INTRODUCTION

Buildings
In architecture, construction, engineering, real estate development and technology the term building refers to one of the following 1. Any human-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or 2. An act of construction (i. e. the activity of building, see also builder) In this article, the first usage is generally intended unless otherwise specified. Buildings come in a wide amount of shapes and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons. Buildings serve several needs of society primarily as shelter from weather and as general living space, to provide privacy, to store belongings and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and harmful). Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have also become objects or can vasess of artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustain able planning and building practices has also become part of the design process of many new buildings.

Definitions Building is defined in many aspects as:

As a Civil Engineering structures such as a house, worship centre, Factories etc. that has a foundation, wall, roof etc. that protect human being and their properties from direct harsh effect of weather like rain, wind, sun etc.

The act of constructing, erecting, or establishing. The art of constructing edifices, or the practice of civil architecture. That which is built; a fabric or edifice constructed, as a house, a church, castle, arena/ stadium, etc.

The act of constructing or building something; "during the construction we had to take a detour"; "his hobby was the building of boats"

The commercial activity involved in constructing buildings; "their main business is home construction"; "workers in the building trades"
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A structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place, "there was a three-storey building on the corner", "it was an imposing edifice"

The occupants of a building; "the entire building complained about the noise" To differentiate buildings in the usage of this article from other buildings and other structures that are not intended for continuous human occupancy, the latter are called non-building structures or simply structures.

Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on building from street-level. Depending on how they are classified, spires and masts may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included.

The definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise.

Types
i. ii. iii. Residential Multi-story building Commercial building

I.

Residential:Residential buildings are called houses or homes, though buildings containing large

numbers of separate dwelling units are often called apartment buildings or apartment blocks to differentiate them from 'individual' houses. Houses may also be built in pairs (semidetached), in terraces where all but two of the houses have others either side; apartments may be built round courtyards or as rectangular blocks surrounded by a piece of ground of varying sizes. Houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters; they may also be converted to another use e.g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from one-room wood-framed, masonry, or adobe dwellings to multi-million dollar high-rise buildings able to house thousands of people. Increasing settlement density in buildings (and smaller distances between buildings) is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone.

Fig: Residential Building

II.

Multi-story building:A multi-storey building is a building that has multiple floors above ground in the

building. Multi-storey buildings aim to increase the floor area of the building without increasing the area of the land the building is built on, hence saving land and, in most cases, money (depending on material used and land prices in the area). The building with the most stories is the BurjKhalifa, with 162.

Fig: Multi Story Building

III.

Commercial building

A commercial building is a building that is used for commercial use. Types can include office buildings, warehouses, or retail (i.e. convenience
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stores,

'big

box'

stores, shopping malls, etc.). In urban locations, a commercial building often combines functions, such as an office on levels 2-10, with retail on floor 1. Local authorities commonly maintain strict regulations on commercial zoning, and have the authority to designate any zoned area as such. A business must be located in a commercial area or area zoned at least partially for commerce.

Fig: Commercial Building

Literature
Spread over 4 acres, Godrej Eternia is one of Chandigarh first modern commercial buildings, offering office and retail spaces with a development size of 63,173 sq. m. (6,80,000 sq. ft.). The complex is located in the industrial and business Park-1 (formerly Industrial Area-1), central to the tri-city of Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula. Godrej Eternia is close to many upcoming international hotels, malls and showrooms.

The project design by world renowned architects HBRA (Hammond Bee by Rupert Ainge, USA) and Patel Batliwala& Associates, features expensive and flexible office spaces, along with a 20 m. (66 ft.) wide landscaped street creating a retail plaza inherent to the citys architecture. Terrace garden penthouse spaces are provided on the fifth floor with almost floor to ceiling windows and provide magnificent views of the lush greenery beyond. These are ideal for high-end offices, restaurants, health centres and salons.

Fig: Godrej Eternia

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Modern Offices
o Flexible floor plates offer seamless scope for expansion with an option of exclusive penthouse offices on the terrace floor o Being an environment-friendly complex, it optimally balances utility and

customers/employee comfort. Its efficient design coupled with employment of green feature reduces operating costs, minimizes electric loads in air-conditioning. Conserves water and helps in improving productivity o 100 % power back-up ensures higher work efficiency o Adequate multi-layered parking complaint with revised city norms makes every business visit a pleasurable experience o The common areas are required with modern security system like CCTVs and alarm system that ensure 247 protection o The office interior combine intelligent design with few pillar obstruction to give it in an expansive feel o Conceptually, the building is composed of two trapezoidal wings offset to permit maximum visibility. Interior light wells provide lighting, permitting tenant to have continuous window facing perimeter

Fig: Modern Offices

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Retail Experience
Goderej Eternia introduces Chandigarh to a first-of-its-kind expansive shopping street that promises to bring to life the side walk cafes; where everyone can enjoy the comfortable, lazy, informal and quint atmosphere, sip a cup of coffee, socialize, dine or simply spend time reading a book o A large well-lit plaza and a 20 m. (66ft.) wide pedestrian walkway interconnect the complex thats sure to catch the excitement, energy levels and buzz of over 4,000 people in the development o The retail space enjoys large frontage for greater visibility to attract shoppers o The landscaped retail promenade provides a perfect backdrop for sit-out areas o Ample lifts and parking spaces have been provided to ensure smooth pedestrian flow even during crowded weekends.

