8-Hvac & Plumbing

VOL 8
THE
REHAB
GUIDE
HVAC/PLUMBING
PATH(PartnershipforAdvancingTechnologyinHousing)isanewprivate/publicefforttodevelop,demon strate,andgainwidespreadmarketacceptancefortheNextGenerationofAmericanhousing.Through theuseofneworinnovativetechnologiesthegoalofPATHistoimprovethequality,durability,environ mentalefciency,andaffordabilityoftomorrowshomes. Initiated at the request of the White House, PATH is managed and supported by the Department of HousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD).Inaddition,allFederalAgenciesthatengageinhousingresearch andtechnologydevelopmentarePATHPartners,includingtheDepartmentsofEnergyandCommerce,as well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).Stateandlocalgovernmentsandotherparticipantsfromthepublicsectorarealsopartnersin PATH.Productmanufacturers,homebuilders,insurancecompanies,andlendersrepresentprivateindus tryinthePATHpartnership. TolearnmoreaboutPATH,pleasecontact:
PATH
SuiteB133
4517thStreetSW
Washington,DC20410
202-708-4250(fax)
e-mail:pathnet@pathnet.org
website:www.pathnet.org
DISCLAIMER
ThestatementsandconclusionscontainedinthisreportarethoseofStevenWinterAssociates,Inc.and donotnecessarilyreecttheviewsoftheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment.StevenWinter Associates,Inc.hasmadeeveryefforttoverifytheaccuracyandappropriatenessofthereportscontent. However,noguaranteeoftheaccuracyorcompletenessoftheinformationoracceptabilityforcompliance withanyindustrystandardormandatoryrequirementofanycode,law,orregulationiseitherofferedor implied.Theproductslistedinthereportareincludedonlyasexamplesofsomeavailableproducts.No endorsement,recommendation,orevaluationoftheseproductsortheiruseisgivenorimplied.
H VA C / P L U M B I N G
VOLUME 8 OF THE REHAB GUIDE TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD3 1.INTRODUCTION4 2.HVACDESIGN&ENGINEERING6 3.DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS11 4.HEATING19 5.COOLING25 6.HEATPUMPS31 7.INDOORAIRQUALITY36 8.CONTROLS42 9.FIREPLACES&CHIMNEYS47 10.DOMESTICHOTWATERHEATING54 11.PLUMBINGDESIGN&ENGINEERING61 12.WATERSUPPLY&DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS63 13.DRAIN,WASTE,&VENTSYSTEMS67 14.FUELSUPPLYSYSTEMS73 15.APPLIANCEVENTS&EXHAUSTS75 16.FIREPROTECTIONSYSTEMS78 APPENDIX:PROFESSIONALASSOCIATIONS&RESEARCHCENTERS81
Preparedfor: U.S.DepartmentofHousing andUrbanDevelopment OfceofPolicyDevelopment andResearch Preparedby: StevenWinterAssociates,Inc. BuildingSystemsConsultants Norwalk,CT ContractDUIOOCOOOOO5956 August1999
CREDITS
STEVENWINTERASSOCIATES,INC.STAFFMEMBERS WHOWEREINSTRUMENTALINTHEDEVELOPMENTAND PRODUCTIONOFTHISGUIDEBOOKINCLUDE: StevenWinter Principal-in-charge MichaelJ.Crosbie,Ph.D.,RA ProjectmanagerandEditor-in-chief DianeGrifthsandDonaldClem Projectteammembers ChristophWeigelandMasakiFurukawa Illustrators
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFHOUSINGANDURBANDEVELOPMENT OFFICEOFPOLICYDEVELOPMENTANDRESEARCH,AFFORDABLE HOUSINGRESEARCHANDTECHNOLOGYDIVISION DavidEngel Director NelsonCarbonell Seniorarchitect GUIDEBOOKDESIGN AndrewP.Kner ArtDirector MicheleL.Trombley AssistantArtDirector ElizabethRosen Symbols
FOREWORD
PresidentClintonrecognizesthatresearchandtechnologicalinnovationarecrucialifAmericaistomeet itsaffordablehousingneeds.In1998,thePresidentintroducedamajornewinitiative:ThePartnershipfor AdvancingTechnologyinHousing(PATH).Thisinitiativebringstogetherleadersfromthehomebuilding, productmanufacturing,insurance,andnancialindustries,aswellasrepresentativesfromfederalagencies, tospurhousingdesignandconstructioninnovations. Thankstothedevelopmentofnewmachineryandmaterialsandthecreationofnewtechnologies andtechniques,theconstructionindustryhasmadegreatprogress.Butabreakthroughmaterial,alaborsavingtool,oracost-cuttingtechniqueisonlyvaluableifitiswidelyadopted,whichmeanstheconstruction industrymustrstbecomeawareofthesenewdevelopments. TheDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopmentcanhelp.Wehavecommissionedasetof guidebooksthatwillpresentstate-of-the-arttechniques,materials,andtechnologiesforhousingrehabil itation.Thisvolume,HVAC/Plumbing,istheeighthofnineguidebooksknowncollectivelyasTheRehab Guidethatwillappearoverthenextfewyears. Wearepresentingtheseguidebooksbecause,likeresearchandtechnologicalinnovation,housing rehabilitationisanessentialcomponentofAmericascommitmenttoprovideaffordablehousing.Iam pleasedtopresentthisimportantpublicationinthehopethatitwillbecomeavaluableresourcethatleads toaffordable,highqualityrehabilitation,andthustobetterhousingforallAmericans.
AndrewCuomo,Secretary U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment
INTRODUCTION
ThisseriesofguidebookshasbeenproducedbytheU.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment tokeepthedesignandconstructionindustryabreastofinnovationsandstate-of-the-artpracticesinhome rehabilitation.Asistoooftenthecase,innovativetechniques,materials,technologies,andproductsare slowtomaketheirwayintoacceptedpractice. Itisevidentthatsuchinnovationswillnotadvanceunless theindustryismadeawareofthemandtheyaretested. TheRehabGuide isintendedtoacceleratethis processbyinformingbuilders,architects,engineers,andotherhousingrehabilitationprofessionalsabout suchinnovationsandstate-of-the-artpractices. TheRehabGuide wasalsopromptedbythelackofacomprehensivepublicationtomakethe designandconstructionindustryawareofinnovativeandcost-savingdevelopmentsinhousingrehabilitation. Professionaltrademagazines,conferences,andtradeshowsoffersomedisseminationofthisinformation, buttheyarerarelyfocusedexclusivelyonhousingrehabilitation,asthisseriesis,noraretheycomprehensive.
FOCUS OF THE REHAB GUIDE

The focus of this series is on housing rehabilitation, which is different than home improvement. Rehabilitatemeanstorestoretogoodcondition,notnecessarilytoimprovetoastatethatissignicantly differentthantheoriginal.Thisisaneline,butitdistinguishesthisseriesfromhomeimprovement bookswrittenfortheamateur.TheRehabGuide focusesonbuildingtechnology,materials,components, andtechniquesratherthanprojectssuchasaddinganewroom,convertingagarageintoaden,or nishinganattic.NorisTheRehabGuide intendedtobeadiagnostictool;anumberofsuchbooksare alreadyavailabletotheindustry. Thecontentforthisguidebook, HVAC/Plumbing,hasbeengatheredfromprofessionalsinthe housingrehabilitationeld;manufacturersandsuppliersofinnovativetechnologies,materials,components, tools,andequipment;tradeshows,conferences,reports,andpublicationsconsideringsuchissues;trade organizations;andbuildingresearchcenters.
A NOTE ON SOURCES
Avarietyofexcellentresourcesexistsforinformationonheating,ventilating,andair-conditioning(HVAC)and plumbingsystemsandissues. ThisOldHouseHeating,Ventilation,andAirConditioning,publishedby Little, Brown and Company, is a comprehensive book on HVAC and water heating system alternatives. PlumbingaHouse,publishedbyTheTauntonPress,isanexcellentsourceforinformationonplumbingsys tems.Monthlypublicationsofinterestincludethe EnergyDesignUpdate, EnvironmentalBuildingNews, JournalofLightConstruction,HomeEnergy,OldHouseJournal,ThisOldHouse,and TraditionalBuilder. Helpful information is also accessible via the Internet. Most equipment manufacturers and monthlymagazineshaveWebsiteswherespecicproductinformationandpastarticlescanberetrieved. TheDepartmentofEnergyprovidesawealthofinformationonenergyconservingtechniquesandtech nologiesatwww.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/.
LEAD PAINT HAZARD

Thehazardofleadpaintinhousesconstructedbeforethe1980sisnotdiscussedintheTheRehabGuide becausethereisextensivematerialavailablefromHUD,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),andother sources.However,ifyouareanon-protorrehabcontractorrehabilitatingpre-1978housingforsaleorrent, orifyouareahomeownerrehabilitatingahomeforyourownuse,youarestronglyurgedtohavethehome testedforleadpaint.Thisisespeciallycriticalifthehomewillbeoccupiedbyyoungchildren.Verysmall
amountsofleadinpaintordustcanpoisonchildrenifswallowedorinhaled,causingdamagetothebrainand otherorgans,resultinginhealthproblemsandreducedintelligence.Ifleadpaintisfound,itiscriticalthatall rehabilitationbedoneverycarefullytoreducethepossibilityofleadpoisoningtoyouoryourworkers.Proper workpracticeswillminimizetheriskofspreadingleadcontaminationandincreasingoccupantexposure. OneofthebestandmostrecentsourcesonthissubjectistheHUDpublication,LeadPaintSafety: aFieldGuideforPainting,HomeMaintenance,andRenovationWork.AnothergoodpublicationistheEPA brochure, Reducing Lead Hazards When Remodeling Your Home. Both can be obtained by calling the NationalLeadInformationCenterat800-424-LEADorbydownloadingfromthewebsiteoftheHUDOfceof LeadHazardControl,www.hud.gov/lea.AverycomprehensivesourceistheHUDpublication,Guidelinesfor theEvaluationandControlofLead-BasedPaintHazardsinHousing,whichgivesguidanceoncontrollinglead hazards,leadpaintandrehabwork,riskassessment,monitoring,inspections,residentandworksiteprepa ration,workerprotection,androutinebuildingmaintenance.ThispublicationisavailablethroughHUD-User; youcanalsodownloadacopyofthisdocumentfromtheHUDwebsiteat:www.hud.gov:80/lea/learules.html. HUDhasnewregulationsonlead-basedpainthazardsinfederallyownedhousingandhousing receivingfederalassistance.IfyouwillbeusingHUDfundsforrehabilitationthroughgrants,insurance, orothertypesofassistance,thenthereareprotectiveproceduresthatmustbefollowed.TheOccupational SafetyandHealthAdministrationwebsiteatwww.osha.govhasinformationonworkerprotectionrequire ments. In addition, many states and localities have their own rules regarding lead-based paint, which shouldbefollowedwhenundertakingrehabilitation.
HOW THE GUIDE IS ORGANIZED

NinevolumeswilleventuallymakeupTheRehabGuideinitsentirety,andtheyarelistedonthebackcover ofthisvolume.Eachoneisdevotedtodistinctelementsofthehouse,andwithineachvolumeisarangeof issuesthatarecommontothatelementofhomerehabilitationwork.Thisvolume,forexample,coverstop icsfromnewpipingmaterialsfortherepairofanexistingplumbingsystemtothecriteriaforselectionofan entirelynewcentralheatingsystem.Eachvolumeaddressesawiderangeoftechniques,materials,andtools, andrecommendationsbasedonregionaldifferencesaroundthecountry.Throughout TheRehabGuide, specialattentionisgiventoissuesrelatedtoenergyefciency,accessibledesign,andsustainability. TheRehabGuide iswrittenandpresentedinaformatintendedforeasyuse.Thespiralbound volumesopenatsothattheycanbeeasilyphotocopied,andtheycanbeassembledandstoredinasin glethree-ringbinder.Withineachvolume,drawings,photos,andothergraphicmaterialssupplementwrittendescriptionsofabroadrangeofitems:state-of-the-artandinnovativebuildingtechnology,products, materials,components,constructionandmanagementtechniques,tools,equipment,softwarevirtually anyandallitemsthatmakehousingrehabilitationmoreefcientintermsofcostandtime.Whilethecontentfocusesonpresenttechnologiesandtechniquesthatarecurrentlypartofthehouse-buildingindustry, The Rehab Guide also includes information on materials, products, and procedures from other con structionsectors(suchascommercial,industrial,institutional)thatarerelevanttohousingrehabilitation. Theinformationisorganizedindifferentsectionsaccordingtorehabsubjects,andunderhead ingsthatmakethisbookeasytounderstand.EssentialKnowledgegivesthereaderabasicoverviewof theimportantissuesrelatedtothesectionheading.Next,Techniques,Materials,Toolspresentsstate-ofthe-artandinnovativeapproachestoaccomplishingthework.Eachentryisexplainedindetail,including itsadvantagesanddisadvantages.Thismakesiteasyforreaderstocompareapproachesandchoosethe onethatismostapplicabletotheirparticularproject.Bydesign,theTechniques,Materials,Toolssec tion is an overview, not a detailed description of implementation. Further Reading lists the valuable resourcesrelevanttothesubjectthatreaderscangotoformoredetailedinformation.Finally,Product Informationprovidesnamesandaddressesofmanufacturersofproducts,materials,systems,andcom ponentsmentionedinthetextsothatmoreinformationcanbeobtained.Byvirtueoftheirbeinglisted here,suchproductsarenotnecessarilybeingrecommended;theirexistenceandavailabilityarebeing broughttothereadersattention.Newproductsshouldbecarefullyevaluatedintheeldastotheirper formance.Theproductlistsarenotnecessarilycomprehensive,andweencouragereaderstobringnew materialsandproductstoourattentiontobeincludedinlatereditionsofTheRehabGuide. 5
2
H VA C D E S I G N & ENGINEERING
2.1
HVACSYSTEMSOVERVIEW
Heating,ventilation,andair-conditioning(HVAC)systemsthatareproperlyoperatingandappropriatefor thehomearecriticalforthecomfortandsafetyofthehomeoccupants.RichardTretheweyofThisOld HousestatesthatthehomesHVACsystemsandplumbingsetthefoundationonwhichthefamilysphys icalcomfortandhealthdepend.Theireconomicwell-beingisnotonlyaffectedbytheinitialpurchase price,but,perhapsmoreimportantly,bythecostofoperatingandmaintainingthesystems. WhatconstitutesanHVACsystemisafunctionofthehome,theclimate,andtheoccupants.Itis safetosaythatallhomeshaveaheatingsystemofsomekind,butitisonlyoverthelast20yearsthatsum merairconditioningbeyondopeningwindowsbecameprominent.In1970,aboutone-thirdofnewsin glefamilyhomeshadcentralairconditioning;thegureisnowoverthree-quarters.And,thepracticeof installingmechanicalventilationsystemshasonlymaturedinthelast10yearswiththeemphasisontighter homes and high-efciency equipment. Todays HVAC systems can include smart controls, air ltering, humidicationand/ordehumidication(Fig.1).
FIGURE1 6
HVACSYSTEMCOMPONENTS
WhenevaluatingtherehabilitationneedsofahomesHVACsystem,theappropriatenessofthecurrent type ofsystemformeetingtheexpectationsoftodayshomeoccupantsneedstobeconsidered.They expecttobecomfortableinthewinterandsummerwithoutpayingexorbitantenergybills.Whileahomewith electricbaseboardheatingandpassivecooling(i.e.naturalventilation,shading,etc.,withnoequipment) wasfairlycommonandacceptable20yearsago,thehighwinterelectricbillsduetotheincreasedcostof electricityandpoorlevelofcomfortduringthesummerhavediminisheditspopularitysignicantly.Evenif thebaseboardsystemisingoodoperatingcondition,itmaybeappropriatetoconsideritsreplacement. Ifitisdeterminedthatthetypeofsystemisappropriate,thesystemperformancemustthenbe considered.Arethereopportunitiestoimprovetheperformanceoftheexistingsystemorisitawiserdeci siontosimplyreplacetheoldsystemwithanewerone?Generallyspeaking,iftheheatingsystemequip mentismorethan15yearsoldortheheatpumporairconditionerismorethan10yearsold,itshould probablybereplaced.Theenergysavingswiththehigherefciencyequipmentavailabletodaywillpayfor thenewequipmentwithinafewyears.Thetypicalnewgasfurnacesoldin1975hadanefciencyof63 percent;by1988,thetypicalefciencyhadincreasedto75percent;and,in1997,86percentofthefur nacesshippedhadefcienciesgreaterthan80percent.Nevertheless,replacementisnotalwaystheanswer andthereareanumberofalternativesforrehabilitatingtheexistingsystem. ThisguidelinewillreviewtheattributesofmanyalternativesforrehabilitatingHVACsystems.It discussestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofvariousmodicationstoexistingsystemsaswellasequip menttechnologieswhichmaybeconsideredforsupplementingorreplacingtheexistingsystem. As a nal note before moving into the discussion of alternatives, it is critically important to understandhowHVACsystemsinteractwithothersystemsthroughoutthehome.Adecisionconcerning thekitchenrangeexhaustventcancausethegasfurnacetobackdraft.Undercertaincircumstances,an attic ventilator can increase cooling loads rather than decrease them by drawing conditioned air up throughtheceiling.Whentheoldnatural-draftfurnaceisreplacedwithaclosed-combustionsystem,the homespressureandinltrationratewillbealtered,and,asaresult,itsindoorairquality.Muchofthe interactionofthesesystemsrevolvesaroundthepressurizationanddepressurizationofspaces.Lackof considerationfortheeffectsofvariousdevicesonhomepressurecanresultincostlyexcessiveinltration, damagingcondensationinwalls,ordangerouslevelsofcarbonmonoxideinthehome.Theseissueshave beenenhancedbytodaysconstructionandinsulationpracticeswhichmakehomestighterandtherefore easiertopressurizeordepressurize.Itisimportanttounderstandandconsiderthewhole-houseimpli cationsofeachsystemmodication.Contractorswhoarenarrowlyfocusedonaparticulartradeoftendo nottakealloftheinteractionswithinthehouseintoconsideration.
FURTHER READING
BuildingEnergyEfciency,U.S.Congress,OfceofTechnologyAssessment,U.S.GovernmentPrinting Ofce,May1992. ThisOldHouseHeating,Ventilation,andAirConditioning,RichardTretheweywithDonBest,Little, BrownandCompany,1994. UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.
2.2
REPLACEMENTSYSTEMSIZING
Inmanyinstances,thedecisionwillbemadetoreplacetheexistingheatingandcoolingsystemratherthan rehabilitateit.Theoldsystemmaybewellbeyonditsexpectedlife.Manynewersystemsaremoreefcient andcanquicklypayforthemselvesinreducedenergybills.Theavailabilityoffuelsmayhavechanged (e.g.,naturalgasmaynowbeavailable)sincethesystemwasoriginallydesignedandinstalled. 7
Iftheoldheatingand/orcoolingsysteminthehousebeingrehabilitatedisbeyondretrotting and needs to be replaced, there are two primary reasons why it should not simply be replaced with anothersystemofthesamesize.Theoldphilosophyofbiggerisbetternolongerapplies.Systemswere traditionallyoversized,causingthemtocycleonandofffrequently.Cyclingthatresultsfromoversizingis inefcientandhardontheequipment.Also,rehabworkmayalsoincludetheadditionofmoreorbetter insulation,andbetterperformingwindowsanddoors.Thiswillreducetheheatingandcoolingloadsand allowforasmallercapacitysystemtobeinstalled. Adesignloadanalysisshouldbeconductedtodeterminethecurrentheatingandcoolingcapacity needs.Therearevariousmethodsandlevelsofsophisticationforperformingtheseanalyses. Mostequipmentvendorsareequippedwithworksheetsorcomputersoftwaretoestimatethe appropriatesizeofthesystemforthehome.Theywilltypicallyperformasizingcalculationaspartofthe salesprocess.Whilesuchaservicefromthedealerisavailableatnocost,itshouldberememberedthat thedealerissellingequipment,notefciency.Methodsareoftenover-simpliedwithfactorsofsafetybuilt in,resultinginover-sizedequipment.Analternativeistosizethesystemyourself.Thereisamultitudeof booksavailablethatprovideinstructions,datatables,andexamplesforperformingsystemsizingcalcula tions. It is recommended that calculations be performed more than once with different methods and sourcestoprovidecondenceintheresults.Whilesizingthesystemmaycostamodestamountoftime, lackofexperiencebythenoviceestimatormayresultinmistakes.Basicestimatingtechniquesmayalso notproperlyaccountforuniqueaspectsofthehome.Anotheralternativeistohireaconsultanttosizethe system.Professionalenergyspecialistsandauditorscanevaluatethehomeandproviderecommendations onthesizeandtypeofequipment.Theadvantagehereisthebenetofanexperiencedprofessionalwho isfocusedonenergyefciency,butconsultingfeesmaybehefty.
FURTHER READING
Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioningEngineers,Inc.,1791TullieCircle,N.E.,Atlanta,GA30329,404-636-8400. Consumers Directory of Certied Efciency Ratings for Residential Heating and Water Heating Equipment,GasApplianceManufacturersAssociation. DirectoryofCertiedUnitaryProducts,AirConditioningandRefrigerationInstitute,4301NorthFairfax Drive,Suite425,Arlington,VA22203;703-524-8800. ResidentialLoadCalculationManualJ,AirConditioningContractorsofAmerica,1712NewHampshire Ave.,NW,Washington,DC20009;202-483-9370. SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.1994.
2.3
ENERGYSOURCES
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Themostcommonenergysourcesforresidentialusearenaturalgasforspaceandwaterheatingandelec tricityforcooling.Otherheatingenergysourcesincludeelectricity,oil,propane,andthesun.Inafew instances,woodorcoalmayevenbetheprimaryheatingfuel.Naturalgasisapotentialenergysourcefor coolingaswell. Themostappropriatefuelchoiceforaparticularhomedependsonitsavailability,price,andthe climate.Someofthesefactorsmayhavechangedsincethehomewasbuiltandthefuelchoicethatwas madethenmaynotbethemostappropriatechoicenow.Naturalgas,apopularchoicenow,wasnotread-
ilyavailablepriortoWorldWarIIandembargoeswereplacedonnewgasservicesforaperiodinthe 1970s.Consultthelocalutilitiestodeterminetheavailabilityandrateschedulesfortheenergyalterna tives.Inmostinstances,theprimaryenergysourcesofelectricity,naturalgas,andoilshouldbeconsid ered.Oldcoal-redsystemsshouldbeconvertedtoamore-efcientandcleanerfuelalternativesuchas oilorgas.Variousenergysourcesarediscussedbelow.
TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

