and water which is then again electrolyzed. This allows the sun to power our planet.

SLIDE 3 The main aims of this investigation were to: show how a hydrogen fuel cell works, to determine if the fuel cell is operating correctly, obtain the rate law through the derivation of the butler-volmer equation and to determine if the fuel cell is operating according to the manufacturer specifications which was given as 600W at 14.4 volts. Also to be determined is whether or not the butler-volmer equation fits the data well. Our hypothesis is that it will not because it is only a kinetic model.

SLIDE 4 Hydrogen oxidation (loss of electrons) at the Anode and oxygen reduction (electron gain) at the Cathode, allow the flow of electrons from the one electrode to the other. The protons then get conducted through the electrolyte and react with oxygen to form water. This current generated can be used to do useful work. The overall reaction is exothermic and therefore releases heat. Note the only product is water, which is what makes fuel cells such a clean source of energy

SLIDE 5 Using thermodynamics, the maximum efficiency in fuel cell is 83%. the theoretical cell potential is 1.23V meaning the process is spontaneous. The Nernst equation was used to calculate the open cell voltage. Faradays law allows us to relate the current density to the amount of fuel that was reacted. The flux of the reactant can then be written in terms of the forward and reverse rate coefficients. We can write the overall reaction rate constant as a function of the gibbs free energy. And considering the change in gibbs free energy for both oxidation and reduction via a transfer coefficient, all of the above equations can be used to derive the butler-volmer equation.

SLIDE 6 The butler-volmer equation is therefore a kinetic model and gives the current density as a function of the potential. Because the oxidation reaction at the anode is fast and therefore not rate determining, the 2nd term in the butler- volmer equation can be neglected.

SLIDE 7 Polarisation curves describe how a fuel cell is operating and is formed by plotting cell voltage vs current density. the polarization curves also depict the different regions where the overvoltage losses are most pronounced. The line at the top represents the theoretical potential that remains constant At open circuit conditions the effect of the mixed potential and fuel cross over losses can be seen at a current density of zero then the activation losses followed by ohmic losses and finally mass transfer losses become more apparent at with increasing current densities.

SLIDE 8 The main components of a fuel cell include the proton exchange membrane usually fabricated using nafion, which conducts the cations across the fuel cell and separates the hydrogen from the air. The electrocatalyst usually silver or alloys thereof act as the reaction site and the electrodes which conduct the electrons. The conductivity of the membrane material nafion is kept optimal by keeping it hydrated; this is achieved by humidifying the inlet gases.

SLIDE 9 The three phase boundary is an important aspect of fuel cells effectiveness; it can be seen as a criteria that must be met in order for electrons to flow. It requires that the fuel, electrocatalyst and the solubilized electrolyte are all in contact for electrons to be conducted. It occurs at both the anode and the cathode side.

SLIDE 10 Three pieces of equipment were used in the experiment: The main piece of equipemtnThe HP600 PEM Fuel Cell system where the generation of current occurs. The second piece was the electronic load which drew energy from the system and was used to manipulate the current running through the system. The third piece was a computer programme that recorded the relevant data each second.

SLIDE 11 For the mass and energy balance, data was collected for stack currence, hydrogen consumption, ingoing and outcoming cooling water temperatures, water volumentric flow rates and heat quantity. The current density was varied from 5-10A in 5A increments.

The Overpotential operating curve was obtained by varying current from 0.3 to 3A, 3-6 A, 6-10A and 10-30A in 0.3, 0.5, 1 and 5 A increments respectively.

SLIDE 12 Hazard classification When hydrogen is stored in a tank, it is relatively safe, but if it escapes there are associated hazards. It is highly flammable and in the presence of an oxidizer it can cause fire and/or explosion. Hydrogen flames are nearly invisible which makes them hard to see. Hydrogen is odorless, colorless and insipid. Inhaling this gas can cause asphyxiation, this a condition caused by the deficiency of oxygen which can result in death. Safety Measures Person protective equipment (PPE) should be used at all times when in the lab. In case of a fire, shut the supply if possible. If not and no harm to surroundings, let the fire burn itself out. If inhaled, fresh air and rest are needed. Artificial respiration may also be used.