1. ELECTRICITYASANENERGYSOURCE. Inregionswithamildheatingseason,electricitymaybethemostappropriatefuelforheatingandcool ingneeds.Itisthemostlogicalchoiceforcoolingand,ifheatingloadsaresmall,anyhighercostofelec tricitywillnotbeaseverepenalty.And,insomeareassuchastheNorthwestwherehydroelectricplants providemuchoftheelectricity,itisquiteeconomical.Inthecaseofelectricairconditionersandheat pumps,electricityisnotuseddirectlyasanenergysourcebutindirectlytopumpheatfromonelocation toanother.Forheatpumpsintheheatingmode,theenergysourceisthesunwarmingtheairforairsourceheatpumpsandgroundforground-sourceheatpumps. ADVANTAGES: Electric resistance heating systems are inexpensive to install, reliable, quiet, and clean. Electricairconditionersarethemostcommontypeofmechanicalcooling.Electricheatpumpscanserve bothheatingandcoolingneeds. DISADVANTAGES:Generallythemostexpensivefuelchoice.Servicetohomemayneedtobeupgraded. Electricresistanceheating(notheatpumps)isprohibitedbycodeinsomeareas. 2. NATURALGASASANENERGYSOURCE. Inmostheating-seasondominatedclimates,naturalgasisthefuelofchoiceforspaceandwaterheating needs.Theresidentialspaceheatingmarketsharesfornaturalgasare59%,72%,and48%,intheWest, Midwest,andNortheast,respectively.Mostofthecountrysgasprocessingplantsarelocatedinsixstates: Texas,Louisiana,Oklahoma,Wyoming,KansasandNewMexico.Canadaisanothersignicantsource.The useofnaturalgasasaheatingfuelsurgedwiththepost-WorldWarIIconstructionofthousandsofmiles ofpipelinefortransportation(Fig.2).Transportationcostsstillmakeupalargeportionoftheconsumers priceforgas.Majorinvestmentsinthepipelinesystemduringthe1980sandearly1990simprovedthe supplytoareasintheNortheast,WestCoastandFlorida.Withthederegulationofthegasindustry,gas pricesfellapproximately50%from1985to1991.Marketcompetitionhasledtoinnovationandadvances intechnologyfortheexploration,extraction,andtransportationofnaturalgas.
FIGURE2
MAJORNATURALGASPIPELINES
ADVANTAGES:Generallytheleastexpensivefuelasidefromsolarenergy.Nostoragetankisrequired. DISADVANTAGES: Initialinstallationcostmaybehighifgasisnotalreadysuppliedtothehome.Notavailable inallareas. 3. OILASANENERGYSOURCE. Oiliscommonlyusedforheatingincoldclimateswherenaturalgasisnotreadilyavailable.Itistypically moreexpensivethangasunlesslocatednearaportorreneryorattheendofthenaturalgaspipeline. TheNortheastU.S.islocatedattheendofthegaspipelineandgasisnotavailablethroughouttheregion. Heatingloadsaresignicantandelectricityisexpensive.Thus,oilhasa36%marketshareaccordingto the1993census. ADVANTAGES:Generallylesscostlythanelectricity. DISADVANTAGES: Potentialforsupplyshortagesanddramaticpriceuctuations.Storagetankrequired withassociatedenvironmentalconcernsandregulations(undergroundtanks,soilcontamination,etc.). 4. PROPANEASANENERGYSOURCE. Propane,orliquidpetroleumgas(LPG),istypicallyanalternativewhenelectricityisunattractive(usually becauseofprice)andnaturalgasisnotavailable.Propanecomesfromnaturalgasprocessingandcrude oilreningandapproximately85%ofthecountryssupplyisproduceddomestically.Itistransportedin aliquidstatebypipeline,railcar,ortanktrucktoretailmarkets. ADVANTAGES:Canbeusedformostgas-redequipmentwithonlyminormodications. DISADVANTAGES:Requiresanon-sitestoragetank. 5. SOLARASANENERGYSOURCE. Theuseofsolarenergytoprovideaportionofthehomesspaceorwaterheatingisagoodoptioninmany geographicareas.Passivesystemsusebuildingorientationandconstructionmaterialstoenhancenatural processestocollect,store,anddistributeheat.Activesystemsemploypumpsand/orfans.Hybridsystems usesmallpumpsorfanstoenhancetheperformanceofapassivesystem.Photovoltaic(PV)systemscon vertsolarenergydirectlytoDCpowerwhichisinvertedtoACpowerforhomeuse.Unfortunately,themar ketadvancementofthistechnologyissufferingfromthecostlyandlimitedproductionoftheultra-pure siliconwaferswhicharethemaincomponentofthePVsystem(Fig.3). ADVANTAGES:Minimaloperatingcost.Environmentallybenign. DISADVANTAGES:Initialcostfordesignandinstallation.Optimumlocationissuesandaesthetics.
FIGURE3
PHOTOVOLTAICPANELWITHSILICONWAFERS
FURTHER READING
10 PassiveSolarDesignStrategies:GuidelinesforHomeBuilders,PassiveSolarIndustriesCouncil,1331 HStreetNW,Suite1000,Washington,D.C.20005;202-628-7400. SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.1994.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
BytheendofWorldWarI,themajorityofurbanhomesandmanyruralhomeswerecentrallyheatedby ahot-air,hot-water,orsteamdistributionsystem.Todaytherearefourbasicmethodsormediafordis tributingheatinthehome:steam,air,water,andelectricresistance.Allhaveuniquecharacteristicswhich mayormaynotbedesirableforthehousebeingrehabilitated. Steamisoneoftheoldesttypesofcentralheatdistributionsystems.Aboilerproducessteam pipedthroughthehousetoradiators,whichprovideconcentratedheatingsurfacesineachroom.Such systemsareeitherone-pipeortwo-pipe.One-pipesystemsrequirealargerpipebecausesteamrisesto theradiatorswhilecondensatereturnsinthesamepipefromtheradiatorstotheboiler.Ifthesinglepipe istoosmall,steamwillforcecondensatebackupthepipe,causingnoiseassteamslugsthroughpockets ofwater.Two-pipesystemsusesmallerpipebuttwiceasmuchofitbecauseseparatesteamsupplyand condensatereturnlinesareinstalled.Gravityoracondensatepumpmaybeusedtoreturnthecondensate totheboiler,dependingontheheightofthecondensatepipingrelativetotheboiler.Two-pipesystems installedafterWorldWarIincludesteamtrapstopreventsteamfromgettingintothereturnpiping. Airisbyfarthemostcommondistributionmediumforheatingandcoolingsystems.Forced-air heatingsystemswereusedin63%ofthehomesintheU.S.,accordingto1993censusdata.Originalgrav ityairdistributionsystemsreliedonnaturalconvection.Heatedwarmairwouldriseanddistributeitself throughthehomeascoldairfelltobereheated.Thesesystemsoftenresultedinuneventemperaturesin thehome.Aselectricitybecameavailabletohomes,forced-airsystemsreplacedmostofthegravitysystems. Thesesystemsemployforcedconvection,usinganelectricfan,topushthehotairthroughductworkand supplyregistersthroughoutthehomeandpullcoldairthroughthereturn(Fig.1).Convertingagravitysys temtoaforced-airsysteminvolvesmorethanaddingafantothesystem.Anewductworksystemshould beinstalledwithproperductsizesandregisterlocationstoassuretheappropriatedistributionofwarmair throughoutthehome.
FIGURE1
TYPICALFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
11
Water,orhydronic,systemsareefcientbecausethehigherheatcapacityofwaterrequiresless pumping energy than fan energy in an air system. They are also inherently safer than steam systems becauseitisnearlyimpossibletorunahot-waterboilertodangerouspressures.Oldhotwatersystems reliedongravityow.Hotwaterexpandsasitisheated,risestotheradiators,andforcesthecondensed waterthroughthereturnpipingtotheboiler.Anexpansiontankwithanoverowpipedischargesany extrawaterinthesystem.Todayssystemsemployapumpandforcedow(Fig.2).Hotwatermovesata greaterspeedwithbetterheattransferefciencythroughsmallerpipes.Inatypicalhydronicsystem,hot waterpassesthroughannedpipeinabaseboardradiatorlocatedatthebaseoftheoutsidewall.Airis warmedandrisesbyconvectiontocirculateintotheroom.(Theyarecalledradiators,butmoreheatis deliveredviaconvectionthanradiation.)Trueradiantsystemswithpipesembeddedintheoorarealso availableataninstallationcostpremium.
FIGURE2
TYPICALHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
Electricresistancedistributionsystemstypicallyusebaseboards(Fig.3),butmayincludewall unitsorradiantsystemsusingembeddedcableorpanels.Thesesystemsaresometimesreferredtoas zonalordirectbecausetheprimarysourceofheatingorcoolingiswithinthespace.Thereisnodistrib utionsystemfromacentrallylocatedsystem.Incommonelectricbaseboardsystems,theairisheatedand reliesonconvectiontodistributeheattotheroom,similartohydronicbaseboardsystems.Electricitycan alsobeusedinradiantpanelsystemswhichcanbesurfacemountedtoexistingwallsandceilings.Electric resistancesystemsaretypicallyinexpensivetoinstall,butgenerallymoreexpensivetooperatebecauseof thehighcostofelectricity.However,effectiveuseofcontrolsandzoningcanreduceoperatingcosts. Independentofthetypeofdistribution,theexistingsysteminanolderhomeislikelytoneed majorrepairorreplacement.Corrosionandleaksinductworkandpipingcancontributetoinefciency, poorcomfort,andpoorindoorairquality.Asbestosinsulationmayalsobepresentontheoldductwork orpipes.Ifso,itshouldbeeitherremovedorencasedbyaprofessionalcontractor.Iftheasbestosinsu lation is in good condition, encasing it may be more cost effective than removal. Recommendations regardingtheremovalanddisposalofasbestosareavailablefromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency (EPA)AsbestosInformationHotline:800-438-2474.
12
FIGURE3
ELECTRICBASEBOARD

1. REHABTHEEXISTINGFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM. Restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolvesealingthesupplyductworktominimizethe lossofconditionedairbeforeitreachesthesupplyregisters.AccordingtoaHUDstudy,leakyductwork canincreaseheatingandcoolingcostsbyasmuchas30%andcauseairpressureproblemsthatresultin draftsandunevenroomtemperatures.Returnductworkshouldbesealedsothatunconditionedairfrom anatticorcrawlspaceisnotpulledintothesystem.Insteadofsealingtape,masticshouldbeusedbecause itsealsbetter,lastslonger,andiseasiertoapply.Arelativelynewsystemforsealingducts,particularlyuse fulinretrotsituationswhereaccesscanbelimited,isaerosolizedmastic.Ductsaresealedfromthe insidebypumpingaerosolizedmasticintotheductsunderpressure.Themasticmigratesthroughthesys temandsealssmallleakswithoutcoatingtheinterioroftheducts.Notethatthisworksforsmallopen ingsonly.Oncesealed,allsupplyandreturnductsthatpassthroughunconditionedspacesuchasattics, crawlspaces,andbasementsshouldbeinsulatedtominimizeconductionlossesinthewinter(andgains inthesummer,ifusedforairconditioning).Oldregistersandgrillesthatarenolonger(orneverwere) adjustableshouldbereplacedwithnewadjustableequipmentforbetterairdistributionandcomfort. ADVANTAGES:Improvedefciency,comfort,andsafety. DISADVANTAGES:Rehabilitationofapoorlydesignedsystemprovidesminimalbenet. 2. REHABTHEEXISTINGHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM. Forhotwatersystems,restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolvereplacingrustedpipesec tionsandinsulatingpipesrunningthroughunconditionedspaces.Thebesttypeofpipeinsulationconsists of3sectionsofextruded-foamthatisslitsoitcanbeappliedoverthepipe.Valvesthatarenolongeroper ableshouldbereplaced,asshouldoldbaseboardradiatorswithbentnsorguards.Replacingradiators isprobablymoreanissueoflifestyleandaesthetics.Finnedcopperradiatorsworkfasterandhaveahigher heatoutputthanold-stylecast-ironradiators,butthecast-ironradiatorsholdmorewaterandgiveoffheat foralongertime.Thereare3-waythermostaticbypassvalves,suchasthosedistributedbyEnerjee,which canberetrottedtoexistinghydronicbaseboardunits.Whentheroomtemperaturesensedatthevalveis satisfactory,circulatinghotwaterisbypassedaroundthenned-tubetominimizetheheatdistributedtothe room.Thistypeofvalveisintendedforusewithcontinuouslycirculatingsystems,butcouldbeusefulfor redistributingtheloadsonahydronicsystemwithoutchangingthebaseboardunits. Forsteamsystems(Fig.4),restoringtheexistingdistributionsystemwilllikelyinvolverepairing orreplacingradiatorvalves,whichserveasanon/offcontrol,andshouldeitherbefullyopenorclosed. Wornvalveseatscanresultingurglingassteamleaksin,butcondensatecantowback.Thestempack13
ingformostradiatorinletvalvesdeteriorateswithtime;thevalvescanberepackedwithspecialgraphiteimpregnatedcord.Brokenvalvehandlesshouldbereplacedwithnewhandlesofinsulatingplastic.Vents controltherateatwhichsteamenterstheradiator(andthustheradiatorsoutput)byregulatingtheamount ofairinandoutoftheradiator.Iftheradiatorneverheatsup(neverhisses)orsteamcomesoutofthevent (continuouslyhisses),theventneedstobereplaced.Replacementofventswiththeproperspeedcanalso helpwithunbalancedheatdistributioninthehome.Ventscomeinfourspeeds(veryslow,slow,fast,and veryfast)orvariable.Forroomsthattendtooverheat,useaslowerventandviceversa.Vacuumventsallow airtoescape,butnotreenterastheradiatorcools.Avacuumiscreatedwithintheradiatorasthesteam condensesandhotsteamisdrawnintotheradiatorratherthancoldair.Thiscanresultinamoresteady outputofheat.Specialpacklessairtightcontrolvalvesneedtobeinstalledinconjunctionwiththevac uumvents.Radiatorsshouldbeslopedslightlytowardsthesteamvalve.Iftheyarenot,condensatewill likelypoolatthefarendoftheradiatorandsteambubblingthroughwillgurgle.Ashimshouldbeplaced undertheradiatorfeetfarthestfromthevalvetoslopetheradiatorslightlytowardsthevalve. ADVANTAGES:Lowcostandleastdisruptive. DISADVANTAGES:Hydronicsystemsareonlysuitableforheating.
FIGURE4
STEAMRADIATOR
3. REHABTHEEXISTINGELECTRICRESISTANCESYSTEM.
Whileelectricresistancesystemsarerelativelysimplewithfewparts,theremaystillbetheneedforreha
bilitation.Inadditiontocleaning,damagednsornguardsshouldberepairedorreplacedbecausethey
affecttheperformanceofabaseboard.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedperformance.
DISADVANTAGES:Replacementoftheentireunitmaybesimplerthanrepairingorreplacingcomponents.
4. INSTALLANEWCONVENTIONALFORCED-AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM.
Conventionalforced-airdistributionsystemsarebyfarthemostcommontypeofheatingsystem.However,
theyarenotoriousforbeingthecauseofinefciencyanddiscomfort.Poorlydesignedandinstalledductwork
canhavehighlevelsofairleakageandpoortemperaturecontrol.Systemsareoftendesignedwithpoorly
insulatedductworkrunningthroughunconditionedspace.Adesignwhichkeepsductworkwithinthecon
ditionedspaceavoidsmanyoftheseproblems.Ductlossesarereducedbecauseconditionedairisleaking
intotheconditionedspaceandconductionlossesarelowerbecausetemperaturedifferencesbetweenthe
supplyandsurroundingairareless.Thelocationofsupplyoutletsdependsuponwhethertheemphasisis
onheatingorcooling.Forheating-dominatedsystems,standardpracticehasbeentoinstallsupplyregisters
alongtheoutsidewallsunderwindowstocountercolddraftscomingfromwindows.However,inatightly
constructedhomewithinsulatingwindows,interiorwallregisterscanbeusedtosaveonductmaterial.For
14
cooling-dominatedsystems,ceilingsupplydiffusersaremostappropriate.Ductsareusuallymadeofsquare
and/orroundsheetmetal,butinsulatedductboardandexductarealsowidelyused.Fiberglassductboard
isquieterthansheetmetalductsbecausesuchductsattenuatetheblowernoisethatcanpropagatethrough
theductsystem.Caremustbetakentoavoidproblemswithcondensation,whichcontributestomoldgrowth,
ifthesystemisusedforairconditioning.OwensCorninghasintroducedEnDuraCoataductboardsystem
withanantimicrobialacrylicinteriorcoatingtoresistthegrowthoffungiandbacteria.
ADVANTAGES: Distribution system widely used and accepted. Can readily include air conditioning,
humidication,orairpurication.Fastresponding.
DISADVANTAGES:Signicantspacerequirementsofductworkcanmakeinstallationinanexistingstruc
ture difcult and costly if the previous distribution system was not air. Duct system leakage can cause
inefciency.Forced-airsystemscanbenoisy.
5. INSTALLAMINI-DUCTHVACSYSTEM.
Thereareatleasttwosystemsonthemarket,UnicoandSpacePak,thatfeaturesmall-diameter,exible
ductworkthatcanpassthroughstudsandjoistsandsnakethroughnarrowopeningsandaroundcorners
(Fig.5).Thetypicalsystemdeliverslessairathighervelocitiesthanconventionalforced-airsystems;to
achievethesameheatingorcoolingcapability,theairisdeliveredathighertemperatureswhenheating
andlowertemperatureswhencooling.Airisdischargedthroughplasticcollarswith2diameterholesin
theceiling,oor,orwall.Sinceairissuppliedatmoreextremetemperaturesandhighervelocities,these
outletsmustbestrategicallyplacedtoavoidblowingdirectlyonoccupants.Specialsoundattenuatingtub
ingisusedattheendofeachsupplyruntominimizethenoisecausedbyhighairvelocities.
ADVANTAGES: Ducts can be installed in tight areas. Lower supply air temperatures may provide better
humiditycontrolinthesummer.
DISADVANTAGES:Systemisunfamiliartobuildingprofessionals.Lowerinstallationcostmightbeoffsetby
higherequipmentcost.
FIGURE5
MINI-DUCTDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
15
6. INSTALLANEWHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM. Therearealternativetypesofhydronicsystemstoconsider.Systemsinvolvingtraditionalbaseboardscan besingle-pipeortwo-pipe,andradiantsystemsarealsoanoption.Allhydronicsystemsrequireanexpan siontanktocompensatefortheincreaseinwatervolumewhenitisheated(i.e.,thevolumeof50oFwater increasesalmost4%whenitisheatedto200oF).Single-pipehydronicsystemsaremostcommonlyused inresidences.Theyemployasinglepipewithhotwaterowinginaseriesloopfromradiatortoradiator. Thedrawbacktothisarrangementisthatthetemperatureofthewaterdecreasesasitmovesthrougheach radiator.Thus,largerradiatorsareneededforthoselocationsdownstreamintheloop.Acommonsolu tiontothisismultipleloopsorzones.Eachzonehasitsowntemperaturecontrolwithcirculationpro videdbyasmallpumporzonevalveineachloop(Fig.6).Two-pipehydronicsystemsuseapipeforsupplyinghotwatertotheradiatorsandasecondpipeforreturningthewaterfromtheradiatorstotheboiler. Therearealsodirect-andreverse-returnarrangements(Fig.7).Thedirect-returnsystemcanbedifcult tobalancebecausethepressuredropthroughthenearest-radiatorpipingcanbesignicantlylessthanfor thefarthestradiator.Reverse-returnsystemstakecareofthebalancingproblem,butrequiretheexpense ofadditionalpiping.Oriceplatesatradiatorinletsorbalancingvalvesatradiatoroutletscanalsobeused tobalancethepressuredropsinadirect-returnsystem.
FIGURE6
MILTI-ZONESINGLE-PIPEHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEM
FIGURE7
TWO-PIPEHYDRONICDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS
16
Radiantsystemsrunhotwaterthroughplasticpipeortubingtypicallyembeddedinoorslabs orunderframedoors(Fig.8).Systemsinvolvingpanelsthatlooklikebaseboardmoldingorpanelsthat canmountinthewallorceilingarealsoavailable.Thesesystemswarmthesurroundingobjectsrather thantheairandcangenerallyprovidebettercomfortthanbaseboardsystems.Theintroductionofcrosslinked polyethylene (PEX) tubing to the U.S. market in the 1980s revolutionized the installation of hydronicoorheatingwithfastinstallationandlongerservicelife. Therearealsoradiantcoolingsystemswhichinvolverunningcoolwaterthroughthesamepipe ortubingorpanelsasusedforheating.Thesesystemsmustbedesignedcarefullytoinsurethatthetem peratureoftheradiantsurface(oor,ceiling,orwallpanel)remainsabovethedewpointoftheroomair. Otherwise,harmfulandpotentiallydangerous,inthecaseofaslipperyoor,condensationcanoccur.For thisreason,radiantcoolingsystemstypicallysupplementanothertypeofcoolingsystem. ADVANTAGES:Smallpipingortubingismoreadaptabletoanexistingbuildingstructurethanductwork. Hydronicsystemsareclean,quiet,havefewerheatlosses,andcanbeeasilyzoned. DISADVANTAGES:Hydronicsystemsareonlyusedforheating.Radiantcoolingsystemsarenotcommonly usedandarethereforemoredifculttodesignandusuallymorecostlythanotheralternatives.
FIGURE8
HYDRONICRADIANTFLOORHEATINGSYSTEM
7. INSTALLAZONALSYSTEM.
Azonalsystemutilizesindividualin-spaceheatersineachoftheroomstobeheated.Essentially,thereisno
distributionsystemwithitsinherentlossesandinefciencies.Signicantsavingscanbeachievedthrough
theuseofsetbackcontrolsandzoning;providingheatwhenandwhereitisneeded.Theseheaterscanbe
electricorgasandmayemploynaturalconvection,fan-forcedconvection,and/orradiationtotransmitthe
heattothespace.Someunitsalsoincludeathermalstoragemediumtoimprovecomfort.
Gasspaceheatersareavailablefromseveralmanufacturersinarangeofcapacities.Theunits employsealed-combustionsothereisnopotentialofmixingcombustiongaseswiththeinternalairvia spillageorbackdrafting.Direct-ventunitsoperatewithefcienciesof60to75%.Theymountonanexter nalwallandventthecombustiongasesthroughthewall(Fig.9).Power-ventedunitswithefciencies above80%canducttheexhaustgasessotheyhavemorelocationexibility. Electric heaters are less expensive than gas-red heaters but electricity is typically the more expensivefuel.Electricbaseboardheatersarethemostcommonzonalheaterinresidentialapplications. Otherelectricunitsincludewall,kickspace,oorandceilingheaters.Baseboardunitstypicallyrelyon naturalconvectionwhiletheothertypesincludeafantoaugmenttheconvectionprocess.Someunitsare 17
availablewithtwostagestobettermatchtheoutputtotheload.Othersincludeanelectricimmersionele mentandaliquidsolutionhermeticallysealedincoppertubing.Thethermalcapacitanceoftheliquid servestomodulatetheoutputoftheunit. Radiantsystemsthatuseceiling,wall,oroorpanelswithelectricwiringembeddedarealsoa typeofzonalsystem.Theseunitscanbefasterrespondingthanhydronicradiantsystems. ADVANTAGES:Zonalsystemsareinexpensivetoinstall,offerexibility,andprovidezone-controlcapability. DISADVANTAGES:Thetypesofzonalsystemsdiscussedonlyprovideheating.
FIGURE9
DIRECT-VENTGASSPACEHEATER
FURTHER READING
ModernHydronicHeatingforResidentialandLightCommercialBuildings, JohnSiegenthaler,Delmar Publishers,1995. RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newton,CT:TheTauntonPress,1992. SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1994. TheOld-HouseJournalGuidetoRestoration. PatriciaPoore,editor;NewYork:PenguinBooks,1992.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BurnhamRadiantHeatingCo.,P.O.Box3079,Lancaster,PA17604;717-397-4701;www.burnham.com. Enerjee,24S.LafayetteAve.,Morrisville,PA19067;215-295-0557;www.enerjee.com. EmpireComfortSystems,918FreeburgAvenue,Belleville,IL62222;800-851-3153;www.empirecomfort.com. Owens Corning World Headquarters, One Owens Corning Parkway, Toledo, OH 43659; 419-248-7817; www.owenscorning.com. RadiantTechnology,11AFarberDrive,Bellport,NY11713;800-784-0234;www.radiant-tech.com. SpacePak,Mestek,Inc.,Westeld,MA;413-564-5530;www.spacepak.com. SSHC,Inc.,146ElmStreet,OldSaybrook,CT06475;800-544-5182;www.sshcinc.com. 18 Unico,Inc.,4160MeramecStreet,St.Louis,MO63116;800-527-0896;www.unicosystem.com.
H E AT I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearetwobasictypesofcentralheatingplants:furnaces(usedwithairdistributionsystems)andboil ers(usedwitheitherhydronicorsteamsystems).Anotherlesscommonalternativeistouseadomestic hotwaterheatertosupplyhotwatertoahydroniccoilinanairhandlingunitorforaradiantsystem.These systemsareoftenreferredtoascombinationsystemsandaregaininginpopularity. Warm-airfurnaces(Fig.1)arethemostcommonresidentialheatingsystemintheU.S.According to1993censusdata,furnacesareusedin37%ofelectrically-heatedhomesand69%ofgas-heatedhomes. Ifagas-oroil-redfurnaceispresentlyinstalledinthehousetoberehabilitated,itisprobablymuchless efcientthantodaysfurnaces.Theefciencyofmostgas-oroil-redfurnacesinstalled20yearsagois between50%and65%.Standardsthatwentintoeffectin1994requirethatfurnacessoldtodaybeatleast 78%efcient.Thisstandardessentiallyeliminatedtheuseofstandingpilotsongasfurnaces,andelec tronicignitiondevicesandventdampersbecamestandard.Gas-redmodelswithefcienciesover90% andoil-redmodelswithefcienciesashighas87%areavailabletoday. Furnacesareavailableinupow,downow,andhorizontalcongurations.Upowsystemsare themostcommon,withblowersdrawingairintothebottomandsupplyingheatedairoutthetoptothe ductsystem.Downowsystemsdrawairinatthetopandsupplyheatedairoutthebottomforoorduct systems.Horizontalsystemsdrawairinonesideandsupplyheatedairouttheotherside.Theyareused inattics,crawlspaces,belowoors,orsuspendedfromceilings.
FIGURE1
GAS-FIREDFURNACE
19
Accordingto1993censusdata,boilersareusedforheatingin15%ofhomesacrosstheU.S.and approximately45%ofthoseintheNortheast(Fig.2).Governmentstandardsrequirethattodaysresidential combustionboilershaveefcienciesofatleast80%.TheQuantumLeapboilerbyDunkirkRadiatorhasa 95%efciency.Whileboilerefcienciesaretypicallylowerthanfurnaceefciencies,totalsystemefciency, includingdistributionsystemlosses,canbehigherbecauseductlossesaretypicallyhigherthanpipelosses. Electricfurnacesandboilersoperatewitha100%fuelconversionefciency.However,distribu tionsystemlossesoftenmakethemlessefcientasasystemthanelectricbaseboardorotherzonalsys tems.Ifanelectricfurnaceispresentlyinstalledinthehome,theintegrityoftheductworksystemshould beexaminedandimprovedasaminimum(seeSection3).Iftheelectricfurnaceorboilerissituatedin acoldclimate,seriousconsiderationshouldbegiventoconvertingittoagas-redsystemtoreduceoper atingcosts. Thissectionwillfocusonfuel-burning,orcombustion,systems.Incombustionsystems,com bustionoccurswithinachamberandaircirculatesovertheoutsidesurfacesofaheatexchanger.Thecir culationairdoesnotcomeincontactwiththefuelortheproductsofcombustion,whichareventedtothe outside.Traditionalcombustionsystemsarenaturaldraft(oratmosphericvent)withadrafthoodtocarry thecombustiongasesthroughtheventtotheoutdoors.Thedrafthoodhasareliefairopeningtoassure thattheexitofthecombustionheatexchangerisatatmosphericpressure.Fan-assistedorpowered-com bustion systems use a small blower to force (forced-draft, power burner) or induce (induced-draft, mechanicaldraft,powervent)theueproductsthroughthesystem.Fan-assistedsystemsdonotrequirea drafthood,resultinginreducedoff-cyclelossesandimprovedefciency. Backdraftingofcombustionappliancesoccurswhenthesurroundingareaisdepressurizedand the appliance relies on natural draft to carry the combustion gases through the vent to the outdoors. Backdrafting can be dangerous when deadly combustion gases are drawn into the living space. Depressurizationcanoccurwhenotherdevicessuchasexhaustfans,waterheaters,clothesdryers,and replacesaredrawingairfromthespaceandexhaustingittotheoutside.Thebestsolutiontothisprob lemistheinstallationofadirect-ventcombustionsystemthatusesoutsideairforcombustionanddoes nothaveadrafthood.Thisisreferredtoasasealedcombustionsystembecausethecombustionairis isolatedfromtheindoorair. Thefollowingaretechniquesforimprovingthesafety,efciencyand/orreducingtheoperating costsoftheexistingcombustionfurnaceorboilersystem.Forsafetyreasons,allmodicationsshouldbe performedbyaqualiedmechanic.
FIGURE2 20
GAS-FIREDBOILER

1. FOROIL-FIREDSYSTEMS,INSTALLAFLAME-RETENTIONBURNER. Flame-retentionburnershavesmallerairintakesandamoreconcentratedamethatenablesthemto burnhotterandmoreefciently. ADVANTAGES: Improvedcombustionefciency. DISADVANTAGES: None. 2. INSTALLAVENTDAMPER. Aventdamperisaapperinstalledintheueofadrafthood-equippednaturaldraftfurnaceorboiler. (Fan-assistednaturaldraftsystemsdonothavedrafthoods.)Whentheburnersareignited,thedamper isopentoallowcombustiongasestoexhaustuptheuetooutdoors.Thedampercloseswhentheburn ersareshutofftoreduceexltrationofheatedairfromthehouseandtopreventresidualheatfromthe heatexchangerfromescapinguptheue.TheNAECAstandardspassedin1987madeventdampersa standardfeatureoftodaysnatural-draftfurnaces. ADVANTAGES: Improvedefciencyifthefurnaceislocatedintheconditionedspaceandisusingindoor airforcombustion. DISADVANTAGES: Oflessvalueifthecombustionairisdrawnfromoutsideorunconditionedspace. 3. REPLACETHESTANDINGPILOTWITHANELECTRONICSPARKIGNITOR. Oldfurnacesandboilersemployastandingpilotthatconsumesasmallamountofgascontinuously.The NAECAstandardspassedin1987essentiallyeliminatedthisenergy-wastingpractice.Electronicignitions useanelectricsparkorahotsurfaceasanignitionsourceforthegasmixturewhenheatingisneeded. ADVANTAGES: Improvedefciency. DISADVANTAGES: Costofnewignitionsystem. 4. FOROIL-FIREDFURNACES,DOWNSIZETHEBURNERNOZZLE. Theringrateofanoil-redfurnaceiscontrolledbythepumppressureandtheoricesizeoftheburner injectionnozzle.Thenozzlesareratedingallonsperhour.Ifthehomesheatingloadshavebeenreducedor thesystemwasover-sizedinitially,thenozzlesizemaybereducedtodecreasethecapacityofthefurnace. ADVANTAGES: Improvedcomfortthroughlesssystemcycling. DISADVANTAGES: Smallernozzlesbecomecloggedmoreeasilybysediment.Fuellineltersmayneedto bechangedmorefrequently. 5. INSTALLANADVANCED,HIGH-EFFICIENCYGASFURNACE. High-efciencygasfurnacescanofferasignicantimprovementinefciency.Efciencyratingsbetween 84%and89%arenotcommonbecauseacidiccorrosivecondensateformsattheseefcienciesandthe modestimprovementinefciencyisnotworththeaddedmaterialcostneededtowithstandtheconden sate.Thus,highefciencymeansjumpingfromefcienciesinthelow80stothelow90s.Therearesev eralalternativesavailableforthosewhowanttoinstallanadvancedandefcientfurnacesystem,includ ingpulseandcondensingcombustiontechnologies. Nearlyeverymajorfurnacemanufacturerincludesacondensingfurnaceintheirproductline. Condensingfurnacesaredesignedtocondensethewatervaporfromtheexhaustgasesandcapturethe heatofcondensation.Thisisdonebyloweringthetemperatureofthecombustiongaseswithasecond heatexchangerinthefurnace(Fig.3).Condensingfurnacesareexpensivebecausetheyrequirecorrosionresistantmaterials,buttheycanhaveefcienciesashighas97%. PulsecombustionisatechnologypatentedbyLennoxthatinvolvesself-perpetuatingpulsesat a rate of approximately 60 times per second. Air and fuel are mixed in the combustion chamber and ignitedbyasparkfromasparkpluginamannersimilartoanautomobileinternalcombustionengine. Theincreaseinpressureuponignitionclosesthegas/airinletvalve.Thecombustionproductsareforced 21
throughanexhaustpipeandthegas/airinletvalvereopenswiththereductioninpressure.Thenextcom bustionpulseisignitedbytheheatremainingfromthepreviouspulse.Pulsecombustionfurnaceshave efcienciesof91%to97%. Afewmanufacturersprovidefurnaceswithtwo-speedorevenvariablespeedmotors.Thesesys temscanimprovecomfortandrunquieterwhenusedwithzoningsystems,withanair-conditioningsys temthatrequiresahigherairow,orwhenitisdesirabletorunthefancontinuouslyforventilationair supply.TheCarrierWeathermaker8000andTraneXV-80aretwosuchproducts. ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcosts.Higherefciencysystemshavelowertemperatureexhaustgasesso PVCpipingcanbeusedforventing,asignicantadvantageifachimneyisnotcurrentlyinplace.Themultispeedsystemsprovidebettercomfortbecauseoutputfollowsloadmoreclosely.Thelow-speedsettingcan providedehumidicationcapabilitywithanACunit. DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcostandtheexistinguemayneedtobedownsized.Allfan-assistedfur nacesconsumemoreelectricitythanoldfurnacesthatdidnotuseafaninthecombustionairstream. Localcodemayrequireaneutralizercartridgeforcondensatedisposal.Ifcondensatecannotbedrained bygravity,acondensatepumpisnecessary.
FIGURE3
CONDENSINGFURNACE
6. INSTALLACOMBINATIONSYSTEM.
Combinationsystemsuseonecombustiondevicetoprovidespaceandwaterheating.Thesesystemselim
inatethegasfurnaceanditsuebyrunningahotwatercoilfromthedomestichotwaterheatertotheair-
handlingunitorahydronicradiantsystem(Fig.4).TheGasResearchInstituteestimatesthatnearlyamil-
lionofthesesystemshavebeeninstalledintheU.S.
Typically,potablewaterisusedintheair-handlerheatingcoil.Forhydronicradiantsystems,a separateheatexchangerinthewaterheaterisusedtocirculatenon-potablewaterthroughtheradiantsys tempiping.Thisisacoderequirementinmostareas. Waterheatersspecicallydesignedforthesesystemsareavailable.Theyhaveanextrasetoftaps forsupplyandreturnofthespaceheatingwaterandhigherrecoveryratesanddirect-ventingasoptions. ADVANTAGES: Eliminatesthefurnaceanditsventingrequirements. DISADVANTAGES: Dealerconfusionoversizinganddesigningofsystems. 22
FIGURE4
COMBINATIONHEATINGSYSTEM
7. INSTALLANADVANCEDHIGH-EFFICIENCYBOILER.
Condensingboilersarelesscommonthanfurnacesbecausetheytypicallyarenotcompatiblewiththehigh
return-watertemperatures,suchasthe160 Fofahydronicbaseboardsystem.Theyareappropriatefor
thelowertemperaturesofradiantsystems.However,DunkirkRadiatorproducestheQuantumLeapboiler
withanefciencyof95%.Thisunit,whichusesanaluminumheatexchanger,isacondensingboilereven
athighreturn-watertemperatures.Condensationathighreturn-watertemperaturesisaccomplishedby
heatingandsaturatingtheincomingcombustionairtoraiseitsdewpoint.Thisisdonewiththeconden
sateinanevaporativetower(Fig.5).
ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcosts.Higherefciencysystemshavelowertemperatureexhaustgasesso
PVCpipingcanbeusedforventing.Improvedsafetydevicesandcontrolsoveranoldboilersystem.
DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcost.
FIGURE5
QUANTUMLEAPCONDENSINGBOILER
23
FURTHER READING
AConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repair,TheEnterpriseFoundation,Robert M.Santucci,BrookeC.Stoddard,andPeterWerwath,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1995. Consumers Directory of Certied Efciency Ratings for Residential Heating and Water Heating Equipment, Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association, available from ETL Testing Laboratories, Inc.; 607-753-6711. 1996ASHRAESystemsandEquipmentHandbook,ASHRAE,1791TullieCircle,NE,Atlanta,GA30329; 404-636-8400.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
ApolloHydroHeat&Cooling,ADivisionofStateIndustries,500BypassRoad,AshlandCity,TN37015;615792-4371;www.stateind.com. BurnhamCorporation,P.O.Box3079,Lancaster,PA17604;717-397-4701;www.burnham.com. CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000; www.carrier.com. DunkirkRadiatorCorporation,85MiddleRoad,Dunkirk,NY14048;716-366-5500;www.dunkirk.com. LennoxIndustries,2100LakeParkBoulevard,Richardson,TX75080;214-497-5000;www.davelennox.com. TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111;www.trane.com. YorkInternationalCorporation,631SouthRichlandAvenue,York,PA17403;717-771-7890;www.york.com.
24
COOLING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Manyoldhomesreliedonpassivecoolingtheopeningofwindowsanddoors,andtheprovisionof shadingdevicesduringthesummermonths.Homesweredesignedwithwindowsonoppositewallsto encouragecrossventilationandlargeshadetreesreducedsolarheatgains.Thisapproachisstillviablein manyareastodayandimprovedthermalperformance(insulatingvalue)windowsareavailablethatallowfor largerwindowareastoletinmoreairinthesummerwithouttheheatlosspenaltyinthewinter.However, increasedoutdoornoiselevels,pollution,andsecurityissuesmakerelyingonopenwindowsalessattractive optioninsomeareastoday. Anair-conditioningsystemofsomekindmayalreadybeinstalledinthehome.Itmaybeawin dowairconditionerorthrough-the-wallunitforcoolingoneortworooms,oracentralsplit-systemair conditionerorheatpump.Inanyevent,theperformanceofthesesystemsintermsofprovidingadequate comfortwithoutexcessiveenergyuseshouldbeinvestigated.Theageoftheequipmentalonewillprovide some indication. If the existing system is more than ten years old, replacement should be considered becauseitismuchlessefcientthantodayssystemsandnearingtheendofitsusefullife. TherefrigerantcommonlyusedintodaysresidentialairconditionersisR-22.Duetothesuspi cionthatR-22depletestheozonelayer,manufacturerswillbeprohibitedfromproducingunitswithR-22 in2010.TheleadingreplacementsforR-22areR-134AandR-410Aandnewproductsarenowavailable withthesenon-ozone-depletingrefrigerants.CarriersbrandnamefortheR-410ArefrigerantisPuron. Theperformancemeasureforelectricairconditionerswithcapacitieslessthan65,000Btuhisthe SeasonalEnergyEfciencyRatio(SEER).Thisisaratingofcoolingperformancebaseduponrepresentative residentialloads.ItisreportedinunitsofBtuofcoolingperwatthourofelectricenergyconsumptioninclud ingtheunitscompressor,fans,andcontrols.ThehighertheSEERthemoreefcientthesystem.However,the highestSEERunitmaynotprovidethemostcomfort.Inhumidclimates,someofthehighestSEERunitsexhibit poordehumidicationcapabilitybecausetheyoperateathigherevaporatortemperaturestoattainthehigher efciency.ASEERofatleast10isrequiredbyNAECAforconventionalcentralsplit-systemair-cooledsystems. Coolingsystemoptionsvarywidely,dependinguponthelevelofcontrolandcomfortdesiredby thehomeowner.Fanscanincreasecirculationandreducecoolingloads,buttheircoolingcapabilityis directlylimitedbytheoutdoorconditionssotheymaybeunsatisfactoryinhotclimates.Radiantbarriers canpossiblyreducecoolingloadsinveryhotclimates.Evaporativecoolerscanbearelativelyinexpensive and effective method of cooling in dry climates such as the Southwest. Electric air conditioning is the answerforthosewhowanttomaintainacomfortableindoortemperatureandhumidityevenunderthe mostsevereoutdoorconditions.Over75%ofnewhomesintheU.S.areequippedwithsomeformofcen tralairconditioning;morespecically,50%ofthehomesintheNortheast,75%intheMidwest,95%in theSouth,andapproximately60%intheWest.Electricairconditioningltersandremovesmoisturefrom theairaswellasreducingitstemperature.Itcanbeagoodinvestmentbecause,inmostpartsofthecoun try,thepaybackissignicantwhenthehouseissold.

1. INSTALLACIRCULATIONFAN. Airmovementcanmakeyoufeelcomfortableevenwhendry-bulbtemperaturesareelevated.Acircula tionfan(ceilingorportable)(Fig.1)thatcreatesanairspeedof150-200feetperminutecancompen satefora4 Fincreaseintemperature. ADVANTAGES:Thesameceilingcirculationfancanalsobebenecialintheheatingseasonbyredistributing warmairthatcollectsalongtheceiling. 25 DISADVANTAGES:Canbenoisy.
FIGURE1
CEILINGCIRCULATIONFAN
2. INSTALLAPOWERATTICORROOFTOPVENTILATOR.
Theseunitsareusedtoassistthenaturalowofairthroughtheatticspace(Fig.2).Withoutgoodventila
tion,attictemperaturescanexceed130 Fonwarm,sunnydays.Increasingtheatticventilationresultsina
cooleratticspace,reducingthecoolingloadonthespacebelow.ToestimatetherequiredCFM-ratingofan
atticventilator,multiplytheatticoorareabyafactorof0.75andincreasethevalueby15%iftheroofis
darkandwillabsorbheat.Theexhaustedairisreplacedbyoutsideairenteringthrougheavevents.
ADVANTAGES:Inexpensiveandeasytoinstall.
DISADVANTAGES:Doesnotdirectlycoolthelivingspace.Ifatticventareaisinsufcient,thefancandraw
airthroughtheceilingoftheconditionedspaceandpotentiallydepressurizethespace.
FIGURE2
POWEREDATTICVENTILATOR
3. INSTALLAWHOLE-HOUSEVENTILATORORFAN.
Whole-houseventilatorsaretypicallyinstalledintheatticooroverahallwayorstairway.Theypullhot
airfromthelivingspaceandexhaustitintotheatticwhereitexitsthroughtheatticvents.Freshcoolerair
isdrawninthroughopenwindows.Specicareasofthehomecanbeventilatedbyselectivelyopeningand
closingdoorsandwindows.TheHV1000unitbyTamarackTechnologies(Fig.3)usesefcientfanmotors
tominimizeenergyuseandnoiseandhasanautomaticdoorassemblythatprovidesanairtightsealwith
aninsulatingvalueofR-22.Itusestwoside-by-sidefansratherthanonelargefansothattheunitcaneas
ilytbetween16"or24"oncenterjoistswithnojoistcutting.
ADVANTAGES:Caneliminatetheneedformechanicalairconditioninginmoderateclimates.
DISADVANTAGES:Noisy.Limitedcoolingcapabilityinwarmorhumidclimates.Candepressurizethehome
ifwindowsarenotopen.Increasedheatlossduringthewinterifthesystemisnotsealedandinsulated.
26
FIGURE3
HV1000WHOLE-HOUSEVENTILATOR
FIGURE4
TWO-STAGEEVAPORATIVECOOLER
4. INSTALLARADIANTBARRIER.
Inhotclimates,whereatticscanbecomeveryhotandairconditioningductsareoftenintheattic,aradi
antbarriermaybebenecial.Itcanreducethecoolingloadonthehomeandreducetheincreaseinsup-
plyairtemperatureasconditionedairtravelsthroughthesupplyductsintheatticbeforereachingthe
roomstobeconditioned.Radiantbarriersaremadeofmaterialsthataregoodatreectingheat.They
reecttheradiantheatemanatingfromahotroof,andcomeinavarietyofforms,includingfoil,paint
coatings,andchips.
ADVANTAGES:Fairlysimpletoinstall.Canreducethesizeoftheairconditionerneeded.
27
DISADVANTAGES:Canberelativelyexpensive.Dustcanseriouslydegradetheperformancebydullingthe reectivesurface. 5. INSTALLANEVAPORATIVECOOLER.

IndryclimatessuchastheSouthwest,anevaporativecoolerorswampcoolermayprovidesufcient
cooling. This system cools an airstream by evaporating water into it; the airstreams relative humidity
increaseswhilethedry-bulbtemperaturedecreases.A95F,15%RHairstreamcanbeconditionedto75F,
50%RH.Thesimplestdirectsystemsarecentrallylocatedanduseapumptosupplywatertoasaturated
padoverwhichthesupplyairisblown.Indirectsystemsuseaheatexchangerbetweentheairstreamthat
iscooledbyevaporatingwaterandthesupplyairstream.Themoisturelevelofthesupplyairstreamisnot
affectedasitiscooled.CoolTechIndustriesmanufacturesatwo-stageunitthatemploysanindirectrst
stagecoupledtoadirectsecondstage(Fig.4).Moistureisaddedtothesupplyairstream,butnotasmuch
aswithadirectevaporativecooler.
ADVANTAGES:Lowerinstallationandoperatingcoststhanelectricairconditioning.Noozone-depletingrefrig
erantinvolved.Providehighlevelsofventilationbecausetheytypicallyconditionandsupply100%outsideair.
DISADVANTAGES:Bacterialcontaminationcanresultifnotproperlymaintained.Onlyappropriatefordry,
hotclimates.
6. INSTALLANELECTRICAIRCONDITIONER
(seeSection6onHeatPumpsaswell).
Electricairconditionersthatemploythevaporcompressionrefrigerationcycleareavailableinavarietyof
sizesandcongurations,rangingfromsmallwindowunitstolargecentralsystems.Themostcommonform
ofcentralairconditioningisasplit-systemwithawarmairfurnace(Fig.5).Thesameductworkisusedfor
distributingconditionedairduringtheheatingandcoolingseasons.Supplyairiscooledanddehumidied
asitpassesoveranA-shapedevaporatorcoil.Theliquidrefrigerantevaporatesinsidethecoilasitabsorbs
heatfromtheair.Therefrigerantgasthentravelsthroughrefrigerantpipingtotheoutdoorunitwhereitis
pressurizedinanelectrically-drivencompressor,raisingitstemperatureandpressure,andreturnedtoa
liquidstateinthecondenserasitreleases,ordumps,theheattotheoutdoorsasafandrawsoutdoorair
inoverthecondensercoil.Theuseoftwo-speedindoorfanscanbeadvantageousinthistypeofsystem
becausethecoolingloadcanoftenrequirehigherairowsthantheheatingload.Thelowerspeedcanbe
usedfortheheatingseasonandforimproveddehumidicationperformanceduringthecoolingseason.
FIGURE5
SPLIT-SYSTEMAIRCONDITIONER
28
Anotherelectricairconditioningsystemcongurationisthepackagedterminalairconditioner (PTAC)(Fig.6).Theseunitsaresimilartowindowairconditionersinthattheyareasinglepackage,but theyalsoprovideheatandaredesignedtobeinstalledthroughanoutsidewall.Acommonapplicationis motelrooms.Theircoolingcapacitiesaretypicallylargerthanwindowunitsandsmallerthancentralsys tems.Mostoftheunitsareequippedwithelectricheatingandcanbeinstalledwithouttheneedforan HVACcontractorbecausethereisnoductworkorrefrigerantpipinginvolvedintheinstallation.Noisecan beaproblemandthewallpenetrationscanbeasourceofuncomfortableairleakageinthewinter. ADVANTAGES:Removeslatentheat(moisture)inadditiontosensibleheatinmorehumidclimates. DISADVANTAGES:Compressorandcondenserfancanbenoisy.
FIGURE6
PACKAGEDTERMINALAIRCONDITIONER
FIGURE7
GAS-FIREDCHILLERSYSTEM
7. INSTALLAGAS-FIREDCHILLER.
Forthesituationwherecentralairconditioningisdesiredandelectricityisveryexpensiveorthecostof
additional electrical service is excessive, there are gas-red alternatives. For some 30 years, Robur
Corporationhasmanufacturedsmalltonnageabsorptionproducts.Thethree-andve-tonServelsystems
areair-cooledabsorptionchillersthatutilizeammonia.Thesystemisself-containedinanoutdoorunit
andchilledwaterpipingisruntoanindoorairhandlerunit(Fig.7).
29
ADVANTAGES:Loweroperatingcostsinareaswithhighelectricitypricesandlowgasprices.Avoidsthe additionalelectricalservicerequiredforacentralelectricair-conditioningsystem.Doesnotuseanozonedepletingrefrigerant. DISADVANTAGES:Highinitialcost.Limitedmarketinfrastructureandservicesupport.Morecomplexsys temswithgreatermaintenancerequirements.
FURTHER READING
1996HVACSystemsandEquipmentHandbook,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating andAir-ConditioningEngineers,Inc. SimpliedDesignofHVACSystems,WilliamBobenhausen,NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,1994. This Old House Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, Richard Trethewey, Little, Brown and Company,1994.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000; www.carrier.com. CoolTechIndustries,Inc.,8230PostRoad,FairOaks,CA95628;916-536-0902;www.smartcool.com. RoburCorporation,2300LynchRoad,Evansville,IN47711;812-424-1800;www.robur.com. Tamarack Technologies, Inc., P.O. Box 490, West Wareham, MA 02576; 800-222-5932; www.tamtech.com. TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111,www.trane.com. YorkInternationalCorporation,631SouthRichlandAvenue,York,PA17403;717-771-7890; www.york.com.
30
H E AT P U M P S
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Heatpumpsrepresentasinglesystemthatcanprovidebothheatingandcooling.Asinglesourceofenergy electricityistypicallyused,andventsandchimneysforcombustionproductscanbeeliminated. Heatpumpswereintroducedtotheresidentialmarketinthe1950sandearlysystemshadproblemswith reliabilityandcomfort.Todaysheatpumpsystemsaremuchmorereliableandefcient. Theinstallationofanewheatpumpsystemaspartofahomesrehabilitationshouldbeconsid eredifanexistingheatpumpisnearingtheendofitsexpectedlife(15to20years)ortheexistingheat ingsystemneedsreplacementandtheadditionofairconditioningisdesirable.Heatpumpsarealogical HVACsystemchoiceinclimateswithsignicantcoolingloadsandmodest heatingloads.Ifheatingloads aresmall,alessexpensiveelectricresistanceheatingandelectricairconditioningsystemmaybemore logical.Ifheatingloadsarelarge,agasfurnace/airconditionercombinationmaybetheoptimumchoice. Whencooling,heatpumpsusethevaporcompressionrefrigerationcyclejustlikeelectricair conditioners (see Section 5). To provide heating, heat pumps are equipped with reversing and check valvestorunthecyclebackwards,removingheatfromtheoutdoorsanddumpingitindoors(Fig.1). Unfortunately, as outdoor temperatures drop and heating loads increase, the capacity of a heat pump declines(Fig.2).Inmostclimates,aheatpumpneedstobeequippedwithasupplementalheatsystem, whichistypicallyelectricresistanceheat.
FIGURE1
HEATPUMPCYCLE-HEATINGMODE
Thereisavarietyofheatpumptypes,eachwithdifferentstandardsforratingefciency,butthe most common rating terms are SEER (Seasonal Energy Efciency Ratio) for cooling performance and HSPF (Heating Seasonal Performance Factor) for heating performance. The SEER is the same rating methodusedforairconditioningsystems(seeSection5).TheHSPFistheratiooftotalheatingoutputin Btuofaheatpumpduringitsnormalannualusageperiodtothetotalelectricpowerinputinwatthours during the same period. It is reported in units of Btu of heating per watthour of electric energy con31
FIGURE2
HEATPUMPCAPACITYANDAMBIENTTEMPERATURERELATIONSHIP
sumption,includingtheunitscompressor,fans,andcontrols.ThehighertheHSPFthemoreefcientthe system.AnHSPFofatleast6.8isrequiredbyNAECAforconventionalcentralsplit-systemair-cooledheat pumpsystemswithcapacitiesofvetonsorless.However,itshouldbenotedthatair-sourceheatpump heatingefciencyvariesdramaticallywithoutdoortemperature.Ifconsideringaheatpumpforacoldcli mate(i.e.,colderthanIndianapolis,whichisrepresentativeofthetypicalusedfortherating),acom parisonofperformanceatmoresevereconditionsmaybemorebenecialthanrelyingontheHSPFcom parison.Inotherwords,twoheatpumpsmayhavethesameHSPFrating,butperformquitedifferentlyat coldconditions.Ground-sourceheatpumpsusetheCoefcientofPerformance(COP)asanefciencyrat ingratherthanHSPF.However,GSHPsdonothavethevaryingconditionsthatair-sourceunitshavesomul tiplyingtheCOPby3.4providesavaluethatiscomparabletotheHSPF.Makesuretheground-looppump ingenergyisincludedintheefciencycalculation. Inareaswherethecoolingloadislargerelativetotheheatingload,aheatpumpmayprovidea morecomfortableyear-roundsolutionthanagasfurnace/airconditionercombination.Whenafurnaceis usedincombinationwithanairconditionerinacoolingloaddominatedclimate,asignicantlyoversized furnacemayberequiredtoobtainblowerperformancethatiscompatiblewiththesizeofthecoolingcoil. Unlessthefurnacehasavariableortwo-speedblower,thiswillproduceshort-cyclingduringtheheating season,whichcompromisescomfort.