SLIDE 13 Risk Analysis The risk analysis was done using the Anglo American Risk Matrix. Explosion and flammability was rated as high with a rating of (19H). SLIDE 14 Health hazards due to inhalation and electrocution were rated as medium, with rating level of (6M).

SLIDE 15 Results and Discussion Mass Balance The mass balance over the system showed that the actual hydrogen consumption was similar to the theoretically calculated value using the current output. Throughout the range of currents tested, the theoretical usage was higher than the measured consumption. This was predicted on the basis of 100% hydrogen conversion. However in reality, hydrogen diffuses to the cathode compartment or is involved in side reactions. The error in the experimental data was significantly high. This is due to the sensitivity of the hydrogen flow meter. Hydrogen was assumed to be ideal and its density calculated accordingly.

SLIDE 16 Energy balance: The heat quantity absorbed by the cooling water was assumed to equal to the heat produced by the fuel cell. This heat was calculated using the traditional energy balance equation: Q = mCpT The energy balance indicated that the actual heat was an accurate representation of the energy transferred. Discrepancy between the data sets could be due to loss of heat to the surroundings. The error in the theoretical heat transferred was dependent on the error in the water flow rate and temperature differences, hence larger error bars.

SLIDE 17 Rate Equation: In Figure :) it can be seen that the theoretical and actual polarization curves in one cell do not correspond but have a similar shape. The open circuit voltage occurs at 0 current density. This value could not be determined using the butler volmer equation, therefore the Nernst equation was used. Both lines show a sudden decrease in voltage between 0 and 12mA/cm2 which is due to the kinetic losses. The shape of the theoretical curve tends towards a horizontal line but the actual data curve continues to decrease. The difference is due to the limitations in the Butler-Volmer equation as it only models the activation losses.

As the current density increases other voltage losses become more predominant. The actual curves continuous decrease represents ohmic losses. The plateau of the Butler-Volmer equation is logical because it is a kinetic model and activation losses are caused by the slowness of the reactions taking place on the catalyst surfaces. Therefore the Butler-Volmer equation is not applicable over the whole range of current densities.

SLIDE 18 Power: The power curve does not reach a maximum because the experiment did not extend into the mass transfer region, as high current density would lead to the system shutting down. The manufacturers specifications state that the maximum power of 600W is possible at a voltage of 14.4V. This corresponds to a cell voltage of 0.6V which is greater than the systems shut down limit. The power that this system reached was 319.2W at 14.4V. This indicates that the fuel cell is not operating according to manufacturer specifications.

This is possibly due to a cracked, sinted or degraded membrane as well as excessive operating time. A platinum catalyst normally speeds up the reaction but over time, due to the electrode decay and platinum particle growth, the effective surface area of the catalyst decreases. Thus the three phase boundary decreases and less current is generated. SLIDE 19 The mass balance found that both theoretical and experimental hydrogen consumption values agreed with one another. The theoretical value was always bigger, since the assumption is made that 100% conversion of hydrogen into water but the agreement between the two values shows that an insignificant amount of hydrogen was lost in side reactions to peroxide.

The energy balance has a similar conclusion as the experimental data for heat quantity falls within the error range of the calculated values. Thus, the discrepancies between the values indicate that little heat was lost to the environment.

The polarization curve indicated that the relationship between cell voltage and current density was similar to that of the Butler-Volmer equation, however, the Butler-Volmer equation predicted a greater cell voltage than that obtained experimentally.

Overall, the hydrogen cell did not meet manufacturers specification but fell short at 13.3W due to possible fuel cross-overs and fuel cell degregation.

SLIDE 20 Recommendations Steady state of hydrogen flow rate should be reached before taking readings There should be maintenance on the hydrogen fuel cell; the membrane has degraded and the catalyst could also be depleted since it is an old model. The temperature at the fuel cell can be varied to perform the same analysis as to the effect of temperature on the operation. However, the temperature should not go above 80.C in order to avoid membrane degradation. The pipe line transporting fluid should be insulated to reduce the rate at which heat dissipated to the surrounding.

SLIDE 21 Practical Applications

Fuel cells can be applied to automobiles, buses and utility vehicles as well as in stationary and portable power generation. Among others includes food preservation by oxygen depletion in shipping containers.