1. INSTALLASPLIT-SYSTEMAIR-SOURCEHEATPUMP(ASHP). Thisisbyfarthemostcommonresidentialheatpumpsystem.Itisverysimilartothesplit-systemaircon ditioner (see Section 5), but operates in the winter as well to provide heating. The indoor unit has a blower,theheatpumpcoil,andasupplementalheatingsectionthatusuallycontainselectricresistance heatingelements.Alternativestousingelectricresistanceheatingduringcoldperiods,whenthecapacity of the heat pump is insufcient, include hydronic coils from the domestic hot water heater (see CombinationSysteminSection4)oradd-onheatpumps.Add-onheatpumpsareheatpumpsadded toagasfurnace.Theheatpumpoperateswithdecliningefciencyasoutdoortemperaturesdroptothe pointwhereitbecomesmoreeconomicaltooperatethegasfurnace.Two-speedheatpumpswithmultispeedfansandatwo-speedcompressorarecapableofvaryingthecapacityofthesystemtobettermatch theloadandavoidtheinefcienciesofcyclingonandofffrequently. ADVANTAGES:Mostcommonheatpumpsystemwithawell-establishedserviceinfrastructure. DISADVANTAGES:Heatingperformancedropssignicantlywithcolderoutdoortemperatures.
32
2. INSTALLASINGLE-PACKAGEAIR-SOURCEHEATPUMP.
Iftheinstallationofanoutdoorcompressor/condenserunitisaproblembecauseofnoise,aesthetics,or
vandalism,theInsiderheatpumpmanufacturedbyConsolidatedTechnologyCorporation(Fig.3)maybe
aviablesolution.Thisunit,originallydesignedformanufacturedhomes,containsallofthecomponents
inasinglepackagethatisapproximatelythesizeofafurnace.Afanisusedtodrawoutdoorairinover
theoutsidecoilandexhaustsit.Anotherfandrawsreturnairfromthespaceovertheinsidecoiland
returnstheconditionedairtothespace.
ADVANTAGES:Easierinstallationwithnooutdoorunitandrefrigerantlines.
DISADVANTAGES:Noiseofcompressorwithinthelivingspace.
FIGURE3
SINGLE-PACKAGEAIRSOURCEHEATPUMP
HEATPUMP
3. INSTALLAPACKAGEDTERMINALHEATPUMP(PTHP).
ThesesystemsareverysimilartoPTACs(seeSection5)excepttheyuseanelectricheatpumptoprovide
heatingratherthanrelyingsolelyonelectricresistanceforheating.
ADVANTAGES:Noductworkorrefrigerantlinestobeinstalledonsite.Zonecontrolcapability.
DISADVANTAGES: Unitscanbenoisyandthewallpenetrationscanbeasourceofunwantedinltration.
4. INSTALLONEORMOREDUCTLESSSPLITSYSTEMSORMINI-SPLITS.
Thesesystemsaresimilartoconventionalsplitsystemsinthattheyhaveanoutdoorcondenserunitand
anindoorevaporator/airhandlerunitconnectedbyrefrigerantpiping.However,theindoorunitislocated
directlyinoradjacenttotheconditionedspace.Thereisnoductworkrequiredfordistributingtheair.
Severalindoorunitscanbeusedinconjunctionwithasingleoutdoorunit(Fig.4).
ADVANTAGES:Easiertoinstallthanductedsystemsifnoductingisalreadyinplace.Zonecontrolcapa
bility.Canbelinkedwithmotiondetectorstominimizeoperatingtime.
DISADVANTAGES:Operateonrecirculatedaironlyandhavenomeansforprovidingfreshair.Although
verypopularinJapanandEurope,theyarenotwidelyusedormanufacturedintheU.S.
33
FIGURE4
DUCTLESSSPLITSYSTEM
5. INSTALLAGROUND-SOURCEHEATPUMP(GSHP).
Asthenameimplies,GSHPsusethegroundasthesourceforheatduringthewinterratherthanoutdoor
air(Fig.5).TheycanbeanattractiveoptiontoASHPsincolderclimateswherethegroundtemperatureis
warmerandlessvariablethantheairtemperature.Inthemorecommonclosed-loopdesign,aground
loop of polybutylene or high-density polyethylene pipe is buried and water or antifreeze solution is
pumpedthroughittoabsorbheat.Thepipecanbeburiedverticallyorhorizontally,straightorcoiledlike
aslinky.Installationwilldependonsoilconditions,drillingversustrenchingcosts,andspaceavailabil
ity.Open-loopsystemspumpgroundwaterfromawellthroughaheatexchangerandthendischargeit.
Theyavoidthecostofaburiedgroundloop,buthavetoaddresswaterqualityandcodeissues.Some
GSHPsincludedesuperheaters(seeSection10)forwaterheatingasanintegralpartofthesystem.
ADVANTAGES:UsuallymoreefcientonaseasonalbasisthanASHPbecausethegroundtemperatureis
higherthantheairtemperature.GSHPsdonotneedtodefrostlikeASHPs.
DISADVANTAGES: Installationcostofthegroundloop.
FIGURE5
OPENLOOPGSHP
CLOSEDLOOPGSHP
34
FURTHER READING
1996HVACSystemsandEquipmentHandbook,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSocietyofHeating,Refrigerating andAir-ConditioningEngineers,Inc. ARI Directory of Certied Applied Air-Conditioning Products, Arlington, VA, Air-Conditioning & RefrigerationInstitute. Closed-Loop/Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems: Installation Guide, Stillwater, OK, International Ground-SourceHeatPumpAssociation,1988.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000; www.carrier.com. ConsolidatedTechnologyCorporation,P.O.Box1537,OliveHill,KY41164;606-786-5366. EMICorporation,5780SuccessDrive,Rome,NY13440;315-336-3716;www.enviromaster.com TraneCompany,3600PammelCreekRoad,LaCrosse,WI54601;608-787-3111,www.trane.com. WaterFurnace International, Inc., 9000 Conservation Way, Fort Wayne, IN 46809; 800-222-5667; www.waterfurnace.com. York International Corporation, 631 South Richland Avenue, York, PA 17403; 717-771-7890; www.york.com.
35
INDOORAIR QUALITY
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Ashomesconstructedsincethe1980shavebecometighterinordertoreduceinltrationtoimprove comfortandsaveenergy,concernsaboutindoorairqualityhavegrown.Thelistofindoorpollutantsis long,butthemostcommoninclude:formaldehydefumesfrombuildingmaterials,furniture,curtains,and carpet;organicgasesfromaerosols,paints,solvents,andairfresheners;carbonmonoxideandnitrogen dioxidefromunventedappliancessuchasgasranges;dustmites,moldspores,andmildew. Tight homes without a mechanical ventilation system can depressurize when devices such as exhaust fans or clothes dryers operate and remove air from conditioned space. Depressurization can causeback-draftingofcombustionappliancesandpotentiallyincreasedradonlevels(Fig.1). The simplest way to improve indoor air quality is through a controlled ventilation system. Mechanicalventilationsystemsarenowrequiredinnewhomesbysomebuildingcodes,particularlyin theNorthwestandCanada.Therecommendedamountofventilationairisasubjectofdebatebyexperts in the eld. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard62recommends15cfmofoutsideairperpersonor0.35airchangesperhour(ACH)forresi dences.Thisstandardhasbeencontroversialandisunderrevision.Aproposedrevisionuses5cfmper 100squarefeetofhousearea.TheHomeVentilatingInstitute(HVI),aventilationequipmenttradeorga nization,recommends0.5ACH. Ventilationsystemsassurethatadequatefreshairisbroughtintothehometoreplacetheindoor airthatisremoved.Thereareseveraldifferentmechanicalventilationapproaches.Inadditiontomechan icalventilationforindoorairquality,humidiersanddehumidiersmaybeinstalledtocontrolhumidity andaircleanerscanbeusedforthosesensitivetoaircontaminantssuchasdustandpollen.
FIGURE1 36
DEPRESSURIZATIONINDUCEDBACK-DRAFTING

1. INSTALLAMECHANICALVENTILATIONSYSTEM. There are three basic types of mechanical ventilation systems: exhaust, supply, and balanced (Fig.2). Exhaustandsupplysystemstypicallyuseasinglefanthateitherpullsairfromthehomeorpushesairinto thehomeinconjunctionwithintentionalairinletsorpressurereliefoutlets.Thesesystemseitherdepres surizeorpressurizethehome.Depressurizationcancauseproblemswithcombustionappliancebackdrafting and potentially increased radon inltration. Pressurization can promote detrimental moisture inltrationintobuildingmaterials.Toavoidtheseproblems,balancedmechanicalventilationsystemstyp icallyuseatleasttwofans,supplyandexhaust,tomaintainaneutralpressureinthehome.Themost energy-efcienttypeofbalancedmechanicalventilationsystemisaheatrecoveryventilatororair-to-air heatexchanger(Fig.3).Thesesystemsincludeaheatexchangertoexchangeheatbetweentheexhaustand supplyairstreams.Freshsupplyairispreheatedinthewinterandprecooledinthesummer.Amongthe manufacturersofthesetypesofsystemsisNutechEnergySystems,whichhasintroducedtheLifebreath CleanAirFurnace(Fig.4),designedtodrawinoutsideairataratethatisapproximately10%ofthetotal supplyairow.Inregionswithsignicantmoisturedifferencesbetweensupplyandexhaustairstreams, enthalpywheelsmaybeusedastheheatexchanger.Thewheelsincludeadesiccantmaterialonaheat wheeltoabsorbandreleasemoistureandheat. ADVANTAGES:Betterhealthandsafetybecausethesupplyofanadequateamountoffreshairtothehome isassured. DISADVANTAGES:Initialinstallationandfanoperatingcostcanbehigh.Filtermaintenanceisrequired. Additionalheatingandcoolingloadsareplacedontheexistingheatingandcoolingsystem.Additional loadisminimalwithheatorenthalpyrecoveryventilators.
EXHAUST
SUPPLY
BALANCED
FIGURE2
MECHANICALVENTILATIONTYPES
37
FIGURE3
BALANCEDSYSTEMWITHAHEATRECOVERYVENTILATOR
FIGURE4
LIFEBREATHCLEANAIRFURNACE
2. INSTALLAHUMIDIFIER. Lowindoorhumiditycanbeproblematicincoldclimatesduringtheheatingseason.Cold,winterairholds lessmoisturethanwarmsummerair(80 Fairat50%RHcontainstwiceasmuchwateras42 Fairat 100%RH).Lowindoorrelativehumiditycanleadtodryskin,nosebleeds,andrespiratoryproblems.An indoorrelativehumidityof35to50%isrecommended.Therearethreebasichumidiertypesforresi dentialapplications:pan,wetted-element,andsteam.Ultrasonicandimpeller-typehumidiers,whichemit amistintotheair,arediscouragedbecausetheyrequiretheuseofdemineralizedordistilledwatertoavoid circulatingharmfulmineralsintotheair.Whole-househumidiersareusedinconjunctionwithawarmairfurnace.Pan-typehumidiersuseapanofwaterinthefurnaceplenum.Aswarmairowsoverthepan, waterevaporatesintotheair.Aheatingelementcanbeusedtoincreasethewatertemperatureandtherate of evaporation and/or wicking plates can be used to increase the pans effective surface area (Fig. 5). Wetted-elementhumidiersuseaplasticpadthatrotatesthroughareservoirofwater(Fig.6).Asairpasses throughthepad,waterevaporatesintotheairstream.Steamhumidiersuseheatingelementstoboilthe 38
waterinapan.Theyprovidehigherhumidicationoutputthanotherhumidiertypes.Honeywellproduces
a steam humidier for residential applications that independently controls the furnace fan to provide
humidiedairtothespaceevenwhenthefurnaceisnotrunningtosupplyheat.Anissuewithalltypesof
humidiersisdisposalofmineraldepositsthataccumulateinthewaterreservoir.Automaticushingsystems
areavailable,butrequireadrainandusemorewater.Humidierswithoutaushingsystemshouldbe
cleanedroutinely,everyoneortwomonths,toremovethedeposits.Humidistatsaretypicallyusedtocon
trolhumidiers.ResearchProductshasintroducedanAprilairewhole-househumidierthatmonitorsthe
outdoorhumidityandautomaticallyprovidestheoptimumhumiditytothehome.
ADVANTAGES:Higher,morecomfortableheatingseasonhumidityallowslowerthermostatsettingswithout
sacricingcomfort(forexample,airat69Fand35%RHprovidesthesamelevelofcomfortas72Fand
19%RH).
DISADVANTAGES: Ifimproperlycontrolled,excessiveindoorhumiditycancausedamagingcondensation
problems.Maintenancerequiredtoremovemineraldepositsonnon-ushingsystems.
FIGURE5,6
PANHUMIDIFIER
WETTED-DRUMHUMIDIFIER
FIGURE7
ULTRA-AIREPURIFYINGDEHUMIDIFIER
39
3. INSTALLADEHUMIDIFIER.
Highlevelsofindoorhumiditycannotonlycausecomfortproblems,butalsohealthconcernswiththe
potentialforincreasedgrowthofmoldandbacteria.Inseveresituations,buildingmaterialsandfurnish
ingscanbedamagedbymildew.
Highlevelsofhumiditycanoccurinatighthomewheninternallygeneratedmoisturebypeople, cooking,orshoweringisnotexhausted.Condensationontheinsideofcoldwindowsandwithinwallinsu lationinthewintercanbedamaging.BathfanssuchastheSmartSensebyNutoneautomaticallyactivate whenhighhumiditylevelsaredetected. Highhumiditylevelscanalsooccurinthesummeriftheventilationsystemintroduceshumid outsideairtotheconditionedspace.Dehumidiersappropriateforresidentialapplicationsemployrefrig erationtocooltheairbelowitsdewpointtoremovemoisture.Thisprocessalsomightcooltheairlower thandesired.Thecool,dryaircanbereheatedbypassingitovertheunitscondensercoil.Therearesev eral manufacturers of these types of systems, such as Therma-Stor Products Ultra-Aire Air Purifying Dehumidier,whichcombinesadehumidierwithanoutdoorairinletforventilationairandanoptional 95%efcientpleatedmedialter(Fig.7). ADVANTAGES:Humidityisproperlycontrolledindependentoftemperature.Atlowerindoorhumidities, thermostatsettingscanberaisedtoachievethesamelevelofcomfort. DISADVANTAGES:Canbecostlytoinstallandoperate. 4. INSTALLANAIRFILTERORCLEANER. Peoplewhoareparticularlysensitivetoaircontaminantssuchasdustandpollen,maybenetfromahighefciencyairlteroraircleaner.Airpollutantsareeitheraparticulateoragasandtherearespecictypes ofltersforeachcategory.Particulatepollutantsincludemoldspores,pollen,housedust,animaldander, clothingandfurnishingbers,anddirt.Mostltersaredesignedforparticulateremoval.Gasesinclude combustion gases, by-products of human and animal metabolism, and volatile organic compounds. Adsorptiontypelterssuchascharcoalareusedforgaspollutants.Tobaccoandwoodsmokeareboth particulatesandgasesandrequireacombinationofltertypes.Thestandardlterinafurnaceorairconditioningsystemistypicallyonlygoodforfairlylargeparticulates.Atestfordeterminingtheefciency ofalteristheatmospheric-spot-dusttest,whichmeasuresparticlesbetween0.3and6micronsinsize. Astandard1-thickfurnaceltermayonlybe3to5%efcientaccordingtoanatmospheric-spot-dusttest. Thestandardfurnace/airconditionerlterisamedialterbecauseitismadeofmaterialthatisdesigned totrapparticulates.Thehigherthemedialterefciency,thegreatertheinitialcostandoperatingcost duetohigherpressuredropandthusfanenergyrequirements. Anothertypeofairlter,anelectrostaticprecipitator,givesparticulatesastatic-electriccharge to capture them. The charged particulates are then collected by oppositely charged metal plates. Electrostaticprecipitatorsareoftenratedat90%efciency(atmospheric-spot-dusttest),butthemetal platesmustbecleanedoftentomaintainefciency.Thesetypesofairltersalsoproducesmallamounts ofozonethatcanthenbecapturedinasubsequentadsorptionlter.Theydonothavethepressuredrop problemofmedialters.Electrostaticairltersaremedialtersthatuseaspecialbrousplasticmater ialthatbecomeschargedasairpassesthrough(Fig.8).Oppositelychargedparticlesintheairstreamthen clingtotheltermedia.Theyareabout10to15%efcient(atmospheric-spot-dust-test),buthavealower pressuredroppenaltythana30to60%efcientmedium-efciencymedialter. Completeaircleaningsystemswillincludeaparticulatelterandanadsorptionlter.Thereare alsosystemsthataddresstheneedforventilationair.Therma-StorProductsmanufacturestheFilter-Vent Systemthatbringsinoutsideair,combinesitwithindoorair,anddrawsthemixedairthrougha90to 95%medialterandanactivatedcarbonlter. ADVANTAGES:Theonlymethodofprovidingpollutant-freeindoorairinanareawithhighlevelsofoutdoorpollutantsand/orforthoseoccupantswhoareespeciallysensitive. DISADVANTAGES:High maintenance.Uncleanedmedialtersproduceanexcessivelyhighpressuredrop. Anuncleanedelectrostaticprecipitatororlterwillbeineffective.Highinitialandoperatingcosts.Air cleanersalonedonotbringinoutsideairsotheyarenotasubstituteforaventilationsystem. 40
FIGURE8
ELECTROSTATICAIRFILTER
FURTHER READING
ASHRAEStandard62-1989,VentilationforAcceptableIndoorAirQuality,Atlanta,GA,AmericanSociety ofHeating,RefrigeratingandAir-ConditioningEngineers,1989. CertiedHomeVentilatingProductsDirectory, HomeVentilatingInstitute,DivisionofAMCA,30West UniversityDrive,ArlingtonHeights,IL60004;847-394-0150. UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
American Aldes Ventilation Corporation, 4537 Northgate Court, Sarasota, FL 34234; 800-255-7749; www.oikos.com/aldes. Honeywell,Inc.,1985DouglasDr.North,GoldenValley,MN55422;800-328-5111;www.honeywell.com. Nutech Energy Systems, Inc., 270 Regency Ridge, Suite 210, Dayton, Ohio 45459; 937-439-6676; www.lifebreath.com. ResearchProductsCorporation,1015EastWashingtonAvenue,P.O.Box1467,Madison,WI53701;800545-2219;www.resprod.com. Therma-StorProducts,P.O.Box8050,Madison,WI53708;800-533-7533;www.thermastor.com. Trion,Inc.,P.O.Box760,Sanford,NC27331;919-775-2201;www.trioninc.com.
41
CONTROLS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
A critically important aspect of an HVAC systems ability to efciently maintain comfort is its controls. Today,nearlyallheatingand/orcoolingsystemsarecontrolledbyathermostat.Evenfactory-builtwood replacesareavailablewiththermostatcontrol.ThesophisticationofthermostatsandotherHVACsystem controlshasevolveddramaticallyoverthelastdecadewiththeadvancementofelectroniccontrols.As controlsforresidentialsystemsarerelativelyinexpensive,andtheirtechnologyhasadvancedsignicantly inthepastfewyears,itiscosteffectivetoreplaceoldercontrolsthatmaynotbeoperatingproperly. Athermostatsensestheroomairtemperatureandcontrolstheheatingsystemviaanelectrical switchaccordingtoanoccupant-selectedsetpointtemperature.Linevoltagethermostatsaretypicallyused forzonalelectricresistanceheatingsystemsandlowvoltagethermostatsareusedforcentralsystems. Thermostatsshouldbelocatedabout5abovetheoorwheretheywillsenseanairtemperaturerepre sentativeoftheroomorareabeingcontrolled.Locationnearaheatsourcesuchasthesupplyregisteror heatsinksuchasawindowwillresultinpoorcomfortcontrol. Old-styleelectromechanicalthermostatsfoundinmanyrehabprojectsemployeitheramercury orsnap-actionswitch,abimetalliccoil,andananticipator(Fig.1).Thebimetalliccoilexpandsandcontractsasitheatsandcools,activatinganddeactivatingtheswitchthatcontrolsfurnaceorboileropera tion.Theanticipatorisatinyheaterthatheatsthebimetalliccoiltocompensateforitsslowresponseto changingairtemperature.Adjustmentofthethermostatdialestablishestheangleorthetensionofthe bimetalliccoiltothecontacts.Thereareversionsofthesethermostatsthatincludeanelectricclockto switchthethermostatbetweentwotemperaturesettingstoachieveanenergy-savingsetbackcondition.An eight-hourovernightsetbackduringtheheatingseasonsaves1%to2%perdegreeofsetback.Aneighthourmiddaysetupduringthecoolingseasonsaves1%to3%perdegreeofsetup.
FIGURE1
ELECTRICALTHERMOSTAT
42

1.REPLACETHEBIMETALTHERMOSTATWITHANELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLE THERMOSTAT. Whileelectromechanicalthermostats(Fig.2)arelowerincostthanelectronicprogrammablethermostats, theirperformanceintermsofdeadbandanddroopispooreraswell.Deadbandisanindicatorofthe swinginroomtemperaturebetweenheating/coolingsystemcycles.Droopisanindicatorofhowwellthe anticipatorisfunctioning.Thermostatsalsodegradeovertimeascalibrationslipsandmechanicalparts stick.Anoldelectromechanicalthermostatcanbecleanedandrecalibrated,butabettersolutionistosim plyreplaceitwithanewelectronicthermostat.Electronicthermostatsemployathermistorratherthana bimetallic coil for sensing the room air temperature. It is more sensitive and fast responding. Microprocessorprogrammingallowsforseveraldifferenttemperaturesettingsthroughoutthedayandfor differentdaysoftheweek.Someunitsprovidefordifferentsettingsforweekdaysandweekendsorweekdays,Saturdays,andSundays.TheLightstatthermostathastheabilitytoadjustthethermostatsettingusing thelightlevelintheroomasanindicatorofwhetherpeopleareintheroom.Honeywellhasathermostat thatsenseslightinglevelsandoccupancy.Thermostatsarealsonowavailableaswirelessremotecontrol devices.Theymaybeplacedonthecoffeetableinthecenteroftheroomnexttothetelevisionremote. HomeAutomationmanufacturesalineofthermostatsthatcancommunicatewithhomeautomationsys tems,personalcomputers,andutilitydemand-sidemanagementprograms.Inaregionwithreal-timepric ing,theRC-91modelhastheabilitytodisplaythereal-timeenergypriceandtheusercanthensetthether mostataccordingly. ADVANTAGES:Energysavingsthroughmorecapabilitytosetbacktemperatureduringunoccupiedornight timehours.Moreaccurateandresponsiveforbettercomfortcontrol. DISADVANTAGES: Somewhat higher cost. Just like VCRs, there may be some homeowners that have difcultyfollowingthesequentialstepstoprogramthemproperly.Sometypesofheatdistributionsystems suchasradiantandhydronicbaseboardsystemsarenotasresponsiveasforcedairandthetimerequired torecoverfromathermostatsetbackmaybeunacceptable.
FIGURE2
ELECTRONICPROGRAMMABLETHERMOSTAT
2. INSTALLAHUMIDISTAT. Typically, heating and cooling systems are designed to maintain comfort in terms of temperature only. Humidityisallowedtouctuate.Inwarmhumidclimates,itmaybedesirabletocontroltheaircondi tioning system to maintain comfort humidity as well as temperature conditions. In colder climates, a humidiermaybeinstalledtomaintainhigherandmorecomfortableindoorhumiditylevels.Ineithersit43
uation,theinstallationofahumidistat(ordehumidistat,dependingonthesituation)isappropriate.The
locationofthehumidistatcanvary.Itcanbeintheroomnextto,orintegralwith,thethermostatorinthe
returnairduct.Thehumidistatworksinasimilarmannertothethermostat.Itsenseshumidityandturns
theairconditionerorhumidieronoroffbaseduponahumiditysetpoint.Fortwo-speedaircondition
ers,thedehumidistatmaytriggerthesystemtogotolowspeedforenhanceddehumidicationcapability.
ADVANTAGES:Bettercontrolofhumidityforimprovedcomfortandairquality.
DISADVANTAGES:Calibrationneedstobecheckedperiodically.Whencontrollinganairconditioningsys
teminhumidclimates,cancauseover-cooling.
3. INSTALLACONTROLSYSTEMTHATSENSESOUTDOORCONDITIONSAND ADJUSTSACCORDINGLY. Moresophisticatedcontrolsystemsincorporateoutdoortemperaturesensorsaswellasindoorsensorsfor bettercontrolandoperatingefciency.Forheatpumpsystemsequippedwithauxiliaryelectricresistance heat,anoutsidetemperaturesensorisusedtolockouttheresistanceheatwhentheoutdoortemperatureis aboveaspecicsetting.Thispreventstheresistanceheatfromunnecessarilycomingontoquicklyrecover fromanighttimesetback.Outdoortemperaturesensorsarealsousedtoadjustthewatertemperaturein hydronicsystemstothelowesttemperaturenecessarytomeetthehomesheatingload.Forthecontrolof humidiersincoldclimates,HoneywellComfortCenterswinterhumiditycontrolsensesoutdoortempera tureandresetstheindoorhumiditysettingaccordinglytopreventcondensationonwindows.TheHoneywell systemcanbecustomizedfortheinsulatingvalueofthehomeswindows.Aprilairealsohasahumidistatthat controlsaccordingtooutdoortemperaturebutdoesnothavethewindowcustomizationcapability. ADVANTAGES:Reducedoperatingcostsfortheheatpumpauxiliaryheatlockoutcontrol. DISADVANTAGES:Higherinitialcost.
FIGURE3
VENTILATIONCONTROLLER
MOTORIZEDOUTSIDEAIRDAMPER
44
4. INSTALLVENTILATIONSYSTEMCONTROLS. Thereisavarietyofmethodsforcontrollingmechanicalventilationsystems.Onthesimple,lowcostend ofthespectrumarethemanualcontrols.Theseincludeasimpleon/offswitch.Additionalfeaturesmight beatimerthatshutsthefanoffautomaticallyafteracertainperiodoftimeoraspeedcontrolthatallows theusertoselecttheventilationairow.Themanualcontrolsrelyupontheuserrecognizingwhenventi lationisneededandtakingtheappropriatecontrolaction.Theaveragehumannoseismoresensitiveto airpollutantsthanmostsophisticatedelectronicsensors.Anothersetofcontroloptionsthataremore sophisticatedandmoreexpensiveareautomatic.Theseincludetimeclocksprogrammedbytheuser.TrolA-TempsTimedMake-UpAirControl(TMAC)orTimedVentilationControl(TVC)aresimpletimersthat controlamotorizeddamperthatallowsoutsideairintothecentralHVACsystem(Fig.3).Theunitwill turnontheHVACblowerifitisnotalreadyrunning.Automaticcontrolsalsoincludeavarietyofdemandcontrolledventilation(DCV)strategies.TheDCVmethodsrelyuponasensorinthespaceorreturnduct todetectwhenadditionalventilationairisneeded.Thesensingparametercanbemotion,humidity,car-
bondioxide,oramixtureofgaseouspollutantssuchastobaccosmoke,cookingodors,andVOCs.For themostpart,themanualcontrolstendtobemostappropriateforlocalexhaustfansandthemoresophis ticatedautomaticcontrolsareappropriateforwhole-houseventilationsystems. ADVANTAGES:Manualcontrolsarerelativelyinexpensiveandreliable.Automaticcontrolsdonotrelyupon theuser. DISADVANTAGES: Manual controls rely upon the user for proper control. Automatic controls are more expensiveandcanfalloutofcalibrationresultingineitherinsufcientorexcessiveventilationairquantities. 5. INSTALLAFORCED-AIRZONINGSYSTEM. Forced-airzoningsystemsutilizethermostatsinconjunctionwithmotorizeddampersinindividualsupply ductstodifferentcontrolzones(Fig.4).Byvaryingtheairowinresponsetothezonethermostat,asin gleairconditioningand/orheatingsystemcanbeusedtomeetthevaryingneedsofmultiplezones.These systemsaremosteasilyinstalledinanewinstallation,butcanberetrottedintoanexistingsystem.Care mustbetakentoeitherbypassextraairoroversizetheductworktoassurethatcentralsystemairow doesnotdropbelowthedesignminimumwhenonlyoneortwozonesarecallingforairandallother zones are closed. There are several manufacturers of this type of system including Research Products Corporation,Carrier,Honeywell/Trol-A-TempandDurazone. ADVANTAGES:Achievestheenergysavingandimprovedcomfortbenetsofzoningwithacentralforcedairsystem. DISADVANTAGES:Highinitialcost.Systemsneedtobecarefullydesignedtoassurethatminimumairow requirementsaremetunderalloperatingconditions.
FIGURE4
FORCED-AIRZONINGSYSTEM
FURTHER READING
Comfort,AirQuality,andEfciencybyDesign,ManualRS,AirConditioningContractorsAssociation,1997. UnderstandingVentilation,JohnBower,TheHealthyHouseInstitute,1995. 45
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BroanMfg.Co.,Inc.,P.O.Box140,Hartford,WI53027;800-548-0790;www.broan.com. CarrierNorthAmericanOperations,P.O.Box4808,CarrierParkway,Syracuse,NY13221;315-432-6000; www.carrier.com. HomeAutomation,Inc.,2709RidgelakeDrive,Metairie,LA70002;800-229-7256. Honeywell,Inc.,1985DouglasDr.North,GoldenValley,MN55422;800-328-5111;www.honeywell.com. Lightstat,Inc.,22W.WestHillRoad,Winsted,CT06098;800-292-2444;www.lightstat.com. Robertshaw,Uni-LineNorthAmerica,DivisionofSiebeClimateControl,P.O.Box2000,Corona,CA91719; 909-734-2600;www.robertshaw.com. Tamarack Technologies, Inc., 11 Pattersons Brook Rd., West Wareham, MA 02576; 800-222-5932; www.tamtech.com. Trol-A-Temp, Division of Trolex Corp., 57 Bushes Lane, Elmwood Park, NJ 07407; 800-828-8367; www.trolatemp.com.
46
FIREPLACES& CHIMNEYS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
In recent years replaces have captured a renewed interest as a supplemental heating source for the home.Inarehabilitationproject,rehabilitatinganexistingreplaceorinstallinganewreplacemaybe underconsideration.Therehabilitationofanexistingreplacecannotonlyaddtotheappearanceofthe room,butalsoprovideforsafeandefcientspaceheating.Theinstallationofanew,efcientreplaceto supplementanexistingsystem,whichmaybeinefcientand/orundersized,maybeanattractivealterna tivetoreplacingtheexistingsystem. Traditional wood-burning replace designs are not efcient, can produce emissions that are harmful to the environment, and, if poorly designed or maintained, can be dangerous. In fact, some WesternmunicipalitiesintheU.S.havepassedordinancesprohibitingtheinstallationofaconventional replaceforenvironmentalreasons.EPA-approved,factory-builtwoodandgasreplaces,woodstoves,or gas-redlogsareacceptablealternativeswhichshouldbeconsideredduringarehabilitationproject. If constructing or signicantly reconstructing a replace or installing a stove, building codes should be carefully reviewed for minimum requirements for materials, heights, and clearances. Local coderequirementsapplyeveniftheexistingchimneyisused.Ifanoldunusedreplaceisfoundencased inplasterduringthecourseofarehabilitationproject,itcanbereconstructedbyacompetentmasonwho knowsandfollowsrecommendeddesignpractices.Manyearlyreplacesandchimneyssmokedtoomuch duetoawsintheirdesign.Thispoorperformancemaybethereasonthatthereplacehadbeenaban doned.Ifanold,closed-offchimneyistoberehabilitated,makesurethatitstillrunsthroughtheroofto anappropriateheightandthatopeningsforotherstovepipeshavenotbeencutintoit.Oldchimneyswere oftenusedtoservemultiplestoveswithasingleue.
FIGURE1
CONVENTIONALWOOD-BURNINGFIREPLACE
47
Conventionalreplaces(Fig.1)provideheatprimarilybyradiation.Thus,theamountofbrick masonry,surfaceareaexposedtothere,itsdistancefromthereandthesizeoftheredeterminethe amountofheatprovided.Rumford-stylereplacesfeatureangledsidewalls,ashallowdepth,andahigh opening.Thesereplacestendtobemoreefcientthanconventionaldesignsbecausetheyradiatemore heatanddrawlessroomairupthechimney.Air-circulatingreplaces(Fig.2)captureheatfromtheback ofthereboxbycirculatingroomairthroughbrickbafesorsteelplates.Thiswarmedaircanthenbe circulatedbyafantospacestoprovideheatbyconvection. Theprimaryfunctionofachimneyueistoexhaustcombustionwastes-carbondioxide,nitro gen,sulfurdioxide,watervapor,andcarbonmonoxide.Asecondfunctionistocreateadraftthatpulls theairoverthere.Forawood-burningre,thedraftmustbestrong.Toaccomplishthis,thereplace hasaslopedbackandasteppedthroatcontrolledbyadamper.Eachcombustionheatsource(e.g.,fur nace and replace) needs its own ue, but a single chimney can contain several ues from multiple replacesand/orafurnace.(Fig.3)Twocombustionappliancessuchasawaterheaterandafurnacecan shareaue.Inthisinstance,problemscanariseifoneofthoseappliancesisreplacedwithadirect-vent unit because the ue is too large for the remaining appliance. Condensation of combustion gases can occurinthechimney,resultingincorrosion.Thiscanalsooccurwiththeinstallationofahigherefciency chimney-ventedcombustionappliance,particularlyinacoldclimate. Beyondreplacingthebrickandmortarofanolddisintegratingchimney,clearingseveralinches ofdebrisfromabovethedamper,andclearingotherblockagesinthechimneyue,severaladditionalsteps maybenecessarytoassurethatanoldreplaceandchimneyareinsafeworkingcondition.Alternativesor enhancementstothereplacesuchasstovesandinsertscanalsoimprovetheefciencyofthesystem.
FIGURE2,3
AIR-CIRCULATINGFIREPLACE
MULTI-FLUECHIMNEY

1. REBUILDORREPOINTTHECHIMNEY. Themortarbetweenthebricksofanoldchimneyislikelytobeinneedofrenewal.Itwasnotintended tolastaslongasthebricks.Thereplacementprocessisknownasrepointingortucking.Whateverkind 48
ofmortarwasusedinitiallyshouldbeusedforrepointingsoastohavethesameexpansionandcom
pressioncharacteristicsundervaryingweatherconditions.Insomeinstances,theconditionofthechim
neymayhavedeterioratedtoapointbeyondrepairbyrepointingandrelining.Whenthemortarcrumbles
easilyand/orbricksareloose,removalandreplacementshouldbeconsidered.Itmaybepossibletoreuse
theoriginalbricks.Creosoteisacarcinogensoarespiratorshouldbewornwhenrehabilitatinganold
chimneyandtheworkareashouldbeenclosedinplasticsheetingtoprotecttherestofthehouse.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedsafetyandintegrityofthechimney.
DISADVANTAGES:Canbeexpensivebecauseitisatimeconsumingprocessthatrequirestheexpertiseof
amason.
2. INSTALLACHIMNEYCAP.
Rainmixingwithsootandreplacegasesproducesadestructiveacid.Thus,allchimneysshouldhavea
raincaptopreventthisdeterioration(Fig.4).Raincapscanalsominimizedowndrafts.
ADVANTAGES:Fairlyinexpensive.Extendsthelifeofthechimney.
DISADVANTAGES:Difculttoinstallonhighchimneys.
FIGURE4
CHIMNEYCAP
3. RELINETHECHIMNEY.
Liners,whicharenowrequiredbycode,preventtheheatfromachimneyrefromcausingahousere.
Olderchimneysmaybeunlined(pre-1910),linedwithmortarthathasdeteriorated,orhaveoldtilelin
ersthatarecracked.Theyalsooftenservedmorethanonereplaceandhadmorethanoneueinthem
withawallofbrickasadivider.Thisbrickdividerislikelytobeinverypoorconditionandtumbling
bricksfromthisdividercanblocktheue.
Thesolutiontoalloftheseproblemsistorelinethechimney.Therearedifferentmethodsfor reliningachimney. Installametalpipeavailablein3ft.sectionsfromlocalheatingsuppliers.Stainlesssteelshouldbeused iftheuewillbeusedforfurnacegases,whichareverycorrosive.Sealaroundthepipeatthebottomand top of the chimney with lightweight mortar. Flexible pipe is also available for non-straight chimneys. Cautionisadvisedifthechimneyhasaweakdraft.Reducingthecross-sectionareaoftheuewithametal pipewillonlyworsenthesituation. Installatilelining.Thisisrequiredbycodeinsomeareasifthechimneyistobeusedwithwoodres. Althoughmoreexpensive,atilelinerismoreresistanttocorrosionandthehightemperaturesofachimney reduetocreosotebuildup. 49
Useapatentedprocess,whichisonlyavailablethroughfranchiseddealers,tolinethechimneywitha
cementiousmix.Avinylorrubberhosecanbeinsertedandinated(Fig.5).Lightweightconcreteisthen
pouredaroundthehose,whichisdeatedandremovedaftertheconcretesets.
ADVANTAGES:Improvedsafetyandintegrityofthechimney.
DISADVANTAGES:Canreducethesizeoftheueandthusthedrafttoaninsufcientlevel.
FIGURE5
CHIMNEYRELINING
50
4. INSTALLANEXTERIORAIRSUPPLYFORCOMBUSTIONANDDRAFTAIR. Conventionalreplacesdrawroomairthathasbeenheatedbythehomesprimaryheatingsystemand exhaustitoutthechimney.Thisairisreplacedbyinltrationofcoldoutsideairthroughcracksandopen ingsinthebuildingenvelope.Intightlyconstructedhomesorhomesthatarealreadyexhaustingairwith fans and dryers, the replace may be starved for air and dumping smoke into the room because of insufcientdraft.Asolutiontotheseproblemsistoprovideameansforusingoutsideairforcombustion. Therearethreebasiccomponentstoanexteriorsupplyairsystemforareplace:intake,pas sageway,andinlet(Fig.1).Theintakeistypicallylocatedonanoutsidewallorthebackofthereplace, butcanbeinacrawlspace,attic,orotherunheatedspace.Manycodeswillnotallowlocationofaninlet withinagaragebecauseofthepotentialpresenceoffuelfumes.Apassagewayorductconnectstheintake totheinlet.Itisusuallyinsulatedtoreduceheatloss.Theinletintroducestheoutsideairtotherebox. Adamperisnecessarytocontrolthevolumeanddirectionofairow. Glassdoorsaretypicallyinstalledtopreventindoorairfromenteringthereboxandgoingup thechimney.Unfortunately,thetemperedglassthatissooftenusedisnotagoodtransmitterofinfrared radiationsotheradiantheatfromthereitselfissignicantlyreduced.
ADVANTAGES:Minimizestheexltrationofheatedconditioned-spaceair. DISADVANTAGES:Maybedifculttoinstallinanexistingreplace. 5. INSTALLANENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYGRATE.

ThespeciallydesignedEcoFireSuper-Grate,marketedbyAndironTechnologies,canbeinstalledtoreduce
the harmful emissions of a conventional replace. This stainless steel grate replaces the wrought-iron
gratethatholdswoodlogs.Itisattachedtoafanwhichblowsairthroughholesinthetubesofthegrate.
Thisairresultsinanextremelyhotrewhichhasloweremissionlevels.Theheat-reectingshieldwhich
isattachedimprovesheatingefciencybyincreasingtheradiantheatoutput.
ADVANTAGES:Easilyretrottoexistingreplaces.
DISADVANTAGES:Relativelyexpensiveandstillsubjecttowood-burningbans.
6. INSTALLAGASLOGSETORFIREPLACE.
A gas log set is primarily a decorative appliance. It includes a grate holding ceramic logs, simulated
embers, a gas burner, and a variable ame controller. These sets can be installed in most existing
replaces.Therearetwoprincipaltypes:ventedandunvented.Ventedtypesrequireachimneyuefor
exhaustingthegases.Theyareonly20%to30%efcientandmostcodesrequirethattheuebewelded
open,whichresultsinaneasyexltrationpathforheatedroomair.Unventedtypesoperateliketheburner
onagasstoveandthecombustionproductsareemittedintotheroom.Theyaremoreefcientbecause
noheatislostuptheueandmostareequippedwithoxygendepletionsensors,buttheyarebannedin
somestates,includingMassachusettsandCalifornia.
Gasreplacesincorporateagaslogsetintoacompletereboxunitwithaglassdoor(Fig.6). Somehavebuilt-indampers,smokeshelves,andheatcirculatingfeaturesthatgivethemthecapabilityto providebothradiantandconvectiveheat.Unitscanhavepush-buttonignition,remotecontrol,variable heatcontrols,andthermostats.Gasreplacesaremoreefcientthangaslogswithefcienciesof60%to 80%.Manydrawcombustionairinfromtheoutsideandaredirectvented,eliminatingtheneedfora chimney(Fig.7).Someoftheseunitsarewallfurnacerated. Therearealsoelectricreplaceswhichprovidetheambienceofareand,ifdesired,asmall amountofresistanceheat.Theseunitshavenoventingrequirements. ADVANTAGES: Noashesoryingsparksthatoccurwithwood-burningreplaces.Notaffectedbywood burningbansimposedinsomeareaswhenairqualitystandardsarenotmet.Direct-ventedgasorelectric modelseliminatetheneedforachimney. DISADVANTAGES: Costforequipmentandrunningthegaslinecanbehigh.Cannotuseexistingmasonry chimneywithagasreplace.
FIGURE6
GASFIREPLACE
51
FIGURE7
DIRECT-VENTGASFIREPLACE
7. INSTALLAWOODSTOVE,FIREPLACEINSERT,ORADVANCEDFIREPLACE. Therearewood-burningequipmentalternativesthatofferanimprovementoveraconventionalwood-burn ingreplacethatmayonlybe10%efcient.Theseincludewoodstoves,replaceinserts,andadvanced replacecores.Theperformanceofwood-burningsystemsvariesdramaticallywiththetypeofequipment, thetypeofwoodbeingburned,thewoodsmoisturecontent,andthewayitismaintainedandoperated. Woodstoveswithoutaircontrols,suchasFranklinstoves,haveefcienciesof20%to30%.Stoves withcontrolledairinletsintoprimaryandsecondarycombustionareascanhaveefcienciesashighas55%. Advanceddesignscanhaveefcienciesashighas75%.Themoreefcientsystemsrequiremuchlessexcess airforcombustionandproducelowerlevelsofincompletecombustionproductswhichproducecreosote. Wood-burningreplaceinsertsaredesignedtotintoexistingreplacestoimprovetheirheat ingperformance.Somestovessitonanexistingreplacehearthandventupthechimney. InresponsetosomeWestern-stateordinancesbanningtheinstallationofatraditionalreplace, manufacturersrespondedwithreplacesthatmeettheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencys(EPA)standards forwoodstoves.Theseunitsareasefcientastheadvancedwoodstoves.Theyareair-tightwithgasketed doorsandapyro-ceramicglasswindowthatallowstheinfraredheatfromtheameintotheroom.The advancedreplacehasaninsulatedcasingtoreduceheatlossthroughtheoutsidewallofthehouse.Asquir rel-cagefanisusedtodrawroomairinandaroundthecasingtopickupadditionalconvectiveheatandsupplyittotheroom.Heatoutputiscontrolledbytheamountofoutsideairintakeforcombustion.Someeven allowforshortductrunstodistributeheatvianaturalconvectiontoisolatedrooms.RSFEnergyproducesa replacesystemthatcansupplyawhole-houseductsystemwithanin-lineblowerandthermostats(Fig.8). TheRumford-stylereplacedesignedbyJimBuckleyisoneoftheonlymasonryreplacesthat meetsmostairqualitystandards.Areplacekitisavailablefortheconstructionofamasonryreplace baseduponthetraditionalRumforddesign.Thekitincludesaone-piececurvedclaythroat,aclayuetile liner,asmokechamber,astainless-steeldamper,andoptionalglassdoors. ADVANTAGES: Higherefciencythanaconventionalwood-burningreplace. DISADVANTAGES: Can be subject to wood-burning bans when local air quality standards are not met. Requiresmaintenancetopreventthedangerousbuildupofcreosote.
FURTHER READING
BacktotheFutureFireplace, ThisOldHouse,January/February1997,pp.74-79. 52
FIGURE8
DUCTEDFIREPLACE
BrickInstituteofAmerica(BIA)TechnicalNotesonBrickConstruction.Availableon-lineatwww.bia.org.: TechnicalNote19ResidentialFireplaceDesign,January1993. TechnicalNote19AResidentialFireplaces,DetailsandConstruction,May1980. TechnicalNote19BResidentialChimneysDesignandConstruction,January1988. RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,TheTauntonPress,1992. SunsetFireplaces&WoodStoves,LanePublishingCo.,1989. TheFireplaceBook,TheAberdeenGroup,1992. TheOld-HouseJournalCompendium,ClemLabineandCarolynFlaherty,TheOverlookPress,1980. TheStanleyCompleteStep-by-StepBookofHomeRepairandImprovement,JamesA.Hufnagel,New York:Simon&Schuster,1993.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
AndironTechnolgies,Inc.,2995WoodsideRoad,Suite400,Woodside,CA;888-4-EcoFire;www.EcoFire.com. BuckleyRumford,710FosterStreet,PortTownsend,WA;800-447-7788;www.rumford.com Heat-N-GloFireplaceProducts,6665WestHwy13,Minneapolis,MN;888-743-2887;www.heatnglo.com Heatilator,Inc.,1915WestSaundersStreet,Mt.Pleasant,IA;319-385-9211;www.heatilator.com IndustrialChimneyCompany/RSFEnergy,801St.Nicholas,St.Jerome,Quebec,Canada;450-565-6336; www.icc-rsf.com MajesticProductsCompany,1000E.MarketStreet,Huntington,IN;800-525-1898;www.majesticprod ucts.com TemcoFireplaceProducts,301S.PerimeterParkDrive,Suite227,Nashville,TN;615-831-9393.
53
10 DOMESTICHOT WA T E R H E A T I N G
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Dependingonwhetherthehomeisairconditionedornot,waterheatingisthesecondorthirdlargest energyexpenseinthehome.Traditionally,waterheatingaccountsforapproximately14%oftheutilitybill. Asspaceheatingandcoolingloadsdecreaseandsystemefcienciesincrease,waterheatingrepresentsa greaterportionofthehomesenergybill. Thepredominantdesignforwaterheatersisthestoragetype(Fig.1).Theseunitsholdheated waterinathermostaticallycontrolledstoragetank.Tanksinresidentialapplicationsusuallyhavestorage capacitiesrangingfrom30to80gallons.Thetankmayhaveacombustionburnerinthebottomwitha uerunningupthroughthecenterofthetank,electricresistanceheatingelementsimmersedinthewater, oraheatexchangercirculatinguidheatedbyanothersourcesuchasaboiler. Whendecidingwhetherornotthedomesticwaterheatingsystemneedsrehabilitation,thefol lowingquestionsshouldbeanswered: Doesthepresentsystemhaveseveralyearsleftonitsexpectedlife? Isthetimeittakestodeliverhotwatertofaucetsacceptable? Istheresufcienthotwater? In a rehabilitation situation, the answer to any of these questions could be no. Poor maintenance can shortenthelifeofwaterheaters.Bathroomsaddedovertheyearsmayberemotefromthetanklocationor theadditionofclothesanddishwashersmayhaveincreasedhotwaterdemandsbeyondtheoriginaldesign.
FIGURE1
STORAGE-TYPEWATERHEATERS
Thelifeofstorage-typewaterheatersistypically10to15yearsduetothecorrosionofthetank. Maintenance,suchasreplacingtheanodeandcleaningsedimentfromthebottomofthetank,canextend itslife,butthisisrarelydone.Thus,ifthestoragetankismorethan10yearsold,itshouldprobablybe replaced.Themonthandyearthatthetankwasbuiltisusuallyencodedinitsserialnumber. Demand,orinstantaneous-typewaterheaterscanbelocatedclosertothexturetominimizethe waitingtimeforhotwater.Theseunitseliminatethetankanditsassociatedlossesalltogether. Ifpurchasinganewwaterheater,selectingasystemofthepropersizeandrecoveryrateisimportantto ensurethatallhotwaterdemandsaremet.Awaterheaterofinsufcientcapacitywillresultincoldshow ers,butawaterheaterthatistoolargewastesenergy.ThewaterheatersizeisdeterminedbytheFirstHour Rating(FHR),whichistheamountofhotwater(ingallons)thatcanbeproducedinonehour.TheFHR isnotonlyafunctionoftanksize,butalsorecoveryrate,whichisameasureofhowquicklytheincom ingcoldwatercanbeheated.Gaswaterheatershavehigherrecoveryratesthanelectricunits.Thus,for thesameFHR,thegaswaterheaterrequiresasmallertankthananelectricwaterheater. InadditiontotheFHR,storage-typewaterheatersaregivenanEnergyFactor(EF)rating.This isaseasonalefciencyratingthattakesintoaccountthewaterheatersrecoveryefciency,standbylosses, andenergyinput.Recoveryefciencyistheratiooftheamountofheatthatisabsorbedbythewaterto theamountofheatinput.

1.IMPROVETHEEFFICIENCYOFTHEEXISTINGSTORAGE-TYPEWATERHEATER. Inlieuofpurchasinganew,more-efcientwaterheater,thereareafewrelativelyeasyandinexpensive waystoimprovetheefciencyoftheexistingsystem.Theseareessentiallythesamemethodsthatmanu facturershaveusedtoimprovetheefciencyoftodaystankwaterheaters. Insulatethetankandpipes.Olderstorage-typewaterheaterscanbenetfromthesimpleinstal lationofaninsulatingjacketorblanket.Thisreducestheheatlossfromthetanktothesurroundingarea. Becarefulnottocoverthermostats,drains,ues,orcombustionairinlets.Insulatingthepipesreduces thelossesfromthehotwaterasitowsthroughthepipestothefaucet.Thesplitfoamrubbertypeofinsu lationiseffectiveandeasytoinstall. Installanti-convectionvalvesorloops.Thesedevicesareinstalledonthehotwaterinletandoutletpipestopreventtheconvectionofhotwaterupthepipesfromthetankwheninthestandbymode. Therearenumeroustypes.Somearebasedonasimpleball-typecheckvalve.Aloopinthepipingserves thesamepurpose(Fig.2). ADVANTAGES: Inexpensiveandeasytodo. DISADVANTAGES:Tankblanketsarenotaseffectiveasinternalinsulationbecausecertainareasmustbe leftexposedforaccessandventingpurposes.Theusefullifeofthesemeasuresislimitedtotheremain inglifeofthewaterheater.Theywillnotbenecessaryformostnewwaterheatersbecausehighlevelsof internaltankinsulationandanti-convectiondevicesarestandardfeatures.
FIGURE2
ANTI-CONVECTIONLOOP
55
2. INSTALLANINDIRECTSTORAGEWATERHEATER.
Inanolderhomewithahydronicheatingsystemsuppliedbyaboiler,atanklesscoilmaybethemethod
forheatingdomestichotwater.Thisisacoillocatedwithintheboiler.Thereisnostorageofhotwater.
Thisapproachissuitableinthewinterwhentheboilerisoperatingforspaceheating,butisinefcientin
thesummerbecausetheboilermuststartandstopfrequentlyjusttoprovidedomestichotwater.Analter-
nativeistoinstallanindirectstoragewaterheater(Fig.3).Heatinguidfromtheboileriscirculated
throughacoilinsidethestoragetank.Theboilerisstillusedthroughouttheyearfordomestichotwater,
butitcomesonlessfrequentlyinthesummerbecauseitrespondstoadropinstoragetanktemperature
andnoteverydemandforhotwater.
ADVANTAGES:Improvessystemefciency.
DISADVANTAGES:Requiresadditionaloorspaceforthestoragetank.
FIGURE3
INDIRECTSTORAGEWATERHEATER
3. INSTALLANEWELECTRICRESISTANCESTORAGEWATERHEATER.
Althoughthisisusuallythemostexpensivemethodforheatingwater,itisthesecondmostcommontype
ofwaterheateraftergasstorageunits.Ifhotwaterrequirementsarerelativelylow,thismaybethemost
practicalchoice.Newelectricstoragewaterheatershavehigherlevelsofinsulationthantheoldversions.
Someareall-plastic,whichdonotneedanodesandcomewithlifetime,never-leakwarranties.Electric
storagewaterheaterscanbelocatedalmostanywherebecausetherearenocombustionairandventing
issues.Timeclockscanbeusedtopreventtheresistanceelementsfromoperatingduringpeakelectric
chargeperiodswheretime-of-useratesareineffect.
ADVANTAGES:Lowerinitialcostthangasstoragewaterheaters.Installationlocationexibility.
DISADVANTAGES:Highoperatingcosts.
4. INSTALLANEWGASSTORAGEWATERHEATER.
New gas storage water heaters have better tank insulation, improved bafe designs, lower pilot burner
inputs, and new combustion chamber congurations than older versions. Bafes regulate the ow of
combustionairupthroughtheueandnewdesignsincreasethetransferofheatfromtheuegasestothe
water,increasingsystemefciency.Theyalsoreduceconvectiveairmovementandheatlossuptheue
duringstandbyperiods.
Aswithgasfurnaces,thereareseveralventingoptions.Standardunitsareatmosphericvented 56
withtheverticaluethatisoftentiedintothesamechimneyueasthegasfurnace.Power-ventedunits useafantoassisttheventingofthecombustiongases.Theseprovidemorelocationexibilitybecause longerverticalorhorizontalventpipescanbeused.Theyalsocannotbackdraftwhiletheburnerisoper ating.However,theystilluseindoorairforcombustionandnowrequireelectricitytooperate.Directventedunitsarealsoavailablethatdrawoutsideairinforcombustionandventdirectlyoutthewall. A gas water heater that avoids the problems of venting entirely is the Seahorse by Gas-Fired ProductsIncorporated.Thisunitisagas-redheatexchangerwithapumpthatisplacedinaninsulated boxontheoutsidewallofthehomeandplumbedintoastoragetankinsidethehomewhichmaybethe oldelectricwaterheater(Fig.4).GoingastepfurtheristheWeather-ProbyAmericanWaterHeater.This isagaswaterheaterthatcanbeinstalledoutside,includingthe50-gallontank.Itsdistributioniscurrently limitedtoSouthernstateswherefreezeprotectionisnotanissue. ADVANTAGES: Lowoperatingcost. DISADVANTAGES: Higherinitialcostthanelectricresistancestorage-typewaterheaters.Ventingrequire mentsrestrictlocationexibility.Power-ventedunitsrequireelectricitytooperateandhavehadoccasional problemswithnuisanceshutdownswhentheirpressuresafetyswitcheshavemistakenwindyconditions forblockedvents.
FIGURE4
SEAHORSEOUTSIDEGAS-FIREDWATERHEATEXCHANGER
5. INSTALLADEMANDWATERHEATER.
Insituationswherespacefora20to50gallonstoragetankislimitedorthewaitforhotwatertoatap
remotefromthestoragetankisexcessive,theinstallationofademandwaterheatermaybeappropriate.
Alsocalledtankless,instantaneous,andpoint-of-use,demandwaterheatersheatthewaterasitiscalled
for.Thereisnostoragetank.Somepoint-of-useunitsmaynotbetrulyinstantaneousortanklessbecause
theyemployasmall2-to4-gallonstoragetank(Fig.5).
Electricdemandwaterheatersheatthewaterasitpassesoveraresistanceelement.Thepower requirementslimittheseunitstowaterowratesforasinglesinkorlow-owshower.Oneofthelargest electricdemandwaterheatersistheSeiscoRA-28.Ratedat28kW,itiscapableofsupplying2.5gallonsper minuteata78 Ftemperaturerise.Electricdemandwaterheaterstypicallymodulatetheiroutputbyusing multipleheatingelements.Lessexpensive,xedoutputunitsdonotallowformuchvariationinwaterow. Gasdemandwaterheatersemployamodulatingburnertosupplyhotwaterataspecicpre-set temperature.Theiroutputissufcienttosatisfythehotwaterdemandsofanentirehome.Theymustbe mountedonanexternalwallforventingpurposes. ADVANTAGES: Locationexibilityduetotheirsmallsize.Reducedstandbylosses.Longerlifebecausethe 57
tankcorrosionissueiseliminated.Whenlocatednearthepointofuse,theyarewaterconservingbecause
thereislesscoldwatertogodownthedrainpriortothearrivalofhotwater.
DISADVANTAGES: Whiletheycandeliverhotwaterforanindeniteperiodoftime,theowrate(gallons
per minute) may not be sufcient. Most units cannot serve multiple tap requirements simultaneously.
Initialcostsarehigherthanstorage-typeunits.Requirelargergaslinesorpowerrequirementsthanstorage-
typeunits.Servicesupportmaybelessthanforthemore-commonstorage-typeunits.
FIGURE5
POINT-OF-USEWATERHEATER
58
6.SUPPLEMENTTHEWATERHEATERWITHAPREHEATINGORHEATRECOVERY SYSTEM. Theheatingrequirementsofthewaterheatercansometimesbesupplementedbyrecoveringwasteheat fromotherprocessesorcapturingsolarenergy.Oneofthesimplestapproachesisatemperingtank.This isaseconduninsulatedtanklocatedinawarmorsunnyareaandconnectedinserieswiththeprimary waterheatertank.Coldwaterrstentersthetemperingtankwhereitwarmsuptothesurroundingair temperature.Solarwaterheating,bothpassiveandactivesystems,canbeusedtopreheatwateranddur ingsometimesoftheyearcanmeetallofthewaterheatingneeds. Hotwaterdesuperheaters,suchastheHotTapunitbyAddisonProducts,arehotrefrigerant-towaterheatexchangersontherefrigerantlineofanairconditionerorheatpump.Suchaunitisinstalledafter thecompressor,butbeforethecondenser,toremovethesuperheatfromtherefrigerantvaporandtransfer ittothedomestichotwater(Fig.6).Theamountofwaterheatingprovidedbythesesystemsisafunctionof theairconditioningusagesincetheyonlyprovideheatwhentheairconditionerorheatpumpisoperating. Another method of heat recovery is the GFX (gravity lm exchange). This is a heat exchanger betweenthewaterwastepipeandtheDHWtankcoldwaterinlet(Fig.7).Itconsistsofasectionof3"or4" copperdrainpipewithacoilof1/2"or3/4"tubingwrappedaroundit.Attimesofhighhotwaterusesuch asshowering,thewatergoingdownthedrainisstillhot.Thisdevicerecoverssomeofthatheatandpreheats thecoldwaterowingintothetank.Therearenocontrolsormovingparts. ADVANTAGES: Relativelyinexpensiveandrequirelittleornomaintenance.Captureheatenergythatwould otherwisebewasted.DesuperheaterscanimprovetheHVACsystemcoolingefciencyslightly. DISADVANTAGES:Desuperheatersonlyprovideabenetwhentheheatpumporairconditionerisoper atingandtheycandecreasetheheatingcapacityofaheatpumpsystem.GFXdevicesonlyrecoverheat whenwaterisdrainingoutatthesametimethatmake-upwaterisowingintothetank(e.g.,wateris owingdirectlyfromthespigotorshowerheaddownthedrain).Buildingcodesorbuildingofcialsin someareasdonotallowGFXdevices.
FIGURE6
HOTWATERDESUPERHEATER
FIGURE7
GFXHEATRECOVERYSYSTEM
7. INSTALLAHEATPUMPWATERHEATER(HPWH).
Ifelectricityistheonlywaterheatingfuelalternativeandthedomestichotwaterrequirementsarerela
tivelyhigh(e.g.,fourormoreoccupants)aheatpumpwaterheatercanbeconsideredtoreduceoperat
ingcosts.Itcantypicallyprovidehotwateratone-halftoone-thirdtheenergyuseofanelectricresistance
waterheater.Ratherthanheatingthewaterdirectlybyelectricresistance,theseheatpumpsuseelectric
itytodriveavaporcompressioncyclethatmovesheatfromthesurroundingairtothetankwater.HPWHs
canbeintegralsystemswiththecompressor/evaporatorunitsittingontopofthestoragetankorassep
arateunitsrequiringapumpandowloop(Fig.8).Integralunitsavoidtheneedforapumpandcontrol
loopbuttheseparateunitdesigncanberetrottedtothehomesexistingtank.
59
FIGURE8
HEATPUMPWATERHEATER
HPWHsaremostappropriateinwarmclimatesbecausetheyaretypicallylocatedinbasementsand garages,wherefreezedamageisnotaconcern.Theefciencyoftheheatpumpalsodropsatlowairtem peratures.HPWHscoolanddehumidifytheairsurroundingtheevaporatorsectionlikeanairconditioner. Thiscanbebenecialinaconditionedspaceinthesummer,butdetrimentalinthewinter.Theevaporator sectioncannotbeinaconnedspacewherethesurroundingairisnotmixedwithwarmerair. HPWHsdonothavethequickrecoveryofstandardwaterheaters.Alargertankcouldbeused tomeetpeakdemands,butthemorecommonsolutionistoinstallanelectricresistanceheatingelement inthetanktohandlethepeakdemandperiods.ThisdefeatssomeoftheefciencybenetsoftheHPWH. Incoolerclimatesorwhereaventilationsystemisemployed,anexhaustairheatpumpwater heater (EAHPWH) may be appropriate. This system, manufactured by DEC/Therma-Stor, captures heat fromtheairbeforeitisexhausted. ADVANTAGES: Loweroperatingcostthananelectricresistancesystem. DISADVANTAGES:Higherinitialcost.TherearecurrentlyonlyafewU.S.manufacturersandthereislittle marketinfrastructureinplace.Findingqualied,experiencedinstallationandservicetechniciansmaybe difcult.Theirinstallationrequiresexpertiseinwaterheaterserviceaswellasrefrigeranthandlingregu lations.HPWHsneedtobelocatedwherethecompressornoisewillnotbeaproblem.Theyrequirereg ularmaintenancesimilartothatforanairconditioner.
FURTHER READING
ResidentialHeatPumpWaterHeaters,FederalTechnologyAlert,www.pnl.gov/fta/3_res.htm. Water Heaters and Energy Conservation Choices, Choices!, Home Energy Magazine Online, May/June1996,www.homeenergy.org/eehem/96/9605waterheat.html.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
AddisonProductsCompany,P.O.Box607776,Orlando,FL;407-292-4400. AmericanWaterHeater,500PrincetonRoad,P.O.Box4056,JohnsonCity,TN;800-999-9515. DEC/Therma-Stor,P.O.Box8050,Madison,WI53708;800-533-7533. Gas-FiredProductsIncorporated,Charlotte,NC;www.thermastor.com. WaterFilmEnergy,Inc.,P.O.Box48,Oakdale,NY11769;516-758-6271;www.oikos.com/gfx.
60
11 PLUMBINGDESIGN &ENGINEERING
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Properlysizedandperformingplumbingsystemsarevitalforthecomfort,convenience,health,andsafety ofhomeoccupants.Rehabilitationreasonscanrangefromobviousfailuresofasystemsuchasleaks, corrosion,andstoppage;tonot-so-obviousfailuressuchasleaksofdangerousgasfromsewersorcom bustionappliances.Plumbingsystemscanincludewatersupplyanddistribution;drain,waste,andvent systems;fuelsupplyandstorage;applianceventingandexhausting;reprotectionsystems;andgraywater systems.Plumbingxturesthemselvesarecoveredinanothervolume,asaresepticsystems. Thereareafewmajorfactorsthatdrivethedecisiontorehabplumbingsystems:howwellthe systemmeetstheneedsofoccupants,howthesystemperformsandcomplieswithcoderequirements, howpossiblerehabilitationmightsaveresources,andthecostandfeasibilitytorehab.Thescopeofrehab workcanvaryfromsimplerepair,toremovalandreplacementofsystems,toaddingnewones.Firepro tectionsystemsandfuelsystemsareexamplesofaddedsystems. Materials,designs,andcodeshavechangedandevolvedovertheyears.Code-complyingorigi nalinstallationsmaynowbebelowstandardordangerous.Forexample,anoldplumbingxturesuchas abathtubcouldbelledwithcontaminatedwaterthatcoulddrainbackintopotablewatersupplybecause thellspoutisbelowanoverowdrain.Oldertoiletsusedmuchmorewater,andoldershowerheads used more water and energy than those that now comply with the Energy Policy Act and the National PlumbingStandardsof1992.Whilextureconcernsarenotaddressedhere,theydrivedecisionsto changesystemsandcomponents.Existingventsmightnotworkwithanew,moreefcientappliancethat producescoolerandhighmoistureventproducts.Materialspreviouslyapprovedmaybehazardousto occupanthealthorpronetofailure,suchasleadinwatersystems,whichisawellpublicizedhazard. Certainconnectorsandpipeinpolybutylenewatersystemsareknowntofail.Asbestosinsulationinmany oldplumbinginstallationsisahazard.Recommendationsregardingtheremovalanddisposalofasbestos areavailablefromtheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)AsbestosInformationHotline:800-438-2474. Designs and installations previously deemed state-of-the-art may not work well, and in some instancescouldbedangerous.Olddrain,waste,andventsystemsareexamples.Withoutproperventing, sewergasescancreateunhealthyconditions.Newmaterialsanddesignscanalleviateaws.Therearepos itivesystemdevelopmentsaswell.Researchand,subsequently,codeshavepermittedwaterpipesupply sizestobedownsizedforbranches.Thehousespresentsystem,ifingoodcondition,maybeabletoaccom modatemorextures.Therearemanynewmaterialsandupgradestooldmaterialsandmethods.Thereis aplethoraofconnectors,valves,reducers,andadaptorstoallowchangefromonematerialtoanother. As design, research, and new materials have evolved, so have codes. One national code, the InternationalResidentialCodeforone-andtwo-familydwellings,wasrstpromulgatedindraftformand issuedin1998.ItisbeingupdatedforanApril2000release.Thiscodecoversmostresidentialplumbing systems.TheInternationalAssociationofPlumbingandMechanicalOfcials(IAPMO),neverthelessstill publishesitsDwellingRequirementsoftheUniformPlumbingCode. Thisguidewillreviewattributesofmanysystemsandmaterials,alongwithadvantagesanddis advantages. These attributes are not necessarily comprehensive and readers are advised to undertake researchofindividualsystems,products,installationrecommendations,warranties,andcodeacceptance fortheirownlocale.Thisguidecannotforeseethescopeofaprojectorpredictcosts,butsystemscom ponentsareevaluatedasmoreorlesscostlythanothers. 61
FURTHER READING
PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994. RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1996. TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992. InternationalResidentialCode (Draft),InternationalCodeCouncil,FallsChurch,VA22041,1998. TheConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repairs,TheEnterpriseFoundation,New York:JohnWileyandSons,1995. 1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996.
62
12 WA T E R S U P P LY & DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearemanycausesforrehabilitationmaladiesthataffectwatersupplyanddistributionsystems.Leaks, poorwaterquality,poorsupplyofhotorcoldwater,insufcientpressure,noise,vibration,andpresence ofhazardousmaterialscanallbedrivingforces. Waterdistributionintodayshomesoriginatesfromaone-pipedeliverysystemwithpipesand ttingsoflead.AncientRomanshadleadwaterpipes,andinfactthetermplumbingisderivedfromthe Latinplumbum,meaninglead.AncientEgyptianartifactsshowuseofcopperwaterpiping.Avarietyof pipesandttingscouldbepresentinanyrehabproject,includingbrass,copper,iron,andsteel.Water pipingmaterialsandttingshavechangedinpopularityandcodeacceptance.Manytypesareapproved for use, and can be used in combination if electrogalvanic and grounding continuity are properly addressed.Galvanizedironandgalvanizedsteelpiping(withsomeyellowandredbrassandcopper)was quitepopularpriortoWorldWarII,butwerereplacedbycoppertubingpost-warandbyplasticsfrom the1970s.Iron/steelpipessufferedcorrosionandscalebuild-upincertainwatertypes,especiallyinhot water lines. Copper tubing was approved by ASTM B88 in 1932 and is the same material used today. Copperhashadsomeproblemswithaggressive,corrosivewater. Thereisavarietyofplasticmaterialsapprovedforuse.Someplasticexiblewaterpipingmateri alshavehadproblemswithsplittingandttingfailure.Onematerialusedinthe1970sand80s,polybuty lenettings,failedinmanyhomeswithdisastrousresults.Anewhybridpipingmaterial,KITECbyIPEX,is a composite pipe made of aluminum laminated between interior and exterior plastic layers. It claims nationalcodeapproval,easyworkability,sounddampening,andiscorrosion-proofwithgoodowrates. Water conservation has become mandated in recent years. Toilets, faucets, and showerheads mustnowoftenmeetlowerwaterusestandards.Consumersaremorecognizantofexcesswateruseand energycostforheatingwaterwhichiswasted.Energyrecoverydevicesareavailableandgrowinginpop ularity.Insulation,bettersystemdesign,andsolarheatingoptionscanalsobeexplored. Waterqualityandotherhealthconcernsarenationalandlocalissues.Filteringwatersystemsare becomingmorepopular,installedbelowthekitchensink/counter.Galvanizedironpipinghascorrosion problemsthatareoftenexacerbatedbyadversewaterconditionsandheat.Leadwaterservicesforhouses werequitecommon,andleadinwatercontinuestobeaproblem.Leadsolderforcopperjoininghasbeen banned. Jacksonville, Florida has aggressive, corrosive water and has banned the use of copper in domestic water systems. Asbestos was a popular insulation material for piping and must be carefully removedorencapsulated.

Thewatersystemshouldbethoroughlyinspectedandtested.Dependingonthereasonforrehabilitation, thewaterdistributionsystemcanberepaired,modied,orreplaced.Somereasonsincludepresenceof 63
leadpiping,failedpolybutylenejointsorpipes,lowwaterpressure,corrodedorbrokenpipesinunderslaborconcealedlocations,orcondensationoncoldwaterpipingduetodeterioratedormissinginsula tion.Codesmayrequirerenovationstoanyplumbingsystemtoconformtocurrentcodewithoutrequir ingtheentiresystemtocomply.Failedsystemscanberippedoutandreplacedentirelyorinpartwiththe sameordifferingmaterials.Manyadaptersandcouplingsareavailableforthesepurposes.Notethatwater distributionsystemshavehistoricallybeenusedforgroundingelectricalsystems.Pleasekeepthisinmind duringrehabworkandrestoreorprovideforthisimportantsafetyrequirement. Designrequirementsforwaterdistributionsystemsarewatervolume,waterpressure,number ofxtureunits,thetotalwaterdemand,theheightofxturesabovethewatersupply(statichead),fric tionallossduetodistanceandpipingmaterial,andthedevelopedlengthofthepipeandttings.Code requirementsmayvaryfromonemunicipalitytoanother,butwatersupplyxturelimitsandminimum branchsizesaremostlythesame.Thesearesomecoderequirementstosatisfypropersystemperfor mance:minimum(15psi)atthehighestplumbingxture,andmaximum(80psi)systempressuresare requiredforthewatersource.Tanksandpumpsincreasepressureandpressureregulatorsandreliefor vacuumvalvesdecreasepressure.Pipingdesignforsingle-familyhousesisusuallydonebyaplumberwith approvalbytheplumbinginspector.Professionalengineerstypicallyareneverinvolvedwithsingle-family plumbingsystems.AgoodguidetodesignisbyplumberPeterHempinPlumbingaHouse. 1. IMPROVEWATERDISTRIBUTION. Waterdistributionsystemsandhousesizeshavechangedovertheyearsfromsmallhomeswithlimited systemstolargeoneswithelaboratesystems.Longdelaysforhotwateratremotexturescreatedashift from single-pipe systems and introduced recirculating hot water systems. These loop systems can be expensiveanduselargeamountsofenergyinwaterheatingandpumpingifnotproperlydesigned.The drainingofcoldwaterawaitinghotwaterinthesingle-pipesystemisresourcedepletingandtimecon suming.NIBCOhasaJustRightmodiedloopproductthatusesnaturalconvectiontocirculatehot water.Acheckvalveandpassiverecirculatinglineformingtheforgottensystemcanbeeasilyinstalled forasimilarpassiverecirculationsystem.Theelectrictracerwiresystemhasasinglepipehotwaterselfregulatingsupplysystemthatsolvesmanyloopproblems.MetLundDMandSystemissuitableforreha bilitationandadaptationtoexistingplumbing.Aremotesinkhasapumpandcontrolsysteminstalledon thextureanglestops.Apush-buttoncallsforhotwaterandthepumprecirculatesthewater,whichsaves energyandwater(Fig.1).
FIGURE1
METLUNDDMANDRECIRCULATIONSYSTEM
64
Manifolddistributionsystemsarenowrecognizedbymajorcodes.Theintroductionofexible plastic tubing like PEX-cross-linked polyethylene allows easy distribution of small-diameter, joint-free branchestoindividualxtures.Alargersupplylineisconnectedtothemanifold.Thesystemsclaimfaster hotwaterdelivery,balancedow,easilyaccessiblecontrolvalves,andnowaterhammer.Thisisanappro priatesolutionthatcanbeinstalledaroundanexistingfailedsystem,withphasedreplacementofxtures andbranches.Aclassicdistributionconcerniswaterleaksandresultantdamage.Aqua-Stopoffersawater leakdetectionsystem(Fig.2).Sensorsareplacedontheoornearpotentialleaksources,suchastoilets, tubs,dishwashers,waterheaters.Thesensorswillshutthemainsupplyvalveifaleakoccursandsound analarm.Systemsensorscanbehard-wiredorremote. ADVANTAGES:Improvesresponsivenessofwaterdistributionthroughoutthehome. DISADVANTAGES:Somesystemscanbecostly.Consultlocalcodesastowhethersuchsystemsarepermitted.
FIGURE2,3
AQUA-STOPINSTALLATION
INTEGRALSOLDERINGFITTING
2. INSTALLNEWCOPPERPIPING.
Copperisaverypopularmaterialusedsincethe1930s.Jointsolderspreviouslycontainedsomeper
centageoflead.Federallawchangedtoprohibitleadsolderinpotablewatersystems.Jointsaremadeby
soldering,brazing,andtwo-componentadhesives.Solderingcanbedonebyelectricresistancetoolsand
bytorches.Teescannowbemechanicallypulledfromcontinuoustubingwithnewtools.Anewcopper
ttinghasrecentlybeenintroducedfromEurope:patentedin1934,theintegralsolderingttinghas
beenastandardinEngland(Fig.3).IMIYorkshirenowimportsAmerican-sizedintegralsolderingttings,
whichensuretheproperamountofsolderisprovided.Thesolderisinthemiddleofthetting,which
providesabetterjointandsaveslabor.Coppertubingisinsertedintoeachendofatting,appliedheat
meltsthesolderring,andthetwotubesarefusedtogether.
ADVANTAGES:Nearlyeverycodeapproves;longtrackrecord;relativelyeasyinstallation;limited50-year
warranty;corrosionresistantwithsomewatertypes;lesssupportneededthanplasticpipe;reresistant;
comesincoilsandtubes.
65
DISADVANTAGES:Highercost;someaggressivewaterattackscopper;amenormallypresentinjoining; systemnoise;conductsheatandneedsinsulation;condensationconcerns;tubingcankink. 3. INSTALLCHLORINATEDPOLYVINYLCHLORIDE(CPVC)PIPING. Used since the 1950s, CPVC is approved by most codes for both hot and cold water distribution. BF Goodrich,inventorofCPVC,reformulateditin1992tobemoreworkableincoldweatheranearlier drawback.CPVCispopularinnewconstructionapplicationsaboveandbelowslabs. ADVANTAGES: Lower cost; easy installation and joining; no corrosion concerns; no water hammer; reducedconductancelosses,whichsavesenergyandreducescondensation;comesincoilsandtubes. DISADVANTAGES: More support needed than copper or steel; 24-hour joint cure time recommended; needs expansion capacity for piping by all codes; relatively recent product (rst used in 1959). Installationduringextremelyhottemperaturescanresultinlaterjointfailure. 4. INSTALLCROSS-LINKEDPOLYETHYLENE(PEX)PIPING. Cross-linkedpolyethylene(PEX)exiblethinwalltubinghaditsbeginningsinEuropeinthe1970sand hasbeeninusetheU.S.sincethe1980sforradiantheatingsystemsandhotandcoldwaterdistribution systems.Mostcodesapproveitsuse,andsomeallow3/8branches.LongPEXcoilsareusedinthenew manifoldwaterdistributionsystems,andeliminateexpensivejoints. ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;relativelyeasyinstallation.Highlyexible;greaterwaterow;jointsandrepairs canbemadewet;tubinghasmemory,returnstooldshape;kinkscanberemovedbyheat;eliminates waterhammer;improvedfreeze-resistancewithbetterinsulationthanmetallicpiping;easyrepair.Seems lessvulnerabletonailpunctures. DISADVANTAGES:Notallcodesapprove;shouldnotbeexposedtosunlight;needsroomforexpansion; moresupportrequiredthancopperorsteel.
FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996. PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994. RenovatingOldHouses,GeorgeNash,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1996. TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992. JournalofLightConstruction,March1997. TheForgottenHotWaterRecirculatingSystem,PMEngineer,May1998.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BFGoodrich,FlowGuardGold(CPVC),Cleveland,OH44141;800-864-4851;www.owguardgold.com. CopperDevelopmentAssociation,NewYork,NY;800-CDA-DATA;www.copper.org. YorkshireFittings,USA,Brentwood,TN37027;615-309-8669. IPEX,Inc.(KITEC),Englewood,CO80112;800-473-9808;www.ipexinc.com. Metlund,CostaMesa,CA;800-METLUND;www.metlund.com NIBCOJustRight,Elkhart,IN46516;800-234-0227;www.nibco.com. SPARCOAnti-ScaldValve,Warwick,RI02886;401-738-4290;www.sparco-inc.com. USBrass,BrassPEX,Dallas,TX;800-872-7277;www.usbrass@zurn.com. 66
1 3 D R A I N , WA S T E , & VENTSYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Thereareanumberofindicationsoftheneedtorehabilitatethedrain,waste,andventsystems:leaks; clogged,slow,ornon-workingdrains;orodors.Thenatureoftheseproblemscanbecomplex,sothor ough investigation is advised. Leaks and slow drainage may reveal corrosion in waste pipes. Previous rehabsmighthaveintroduceddissimilarmaterialsthatcorrodethroughelectrogalvanicaction,e.g.,brass andironttingsjoined.Drainsneedtobeslopedtoremovewastewaterandsolids.Buildingorpipeset tlementcanchangepipeslopeandthesystemmaynotworkproperlyormayfailentirely.Odorscanbea warningofseriousproblems.Atoxic,explosiveblendofgasescouldbepresent,causedbysomethingas simpleasadrytraporasseriousasanon-existentventsystem.Ventsprotectagainstbackpressureand siphoningandprovidesystemaircirculation. Cross connections are also a concern. Waste system designhasevolvedovertime,andolderapprovedmethodsdidnotrecognizethatsiphoningcouldoccur betweenpotableandcontaminatedwater.Oldertubinstallationsareanexamplewithsupplybeinglocated belowoverowdrains(Fig.1).Localcodesshouldbecheckedbeforeproceedingwithrehabilitation. Drainagesystemsarebasicallygravitydesignedwithventingintroducedtoassurethesystemperformsproperly.Systemcapacitiesarenowbetterunderstood,andcodesallowsmallerpipes.Theolder, existing system to be rehabed may potentially allow for greater expansion. The National Plumbing Standardswasadoptedin1992tomandatewater-savingtoilets,showerheads,andfaucets.Newmateri als,methods,anddevicesarenowusedalongwitholdstandards.Castironpipinginabellandspigot congurationwasacommonmaterial,andhasbeenreplacedsincethe1970sbyplastics.Nowhubless castironisregainingsomeupscalemarketshareduetoitssound-dampeningproperties. Depending on the reason for rehabilitation, systems can be repaired, modied, or replaced. Properanalysisoftheexistingsystemanditsconditioniscrucial.Variousnon-destructivediagnostictools
FIGURE1
POTABLEWATERCONTAMINATION
67
andservicesareavailableifopeningupwallsorceilingsoraccessunderslabsforinspectionisnotan option.SmallpipeTVinspectionandelectronicleakdetectionsystemsareexamples. Drainage system materials used in residential construction include cast iron, galvanized and non-galvanizedsteel,galvanizedwroughtiron,lead,copper,brass,vitriedclaypipe,andplasticsacry lonitrilebutadienestyrene(ABS-DWV)andpolyvinylchloride(PVC-DWV).Rehabprojectsonhousesbuilt after1970mightinvolveplasticDWVpipeandttings.Adapterttingsallowuseofavarietyofmaterials ifdesired.Castironisabettersoundinsulatorbutmorecostly,soblendedsystemsarepopular.Castiron isusedinsound-sensitiveareasandplasticinnon-sensitiveareas.Existingmaterialscanbecombined withneworothermaterials,providedelectrogalvanicorcodeconcernsareaddressed. Therearemanynewcode-approveddrainagesystemsanddesignsthatcanbeconsidered.Ifthe systemistobemodiedorreplaced,anewdesigncouldbeinorder.Newdesignsmightbeadaptedto solveproblemswiththeexistingsystem.Drainagesystemsarecalculatedtohandleacertainload,and xturesareassignedvaluesknownasxtureunits.Theseunitsareaddedtodeterminepipesizes.Code tablesstatemaximumunitcapacityandlengthsfordrainsandvents,andminimumpipesizes.Localcodes shouldbeconsulted. Ventstrategieshaveevolvedfromconventionaltocommonvent,wetventing,wastestackventing, andcircuitventing.Variousstrategiesevolvedtominimizepiperunsandroofpenetrations.Acommon ventconnectstwoxtures.Thewetventpipedoublesasawastepipeandisincreasedinsize.Wetvents maybehorizontal(Fig.2),vertical(Fig.3),orcombined(Fig.4).Wastestackventingrequiresallxture drainstoconnectseparatelytoit(Fig.5).Sizerequirementsapplytothesealternatemethods.Circuitvent ingcanconnectamaximumofeightxturestoahorizontaldrain(Fig.6).Slopeandsizerequirements applyhereaswell.Incoldregions,ventspenetratingroofsmayexperiencefrostorsnowclosure;apipe atleast3indiameterisrequiredforthelastportionofthevent.
FIGURE2
TYPICALHORIZONTALWETVENTING
68
FIGURE3 VERTICALWETVENTING
FIGURE4
COMBINATIONVERTICALANDHORIZONTALWETVENTING
FIGURE5
TYPICALSINGLE-STACKSYSTEMFORATWO-STORYDWELLING

1. INSTALLCASTIRONDRAIN,WASTE,ANDVENT(DWV)PIPING. Castironwasoriginallyusedinbellandspigotcongurationswithleadandoakumjointsandupgraded toTylerorrubbercompressionjoints.Hublesspipeandttingsjoinedwithelastomericandstainlesssteel couplingsaremostpopularcurrently.Castironcanrustandiscoatedwithanasphalticcompound.It almostdisappearedasaresidentialwastepipematerialinthe1970s,butisstillused. 69
FIGURE6
CIRCUITVENTWITHADDITIONALNON-CIRCUITVENTEDFIXTURES
ADVANTAGES:Allcodesaccept.Fireproof,goodsoundinsulator;stronger,requireslesssupport;longlast
ing;canbeburiedinatrench;needsnoprotectionfromnailpunctures;3pipetsinstandard2x4wall
withoutfurring;needsnoexpansionallowance;hublessiseasytodisassemble.
DISADVANTAGES:Highcostandweight;requiresmorelabortoinstall;noteasytocut.
2. INSTALLCOPPERDWVPIPING.
CopperDWVisfoundinmanyoldersystems.Itisalsomorecostlythancastiron.Thetorchneededfor
joiningcoppercreatesapotentialrehazard,butnewjoiningtechniquesareavailable.Forexample,an
electricresistancejointtoolcanbeused;Copperbond,isaUL-approvedtwo-componentadhesivethat
replacessolderingorbrazing.
ADVANTAGES:Acceptedbyallcodes;thinwall,lightweight,easytocutandassemble;3pipe/ttingstin
2x4wall;reproof;lesslaborthancastiron.
DISADVANTAGES:Costsmorethancastiron;transmitsnoisebutnotasmuchasplasticdoes;requiresnail
protectionplates;openametypicallyrequiredforjoints.
3. INSTALL ACRYLONITRILE BUTADIENE STYRENE (ABS-DWV) AND POLYVINYL CHLORIDE(PVC-DWV)PIPING. PlasticsABS-DWVandPVC-DWV-arethepredominantmaterialsnowusedinrehabandnewresiden
tialconstruction.Invariousregionsofthecountry,plumbingprofessionalsseemtohavepreferencesfor
onematerialovertheother-typicallythematerialsdonotshareagivenmarketequally.Reducedcostand
laborarereasonsforpopularity.Mostcodesacceptthesematerials.NewYorkStatecodewillnotallow
plasticinundergroundresidentialuse.
ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;lesslaborintensive;easytocutandassemble;lightweight.
DISADVANTAGES: Fumes present with solvents and primers; material transmits noise; expands slightly;
needsmoresupport;careneededwithundergroundinstallation;protectionneededfornailpunctures;
ABSburnsonitsown,whilePVCburnsonlywithamepresent;ABSdeterioratesinsunlight.
4. INSTALLPUMPSANDEJECTORSTODISCHARGEWASTE.
Sloworstoppedwastedrainsmayindicatethatthedrainageconnectionsdonotmeetgravityrequirements
inrehabsituations.Addingapumpmightsolvemarginalornon-performinglines.Also,newplumbing
xtures might be located so that gravity will not expel waste (ie: basement xtures). Sewage ejectors,
70
pumps,orgrinderpumpsmayberequiredtoliftdischarge.Speciccoderequirementsexistonpipesiz
ing, venting, electrical connections, and audiovisual alarms. These devices should only be used when
absolutelynecessarybecauseofcost,accessrequirements,pumpfailure,andpowerfailures.Theunits
mustbewellsealedanddesignedforremovalandreplacement.Checkwithlocalauthorityonplacement;
exteriorlocationsaretypicallymostdesirable.
ADVANTAGES:Allowsplumbingxturesbelowgravityconnectionpoints.
DISADVANTAGES:Costly;powerfailuresstopsystem;needsamonitoringsystemandalarm;easyaccess
requiredforunitreplacement.
5. INSTALLGRAYWATERANDHEATRECOVERYDEVICES.
Rehabilitation requires consideration for resource savings alternatives. Low-ow xtures and shower
headstosavewaterandenergyarenowmandatedbytheEnergyPolicyAct.Graywatercollectionsystems
areasustainablechoiceforanyrehabprojectbecausetheyrecyclewaterfrombathtubs,showers,lavo
ratories,andclotheswashingmachines.TheUniformPlumbingCodeallowsgraywatertobecollected
andusedforirrigation.Asaconservationmethodorinareaswithrestrictedwateruse,graywatersystems
maybeappropriate.However,cross-contaminationisaconcernwithgraywater.Checkyourlocalcode
fordesignrequirementsandapproval.Heatrecoverydevicesforwastehotwaterarenew,energy-saving
options.OnewastewaterheatrecoverydeviceistheGFX.Shower,laundry,bath,dishwasher,andsink
wastehotwaterowsthroughacopperDWVsectionwrappedwithacopperwaterpipefeedingthewater
heater(Fig.7).Thedeviceisinstalledverticallyinthemaindrainandworksbestinbasementapplica
tions,butnon-basementapplicationsareavailable.Mostcodesapproveitsuse.
ADVANTAGES:Savesresources;graywaterallowslandscapegardensinaridlocations;GFXsavesenergy.
DISADVANTAGES:Costly;cross-contaminationconcerns;needsstoragecontainers;GFXneedsbasement
locationforbestresults;maybedifculttoobtain.
FIGURE7
GFXWASTEWATERHEATRECOVERYSYSTEM
6. INSTALLANAIRADMITTANCEVALVE.
Anairadmittancevalueisarelativelynewdeviceapprovedbysomecodesthatcanaidplumbingrehab.
Someplumbingxturesaredifculttoventduetolocationkitchenislandsinksaretheclassicexample.
Anairadmittancevalveplacedabovethetrapeliminatesallotherventpiping(insomecircumstances;
generally,atleastoneventinthesystemisrequiredtoterminateabovetheroofline).StudorInc.invented
thetechnologyandsuchventsarepopularinEurope.Airadmittancevalvesallowairtoenterbutprevent
gasesfromescaping(Fig.8).Valvesmustbeaccessibleandinstalledabovethextureserved(Fig.9).
ADVANTAGES:Allowsventingindifcultlocations;savesventingpipeandmaterials.
DISADVANTAGES:Lesscostly,spring-activateddeviceswereusedinmanufacturedhomesandspringcor
rosioncausedahighfailurerate.DiaphragmdesignsofStudorandothersdonothavethecorrosionprob
71
lem.Notallcodesallowairadmittancevalves.
FIGURE8
MAXI-VENT
FIGURE9
AIRADMITTANCEVALVEBEHINDSINK
FURTHER READING
DirectoryofWaterConservingPlumbingProducts,Walnut,CA:IAPMO,updatedmonthly;909-595-8449. 1997DwellingRequirementsoftheUniformPlumbingCode,Walnut,CA:IAPMO;909-595-8449. InternationalResidentialCode (Draft),InternationalCodeCouncil,FallsChurch,VA,1998. TheOldHouseJournalGuidetoRestoration,PatriciaPoore,NewYork:E.P.DuttonBooks,1992. PlumbingaHouse,PeterHemp,Newtown,CT:TheTauntonPress,1994. TheConsumersGuidetoHomeImprovement,Renovation&Repairs,TheEnterpriseFoundation,New York:JohnWileyandSons,1995.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
CastIronSoilPipeInstitute,Chattanooga,TN37421;423-892-0137;www.cispi.org. CharlottePipe&Foundry(castiron),Charlotte,NC28235;800-438-6091;www.charlottepipe.com. Studor,Inc.AirAdmittanceValves,Dunedin,FL34698;800-447-4721,www.studor.com. WaterFilmEnergy,Inc.,P.O.Box48,Oakdale,NY11769;516-758-6271;www.oikos.com/gfx.
72
14 F U E L S U P P LY SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Therearethreepredominantresidentialfuelsystemsnaturalgas,propane,andfueloil.Rehabilitation mightbenecessaryintheeventofleaks,odors,corrosion,systemdamage,orappliancechange.Gas manufacturedfromcoalorderivednaturallyfromundergroundsourceshasbeenusedinhousessince the mid-1880s. Lighting and cooking were rst uses of gas with space and water heating added later. Propane(liquiedpetroleumgas)becamearesidentialfuelsourceinthe1920sandhasapproximately 5millionresidentialcustomerscurrently.Oilbecameasourceinthesameperiodbutthe22,000houses builtinLevittown,NewYorkstartingin1947gaveoilabigboost.Therewere16millionresidentialcus tomerspre-oilembargo(1973),12millionthereafter. Aswithanyplumbingsystem,theexistingconditionandcodecomplianceshouldbedetermined. Naturalgassystemdesignsdependuponutilitysupplypressure,heatingvalueofthegas,applianceneeds, anddistancesfromsupplytoappliances.Negotiatingahigherservicepressurefromtheutilityallowsfora smallerinternaldistributionsystem.Thegasloadcenterconceptisarelativelynewfuelsysteminnovation. Theconceptissimilartoelectricaldistributionwithacentralpanelandbranchcircuits.Gaslinescometo amanifoldatapanelandvalvedbranchrunsconnecttogasappliances.Flexiblegastubingwithfewerjoints allows the concept to work easily. In some homes in Japan portable cooking appliances and ventless portablespaceheatersarepluggedintoquick-connectgasoutlets.Thetrendislikelytogrowhereaswell. MBSturgismakesquick-connectgasoutletsforbarbequesandotherappliances.Anothertrendconcerns seismicsafety;LosAngelesnowrequiresseismicactivity-triggeredshutoffvalvesforgassystemsinnew homes.Flexiblegastubing,nowavailable,maybeasafealternativebecauseitislesslikelytoshearorrup turebetweenjoints. Propaneandoilsystemsusuallyhaveafueldeliverysourcethatprovidesserviceaswell.System designsareperlocalandnationalcodes.Thesetwofuelsrequireastoragetankinadditiontothedeliv erysource.Thepropanetankisownedbytheserviceproviderandmustbeoutsidetheresidence.Tanks canbebelowgrade,buttypicallyareabove.Tenfeetfromthehouseexteriorisatypicaldistancefortank location,buttheycanbecloser.Undergroundconnectionsaretypical,withpolybutylenefrequentlyused asanewundergroundmaterialforpiping. Oilstoragetankscanbeindoorsoroutdoors.Existingundergroundtanksshouldbesurveyedfor corrosionamajorproblem,withpotentialenvironmentalimpactsduetoleaks.Indoortanksrequire ventingandablockedventlinecausesllingproblems.Oilsystemsmayhaveasinglesupplypipeoraloop. Carbonmonoxide(CO)fromfuelcombustionisasafetyconcernandcertainmanufacturersand associations recommend installing sensors near potential CO sources. Some rst-generation carbon monoxidedetectorsweretoosensitiveandalarmedatnon-dangerouslevels.Newdetectorsareavailable nowwithappropriatealarmthresholds.

Thefollowingarethemostcommonfuelsupplysystempipingandttings.Consultyourlocalcodeagency, utility,orsupplierforothermaterialsandmethods. 73
1. INSTALLSTEELPIPEANDFITTINGS. Thisisthetraditionalmaterialforresidentialfuelsystems,alongwithcastironpipe.Themajorityofsys temsusethreadedjointsbutweldedjointsarealsocommoninolderhomes(whichmaymakesystems rehabmorecomplicated).Itisthemostpopularnaturalgaspipingmaterialinnewconstruction.Therigid natureofsteelpipemightmakerehabprojectsdifcult.Flexibletubing,ifallowedbyyourlocalcode,usu allyiseasierforinstallationinrehabwork. ADVANTAGES:Allcodesapprove;lowmaterialcost;requiresfewersupports;nailproof. DISADVANTAGES:Labor-intensive;sophisticatedtoolsrequired;rigid;difculttomodify;heavy;cancor rode; pipe should not be used for support when exposed (clothes racks, etc.) because of pipe damage/breakage. 2. INSTALLCOPPERPIPEANDFITTINGS. Thisisthetraditionalmaterialusedtodayinresidentialpropaneandfueloilinstallations.Itisallowedby someutilitiesandcodesfornaturalgasfuelsupplyandispaintedyellowtodistinguishitfromwater piping.Sulphurfoundinsomegascorrodescopperandinternaltinningisrequiredinthetubing.See Section12forconnectiontechniques. ADVANTAGES:Approvedbymostcodes;exible;faster;easiertoinstall;allowslongruns;fewerttings; lightweight;corrosion-resistant;easytomodify;easyformanifoldsystems;easyappliancehookup. DISADVANTAGES:Notallowedbysomeutilitiesfornaturalgas;canbeeasilyconfusedwithwaterpiping; somegasiscorrosivetocopper;needsnailplatestopreventpuncture;needsmorepipesupportsthan steel. 3. INSTALLCORRUGATEDSTAINLESS-STEELTUBING(CSST). DevelopedinitiallyinJapan,CSSTwasrstmanufacturedintheU.S.in1988.Itisnowapprovedbymost majorcodes.CSSTisusedinresidentialandcommercialworkwithnaturalgasandpropane.Itisgain ingmarketacceptance,withveU.S.manufacturersnowproducingCSST.Featuresmechanicalcouplings thatvarypermanufacturer.Plumbersrequiretrainingbeforeinstallations.Widelyusedinmanifolddis tributionsystems. ADVANTAGES:Widecodeapproval;exible;lightweight;fasterandeasiertoinstall;longrunswithfewer ttings;easytomodify;one-personinstallation;corrosionproof;easyforusewithmanifoldsystems;eas ierappliancehookup. DISADVANTAGES:Newmaterial;stillnotapprovedbysomecodes;highermaterialcost;requiresspecial izedtoolsforassembly;needsnailplatestostoppunctures;needsmoresupportthansteel.
FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996. DomesticOilBurners,CharlesA.Burkhardt,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1961. National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), International Approval Services, Cleveland, OH 44131, 1996, www.gasweb.org/gasweb.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
Coppertube,CopperDevelopmentAssociation,NewYork,NY;800-CDA-DATA;www.copper.org. GasTite,TiteFlexCorporation(CSST),P.O.Box90054,Springeld,MA01139;800-662-0208;www.tite.ex. P.G.P.,ParkerHanninCorp.,ParaexDivision,Ravenna,OH44266;800-4-PARFLEX,www.parker.com/fcg. TracPipe,OmegaFlex,Exton,PA19341,800-671-8622,www.omegaex.com. WARDFLEXWardManufacturing,Blossburg,PA16912;800-248-1027;www.wardmfg.com. 74
15 A P P L I A N C E V E N T S &EXHAUSTS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
Combustionappliancesrequireventingandcertainappliancesrequireexhausting.Rehabworkonventsand exhaustsmaybeneededbecauseoffailureofequipment,venting,orstructure.Ventingfailuresmaybedeadly orcausehealthproblems,andaredifculttoascertain.Carbonmonoxidedeathsareofteninthenewsand detectorsarebecomingmorecommon.Ventingfailureindicatorsmightincludecorrosion,smoke(withoil equipment),soot,backdrafting,applianceoperationfailure,excessmoisture,orvisualdamage. Combustionappliancescanbefueledbynaturalgas,propane(liquiedpetroleumgas),oroil. Traditionally,appliancesweredesignedwithadrafthoodordivertertoventcombustiongases.Ventswere sizedbasedontablesindicatingmaximumcapacitiesforcertainventarea,height,lateral(horizontalrun), andmaterial.Traditionalventingmaterialsaremasonry(linedandunlined),cementasbestospipe,and single-andmulti-walledmetalpipe. The 1987 U.S. National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA) increased minimum efciencyrequirementsforresidentialgasandoil-redappliances,becauseventswillnotperformprop erlyiftheyaretoolargeortoosmall.Theannualfuelutilizationefciency(AFUE)becameatleast78% forgasappliancesand80%foroil.NewappliancesmeetingtheseandhigherAFUEratingsproducefewer andcoolercombustionproducts.Condensationandcorrosioncanbeaproblembecausemoisturecan deterioratechimneysthroughfreeze/thawactionandcorrodemetalvents.Newhigh-efciency,self-con densingappliancesproducesuchcool,moistexhaustthattheyuseventingmaterialssimilartodrainsys temmaterialsandneedtobeslopedtodrainthemoisture. In response to higher efciency appliances, the National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54) in 1992 changedventingdesignrequirementswithconcernforminimumandmaximumuecapacities.Certain fan-assistedcombustionsystemapplianceswereincludedtoovercomeventingproblems.Oilappliance ventingdesignstandardshaveneverbeenpublishedbutareexpectedinNFPAStandard31. Somenon-combustionappliancesrequireexhausts.Codesrequireclothesdryerexhausts,and gasrangesshouldbeexhausted(butarenotrequiredtobe).Dryerfailureindicatorsmaybeexcessmois ture,clothesnotdrying,highenergybills,smoke,orodors.Lintandgreasebuildupcancreaterehaz ards,whileblockedsystemsorcombustionby-productscancreatehealthhazards. Thephysicalconditionoftheexistingventingandexhaustsystemshouldbechecked,especially toinsurethepassagewayisproperlylined,clear,andfreeofobstructions.Ifthevent/chimneywasprevi ouslyusedforsolidorliquidfuel,itshouldbecleaned.Thefailureindicatorsmentionedaboveneedto bereviewedandsystemoperationveried.Agesofcombustionappliancesshouldbematchedtothevent system to determine if a new efcient appliance has been installed without an appropriate ue modication.Asmentionedabove,improperventinganduedamagemayresult.Existingoilappliances mighthavehadtheirolderburnersreplacedwiththemoreefcientretention-headoilburner.Thiscould requireauemodicationbecausenewlevelsofwaterandacidconcentrationcouldbepresent.Typically corrosion-resistantmaterialsand/orheatlossreductionareintroducedtoensureproperdraftandreduce condensation.Somecodesrequiretheexistingchimneyorventbebroughtintocodeconformanceifa newapplianceisconnected. Aproperlydesignedventcontrolsdraftandremovesuegases.Selectionofareplacementvent orcheckingcomplianceshouldconsiderfactorssuchasappliancedraft,conguration,size,heat,and 75
condition; construction of surroundings; building height; material selection; and code requirements. Chartsincodesshowselection,clearancefromcombustiblematerial,andventterminationrequirements. Gasappliancesareclassiedinfourcategoriesthatallowdifferentlistedventproducts.CategoryIhasnonpositiveventstaticpressurewithventgastemperaturethatavoidsexcessivecondensationproductioninthe vent.ATypeBventislistedandlabeledforthiscategory.Othercategoriesrequirespecialvents.Additional requirementsexistformultipleappliancevents.Direct-ventedapplianceshavethrough-wall designs. To ensureintakeairandcombustiongasoutletsareinproperlocations,oneguideisshown(Fig.1).
FIGURE1
THROUGH-WALLVENTLOCATIONS

1. INSTALLANEWEXHAUSTFORACLOTHESDRYER. Installinganewclothesdryerormodifyinganexistingdryerinstallationmaybepartoftherehabproject. Theseappliances,whethergasorelectric,requireexhaustingtothehomesexterior.Lintbuildupmaylead toreorhealthproblems,makingexhaustingimperative.TheInternationalResidentialCodeforOneand TwoFamilyDwellings(IRC)hasspecicrequirementsforexhaustsregardingductsize,length,andcon structionstandards.Amaximumlengthof25'hasbeenestablishedbaseduponacompilationofappli ancemanufacturersrecommendations.Bendsreducethelengthallowedbutthereareexteriormounted poweredexhaustsavailable.Thelocalcodeshouldbecheckedforapprovals.Mostdryersexhaustapprox imately150to200cfmofair.TheIRCrequiresmakeupairprovisionsifdryersexhaustmorethan200 cfm. With bath exhaust fans commonly exhausting 50 cfm of air, and range hoods 150 cfm, adding a clothesdryerexhaustmaycauseanassortmentofproblems,suchasbackdraftingofcombustionappli ancesorreplaces.Bathandkitchenexhaustsmightnotexhaustduringdryeroperation. ADVANTAGES:Canensureresafetywithdryeruse;improvesindoorairquality;reduceslintandmoisture insidethehome.
76
DISADVANTAGES:Mayinducebackdraftingofcombustionappliancesandreplaces;mayinhibitfunction ofotherexhaustsinthehome. 2. INSTALLANEWEXHAUSTFORARANGE. Rangeexhauststypicallyarenotcoderequired,relyingonwindowsforexhaustornon-ventingltersfor cleaningair.Rangeexhaustsarerecommendedforindoorairqualityandsafetyissues,particularlyforgas ranges,asemissionsofcarbonmonoxide,nitrousoxide,andothersarepresent.Fouledburnerscanpro ducedangerouslevelsofbenzene,indicatedbyayellowame.Moistureisaproductofgascombustionas well,withagallonofmoisturereleasedper100,000Btu/hrinput(1/8gallonperhourperaverageburner). Kitchenexhaustscanberecirculatingorcirculating.Recirculatingexhausthoodsdonotexhaustandmove approximately40cfmofairthroughalterthenbacktothekitchen.Filtersareeithercharcoaloractivated carboncoatedber,andrequiremaintenance.Circulatingexhaustsvaryfrom150cfmaveragetwo-speed hoodstodowndraftexhaustsof500cfmormore.Manufacturersprovidesimilarductopeningssoequip mentcanbereplaced(typically31/4"x10"or7"round).Ductlengthiscriticalandmanufacturersrecom mendationshouldbefollowed.Smoothmetalductmaterialispreferredoverexiblemetal.Anequivalent lengthadjustmentmustbemadeforex. ADVANTAGES:Betterindoorairquality;mitigatesrehazard. DISTADVANTAGES:Recirculatinghoodsdonotaddresscombustionproductsandarenotrecommended.
FURTHER READING
1996ASHRAEHandbook-HVACSystemsandEquipment,ASHRAE,Atlanta,GA,1996. DomesticOilBurners,CharlesA.Burkhardt,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1961. ESourceTechnologyAtlasSeries:ResidentialAppliances,ESource,Inc.,Boulder,CO,80302,303-4408500,1996,www.esource.com. NationalFuelGasCode(NFPA54),InternationalApprovalServices,ClevelandOH44131,1996.
77
16 F I R E P R O T E C T I O N SYSTEMS
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
AccordingtotheNationalFireProtectionAssociation(NFPA),therewere406,500residentialresand 3,360deathsintheU.S.in1997.Domesticresarelowprobabilitybuthighconsequenceevents.Experts indicatethatmostresoccurinkitchens,family/livingrooms,andbedrooms,withhighestlossoflifein bedroomsandfamily/livingrooms.Firesreportedlyburnhotterandfasterthan25yearsagobecauseof newermaterialsinhomefurnishings. ThisOldHouse magazinerecommendsaddingsprinklerheadsduringrehabtowatersystemsa someprotectionisbetterthannonephilosophy.However,reprotectionengineerssayanaddedsystem maynotperformadequatelybecausetherearenohydrauliccalculationstoverifythatthesystemwillwork. Novalvesoralarmsareavailabletotellwhenthesprinklersmightaccidentlyfail.Aloopisneededwithsprin klerheadssothatstandingwaterinthepipeswillnotbeaconcernpotablewaterthatdoesnotcirculate canbecomecontaminated.TheDirectorofOperationLifeSafetyoftheInternationalAssociationofFireChiefs suggestsaddingresprinklerstovariousareasrehabed,essentiallyaddingasystemonaninstallmentplan basis.Otherprofessionalstakeanallornothingapproachtosprinklersystems.Addinganautomaticre sprinklersystemcanaddtolifesafetyandpropertyprotection.Automaticresprinklersystemsarerequired insomerehabconstructionincertainjurisdictions.Thelocalcodeshouldbeconsulted. NFPASection13Dgovernsresidentialsprinklersystemsforone-andtwo-familyconstruction. ResidentialsystemsarerelativelynewwithNFPA13D,adoptedin1980.Complexautomaticreprotection systemsarecommonlyinstalledincommercial,institutional,andhigh-riseconstruction.Residentialsys temsaredesignedtobelesscomplex.Lifesafetyisthetoppriorityinresidentialapplications,compared tosavingpropertyincommercialsystems.Still,requirementsaredeemedtooextremeandcostlybymany. Opponentsfeelmoreeffectivesolutionscouldbeenacted.NFPA13Drequiressprinklersinmostrooms withowstoallowoccupants10minutesescapetime.Themultipurposesystemcombiningplumbingand resprinklersarenewlyapprovedbyNFPAandcouldbeconsidered.Insurancecompaniesmayprovide a5%to20%yearlyinsurancerebatetohomeownerswithsprinklersystems.Canadianinsurersmayprovidea35%to40%rebate. Automaticresprinklersystemsaredesignedtoprovideminimumwaterowfromheadsfora speciedescapetime.NFPA13Drequiresatleastoneautomaticwatersupply.Forhomesnotonapublic watersystem,acapturedwatersupplylargeenoughfora10-minuteowfromtwoheadsisrequired. Pools,tanks(elevatedorwithelectricpumps),ortankspressurizedwithnitrogenpropellantmaybeused. Residentialsprinklersareseparatewetsystems,comparedtowetordrystandpipesystemsfound incommercialconstruction.Systemsupplycongurationsandconnectionsvaryintypeandcomplexityand areusuallydeterminedbylocalcode.NFPA13Drequiressprinklersinmostrooms,exceptbaths,closets, attics,andgarages.Headsinnon-habitablespacesprovideasystemwithbettercoverage,butthisismore difcultandcostly,particularlyinrehabwork.Wetsystemsalsoneedprotectionforfreezingtemperatures. Aresprinklerprofessional,familiarwiththelocalcoderequirements,shoulddesignthesystem. Piping materials include welded and seamless steel, wrought steel, copper, and chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and polybutylene (PB). All are common materials used in residential con struction. Copper can be used in any area, but CPVC must be used in concealed areas or adjacent to smoothceilings.CPVCresprinklerpipeisadifferentproductthanwatersupplypipewithdifferentcode approvals,andthetwocannotbecombinedinmostcases.Bothcanbeusedwiththesamettingsbut
78
havevaryingwallthicknesses.Forexample,BFGoodrichBlazeMasterCPVChaspipewallthicknessofSDR 13.5IPSvs.FlowGuardGoldwithSDR11CTS. PEXcross-linkedpolyethylene,multipurposetubingsystemforsprinklershasbeensubmittedfor UL approval, (approval appears likely), which would lower the 175 psi pressure requirement to 130. Smallerpiperuns,1/2"vs.3/4"or1"wouldbefeaturedwithmultipleserviceconnectionstoeachsprin klerhead.Thematerialwouldbeaverycost-effectiveandeasyproducttoinstallinrehabs.Checkwith yourlocalcodeofcial. Sprinklerheadsvaryindesignandtype.Theycanbeceilingorsidewallmounted,concealedor exposed, and in metallic or prepainted nishes. Quick-response residential sprinkler heads contain a fusiblelink,pelletorfrangibleglassbulb.Allmustbenationallylistedandapproved.Therearemany headsavailablewithwidelyrangingperformanceratings(kfactor).Coveragefrom144sfto400sfper headispossibledependingonavailableowratesandsystempressure.ThereisaConsumerProducts SafetyCommissionnationalactionledalongwithvarioussuitsagainstCentralsOmegasprinklerheads. Theheadswhentestedfailedtoworkatthedesignatedpressure,butmostworkedathigherpressures.If therehabprojectincludestheseheadstheInternationalAssociationofFireChiefsrecommendsyouhave Omegaheadsremovedandreplaced. Othersystemelementsincludeariserandcomponentsthatcontrolandmonitorfortheowof water to the system. The riser components may vary depending on design and code requirements. Typically,theyconsistofacheckvalvethatletswaterowinonlyonedirection,apressuregauge,apres surereliefcircuitanddrain,aowswitch,andatestvalve.Theriserisconnectedtothesupply.Ifthe watersupplyisnotpublic,atank,pond,orsourceotherthanawellwillbeneeded.Self-containedsys temsareavailablewithelectricpumpsorpneumaticpressuresystems. Ifrunningdistributionpipingwithinnishedwallsisnotpossible,DecoShieldmakesaULlisted cover and support system. The product was designed for surface mounting retrot systems in existing buildingsandwouldbeappropriateformostrehabs(Fig.1).
FIGURE1
DECOSHIELDSYSTEM

1. INSTALLASTAND-ALONERESIDENTIALSPRINKLERSYSTEM. Thestand-alonesystemisseparatefromahouseswaterdistributionsystemandisthemostcommon.A maincontrolvalvefromthewatersourcetothedomesticandresystems,pressuregauges,checkvalves, waterowdetectors,anddrainandtestconnectionsaretypical. ADVANTAGES:Systemwaterowactivatesanalarm;allcodesapprove;canbeconnectedtorestation; morecontrolofsystem(ushingandmaintenance). DISADVANTAGES:Canbedeactivatedbyaccident;requiresmorematerialsandlabor;moredifcultforrehab. 79
2. INSTALLAMULTIPURPOSERESIDENTIALSPRINKLERSYSTEM. NFPAissuedaTechnicalInterimAmendmentonOctober28,1998approvingmultipurposeorcombined systemsforSection13D.Thismeanstheresprinkleranddomesticwaterdistributionsystemcanbecom bined. Most plumbing codes prohibit such systems, but Highland Springs, California and Dupont, Washingtonaretwoofmanylocalesthatallowthem. ADVANTAGES:Lowercostthanstand-alonesystems;cannotbedeactivatedaccidentally;reducedmaterials andlabor;easiertoinstall. DISADVANTAGES:Doesnotincludeanalarm;someplumbingcodesdonotallow;contaminatedwateris possiblewithoutloopsinthesystem;futureadditionstothehouseswatersystem(i.e.,watersoftenersand backowprevention)couldhurtcalculatedeffectiveness. 3. INSTALLACOPPERPIPEDSYSTEM. Copperhasbeeninuseforsprinklerssincethe1930sandremainsthemostpopularpipingmaterialfor stand-aloneandmultipurposesystems.Approvalofalternativematerialsthatcostlessandareeasierto installmightchangetheuseofcopperpiping.TheintegralsolderingttingdescribedinSection12can speedconstruction. ADVANTAGES: Code-approved in any installation; commonly used in other plumbing systems; relatively easyinstallation;fabricatedbysolderingorbrazingusingconventionalequipmentorelectricresistance tools;compactwithinthinwalls;teescanbepulledmechanically. DISADVANTAGES:Costly;morerigidthanplastic;brazingorsolderingarepotentiallydangerous;pipemay besubjecttocondensation;susceptibletotheft. 4. INSTALLACPVC-PIPEDSYSTEM. CPVCwaterpipinghasbeenusedinsingle-familyhousingsince1959.Areformulationinthe1990ssolved coldweatherworkabilityproblems.CPVCforresprinklersisadifferentproductandwasintroducedin 1986. Code requires CPVC to be installed behind a thermal barrier in most cases, except with quick responsesprinklersinspecialcases. ADVANTAGES:Lowcost;somewhatexible;moreeasilyinstalledwithcutandglue/weldttings;better insulationpropertiesthancopper. DISADVANTAGES:Uselimitedtospecicareas;moresupportrequired;transitionsneededtoothernonPVCsections;charsduringre.
FURTHER READING
AutomaticSprinklerSystemsHandbook,Quincy,MA:NationalFireProtectionAssociation,1997. TheEconomicsofFastResponseResidentialSprinklerSystems,FireJournal,May1985. NationalFireProtectionAssociation,Section13D,InstallationandSprinklerSystemsinOne-andTwoFamilyDwellingsandManufacturedHomes,Quincy,MA,1996. SprinklerCodesAChanging, JournalofLightConstruction,Dec.1989. Sprinkle,SprinkleLittleStar,ThisOldHouse,Jan.1998.
PRODUCT INFORMATION
BFGoodrichBlazeMaster,Cleveland,OH44141;800-331-1144;www.bfgoodrich.com. CreativeSystems,Inc.,DecoShield,Jamesville,WI53545;608-757-0717. ReliableAutomaticSprinklerCo.,Mt.Vernon,NY10552;800-431-1588;www.reliablesprinkler.com.
80
APPENDIX
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS AND RESEARCH CENTERS
AIRCONDITIONINGCONTRACTORSOF AMERICA(ACCA) 1712NewHampshireAvenue,NW Washington,DC20009 202-483-9370 www.acca.org AIRCONDITIONINGANDREFRIGERATION INSTITUTE(ARI) 4301NorthFairfaxDrive,Suite425 Arlington,VA22203 www.ari.org AMERICANCOUNCILFORANENERGYEFFICIENTECONOMY(ACEEE) 1001ConnecticutAve.NW,#535 Washington,DC20036 202-429-8873 www.aceee.org AMERICANGASASSOCIATION 400N.CapitolStreet,N.W. Washington,DC20001 202-824-7000 www.aga.org AMERICANNATIONALSTANDARDSINSTITUTE 11West42ndStreet,13thFloor NewYork,NY10036 212-642-4900 www.ansi.org AMERICANSOCIETYOFHEATING, REFRIGERATING,ANDAIR-CONDITIONING ENGINEERS(ASHRAE) 1791TullieCircle,NE Atlanta,GA30329 404-636-8400 www.ashrae.org AMERICANSOCIETYOFPLUMBING ENGINEERS(ASPE) 3617ThousandOaksBlvd.,#210 Westlake,CA91362-3649 805-495-7120 www.aspe.org AMERICANSOCIETYOFSANITARY ENGINEERING(ASSE) 28901ClemensRoad,Suite100 Westlake,OH44145 440-835-3040 www.asse-plumbing.org AMERICANSOCIETYFORTESTINGAND MATERIALS(ASTM) 100BarrHarborDrive WestConshohocken,PA19428 610-832-9500 www.astm.org BUILDERSHARDWAREMANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION 355LexingtonAvenue,17thFloor NewYork,NY10017 212-661-4261 www.buildershardware.com BUILDINGOFFICIALS&CODE ADMINISTRATORS(BOCA)International,Inc. 4051WestFlossmoorRoad CountryClubHills,IL60478-5795 708-799-2300 www.bocai.org CANADAMORTGAGEANDHOUSING CORPORATION HousingInformationCenter 700MontrealRoad Ottawa,ON,CanadaKIAOP7 613-748-2367 www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca CANADIANSTANDARDSASSOCIATION 178RexdaleBoulevard Etobicoke(Toronto),ONM9W1R3 416-747-4000 www.csa.ca
81
CONSORTIUMFORENERGYEFFICIENCY
303CongressStreet,Suite600
Boston,MA02210
617-330-9755
CONSTRUCTIONSPECIFICATIONSINSTITUTE
99CanalCenterPlaza,Suite300
Alexandria,VA22314
703-931-4533
www.csinet.org
EDISONELECTRICINSTITUTE
701PennsylvaniaAve.NW
Washington,DC20004
202-508-5000
www.eei.org
ELECTRICPOWERRESEARCHINSTITUTE
3412HillviewAve.
PaloAlto,CA94303
800-313-3774
www.epri.com
EVAPORATIVECOOLINGINSTITUTE
P.O.Box3ECI
LasCruces,NM88003
505-646-3948
FLORIDASOLARENERGYCENTER(FSEC)
1679ClearlakeRoad
Cocoa,FL32922
407-638-1000
www.fsec.ucf.edu
GASRESEARCHINSTITUTE
8600BrynMawrAve.
Chicago,IL60631
312-399-8100
www.gri.org
GEOTHERMALHEATPUMPCONSORTIUM,INC.
701PennsylvaniaAve.,N.W.
Washington,D.C.20004-2696
202-508-5500
www.ghpc.org
GREENSEAL
140016thStreet,NWSuite300
Washington,DC20036-2215
202-588-8400
www.greenseal.org/
HEARTHPRODUCTSASSOCIATION
2848ArdenWay,Suite200
Sacramento,CA95825
916-974-1188
HOMEENERGYRATINGSYSTEMSCOUNCIL
1331HSt.,NW,Suite1000
Washington,DC20005
202-638-3700(phone)
202-393-5043(fax)
www.hers-council.org
HOMEVENTILATINGINSTITUTE
DivisionofAMCA
30WestUniversityDrive
ArlingtonHeights,IL60004
847-394-0150
INTERNATIONALASSOCIATIONOFPLUMBING
ANDMECHANICALOFFICIALS(IAPMO)
20001E.WalnutDriveSouth
Walnut,CA91789-2825
909-595-8449
www.iapmonet.ort
INTERNATIONALCODECOUNCIL
5203LeesburgPike,Suite708
FallsChurch,VA22041
703-931-4533
www.intlcode.org
INTERNATIONALGROUNDSOURCEHEAT
PUMPASSOCIATION
490CordellSouth
OklahomaStateUniversity
Stillwater,OK74078
800-626-4747
82
INTERNATIONALREMODELING
CONTRACTORSASSOCIATION
1RegencyDrive
Bloomeld,CT06002
800-937-4722
INTERNATIONALSTANDARDSORGANIZATION
1,ruedeVarembe
Casepostale56
CH-1211Geneve20,Switzerland
41-22-749-01-11
http://iso.ch./welcome.html
LAWRENCEBERKELEYNATIONAL
LABORATORY
BuildingTechnologiesProgram
EnergyandEnvironmentDivision
LawrenceBerkeleyLaboratory,Berkeley,CA
94721
510-486-6844
eandelbl.gov/BTP/BTP.html
MECHANICALCONTRACTORSASSOCIATIONOF
AMERICA(MCAA)
1385PiccardDrive
Rockville,MD20850-4329
301-869-5800
www.mcaa.org
NAHBREMODLERSCOUNCIL
120115thStreet,NW
Washington,DC20005
202-822-0212
www.nahb.com/remodelc.html
NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFARCHITECTURAL
METALMANUFACTURERS
8S.MichiganAve.,Suite1000
Chicago,IL60603-3305
312-456-5590
NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFPLUMBING,
HEATINGANDCOOLINGCONTRACTORS
180S.WashingtonSt.
P.O.Box6808
FallsChurch,VA22040
703-237-8100
www.naphcc.org
NATIONALASSOCIATIONOFTHE
REMODELINGINDUSTRY
4900SeminaryRoad,Suite320
Arlington,VA22311
703-575-1100
www.nari.org
NATIONALFIREPROTECTIONASSOCIATION
1BatterymarchPark
Quincy,MA02269-9101
800-344-3555
NATIONALPROPANEGASASSOCIATION
1600EisenhowerLane,Suite100
Lisle,IL60532
708-515-0600
www.propanegas.com
NATIONALRENEWABLEENERGYLABORATORY
1617ColeBoulevard
Golden,CO80401
303-275-3000
www.nrel.gov
NATIONALTECHNICALINFORMATIONSERVICE
USDepartmentofCommerce
www.fedworld.gov/ntis/ntishome.html
OAKRIDGENATIONALLABORATORY
BuildingEnvelopeSystemsandMaterials
P.O.Box2008
OakRidge,TN37831-6070
423-574-4345
www.cad.ornl.gov/kch/demo.html
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PLASTICSPIPEINSTITUTE
1801KSt.,Suite600
Washington,DC20006-1301
202-974-5318
www.plasticpipe.org
PLUMBINGMANUFACTURERSINSTITUTE
(PMI)
800RooseveltRoad
BuildingC,Suite20
GlenEllyn,IL60137
630-858-9172
www.pmihome.org
RADIANTPANELASSOCIATION
P.O.Box327
Hyrum,UT84319
801-245-0128
SHEETMETALANDAIRCONDITIONING
CONTRACTORSNATIONALASSOCIATION
(SMACNA)
4201LafayetteCenterDrive
Chantilly,VA22021
703-803-2980
SOUTHFACEENERGYINSTITUTE
241PineStreet
Atlanta,GA30308
404-872-3549
http://southface.org
SUSTAINABLEBUILDINGSINDUSTRYCOUNCIL
1331HStreet,NW,Suite1000
Washington,DC20005
202-628-7400
www.sbicouncil.org
UNDERWRITERSLABORATORIES,INC.
333PngstenRoad
Northbrook,IL60062-2096
847-272-8800
www.ul.com
84
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGY
BuildingSystemsandMaterialsDivision
EE-421
1000IndependenceAvenue,SW
Washington,DC20585
2025869214
www.doe.gov
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGYS
ENERGYEFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLE
ENERGYNETWORK
www.eren.doe.gov
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGYSENERGY
EFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLEENERGY
CLEARINGHOUSE
P.O.Box3048
Merrield,VA22116
800-363-3732
www.eren.doe.gov/erec/
U.S.DEPARTMENTOFHOUSING
ANDURBANDEVELOPMENT
HUDUser
P.O.Box6091
Rockville,MD20849
www.huduser.org
800-245-2691
U.S.GOVERNMENTFEDERALINFORMATION
NETWORK
www.fedworld.gov/
THEREHABGUIDE
VOLUMEONE: FOUNDATIONS VOLUMETWO: EXTERIORWALLS VOLUMETHREE: ROOFS VOLUMEFOUR: WINDOWSANDDOORS VOLUMEFIVE: PARTITIONS,CEILINGS,FLOORSANDSTAIRS VOLUMESIX: KITCHENS&BATHS VOLUMESEVEN: ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS VOLUMEEIGHT: HVAC/PLUMBING VOLUMENINE: SITEWORK
U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment Washington,DC20410-6000 OfcialBusiness PenaltyforPrivateUse,$300 August1999 HUD-DU100C000005956

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VOL 8

FOCUS OF THE REHAB GUIDE

LEAD PAINT HAZARD

HOW THE GUIDE IS ORGANIZED

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

DISADVANTAGES:Canberelativelyexpensive.Dustcanseriouslydegradetheperformancebydullingthe reectivesurface. 5. INSTALLANEVAPORATIVECOOLER.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

ADVANTAGES:Minimizestheexltrationofheatedconditioned-spaceair. DISADVANTAGES:Maybedifculttoinstallinanexistingreplace. 5. INSTALLANENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYGRATE.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

12 WA T E R S U P P LY & DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment Washington,DC20410-6000 OfcialBusiness PenaltyforPrivateUse,$300 August1999 HUD-DU100C000005956

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8-Hvac &amp; Plumbing

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VOL 8

FOCUS OF THE REHAB GUIDE

LEAD PAINT HAZARD

HOW THE GUIDE IS ORGANIZED

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

DISADVANTAGES:Canberelativelyexpensive.Dustcanseriouslydegradetheperformancebydullingthe reectivesurface. 5. INSTALLANEVAPORATIVECOOLER.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

ADVANTAGES:Minimizestheexltrationofheatedconditioned-spaceair. DISADVANTAGES:Maybedifculttoinstallinanexistingreplace. 5. INSTALLANENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYGRATE.

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

12 WA T E R S U P P LY & DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS, TOOLS

U.S.DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment Washington,DC20410-6000 OfcialBusiness PenaltyforPrivateUse,$300 August1999 HUD-DU100C000005956

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8-Hvac & Plumbing

8-Hvac & Plumbing