Fig: Way for public Entrance for both buildings

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Fig: Top View of Green Building

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\ Fig. Gallery

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Specification

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Godrej Eternia has 44,593 sq. m. (4,80,000 sq. ft.) of office and retail spaces, and 18,580 sq. m.(2,00,000 sq. ft.) of parking space spread over 2 wings of equal size, Each wing offer spaces ranging from 279 sq. m. (3,000 sq. m.) to 3,534 sq. m. (38000 sq. ft.)

Car Parking:- multi-layered parking complaint with revised city norms.

Fig. Car Parking

Elevators: - Quick and spacious elevators with power back-up.

Air-conditioning:- Air-conditioning available in common areas. Infrastructure provision for air-conditioning in office areas.

Power:- 100% power back-up will be available in complex. DG sets shall be provided with monitoring systems.

Emergency lighting:- UPS system available for emergency lighting in common areas.

Water supply:- sufficient water supply with underground and overhead tanks.

Security:- 247 security with close circuit cameras for common areas and parking, manned security provided by professional agency.

Safety:- Fire detection and alarm system automatic sprinklers network and portable fire extinguishers in compliance with CFO norms, Signage provided for soft landscapes and interlocking paver blocks driveways.
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Handicap Friendly:- Sloping access at strategic location in the complex.

Rain water harvesting and sewage treatment plant.

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Fig: Site Layout

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Project details
Joint venture partner: Zara Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.

Plot area: 4.04 acres Designated use: Ground floor for retail space, cafes, restaurants First to for office space Fifth floor can be used penthouse offices, gymnasium, Saloon, restaurant

Associates: Architect: HBRA (USA) and Patel Baltiwala (Mumbai) Construction: L&T No. of floors: Ground: + 5; Two level basement for parking Total development size: 63,173 sq. m.(6,80,000 sq. ft.) Total office & retail area: 44,593 sq. m. (4,80,000 sq. ft.) Total parking area: 18,580 sq. m (2,00,000 sq. ft.) Ground floor height: 6.25 m Typical floor height ( 1st -5th): 3.75 m Upper basement height: 4.75 m Lower basement height: 6.75 m Column size: 750 mm / 900 mm diameter Core to window depth: 90% of spaces with lease depths not exceeding 12 mts for flexible spaces planning and to achieve natural day light and views.

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Central Location Godrej Eternia is strategically located almost equidistant from the tri-city of Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula, making it an ideal location to set up a business enterprises. It is well connected by all means of transport: the airport and railway station are within a 5 kilo meter radius. Several project including hotels, malls, residential, buildings and an IT park are also coming up in close vicinity of Godrej Eternia.

Location Chandigarh Railway Station City Centre (Sector 17 ) Mohali Zirakpur Chandigarh Airport Panchkula

Distance 3 kms 4 kms 6 kms 5 kms 5 kms 5 kms

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Materials and Specification

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Introduction
National and international standards organizations are currently developing life-cycle assessment standards for building products and materials. For example, life-cycle assessment standards being developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTMs) Subcommittee E-50.06 will provide the basis for obtaining environmental information from product manufacturers in terms that are equivalent or comparative. These standards should make a comparative product life-cycle analysis easier and less costly for the design team., The Future of Green Building, for a listing of the various life-cycle standards under review and development.)This chapter focuses on two elements of environmental life-cycle assessment for materials:

1) Minimizing natural resource use, and 2) Creating a healthy, comfortable, non-hazardous space for building occupants.

The information presented here is not meant to be conclusive or definitive. It is provided as an introduction and general guidance regarding resource efficiency and materialrelated health issues. The reader is encouraged to continue learning about these and other life cycle assessment issues that impact building material options through references listed in Resources at the end of this chapter.

Resource Efficiency
Renovation and construction projects, and maintenance programs are necessary to improve the nations building stock. These efforts depend on reliable sources of quality building products. Limitations on the availability of some building material resources are beginning to occur. For some products, prices are rising faster than inflation as the availability of raw materials starts to decline. Products selected for construction not only consume resources and energy, but also produce air and water pollution and solid waste during their manufacture. Once installed, they may require maintenance or periodic replacement. When a building is demolished, the products and materials usually are disposed in landfills. Therefore, building materials that minimize the use of natural resources and are durable or reusable contribute to sustainable building practices. The materials-selection practices discussed in this section relate to claddings (exterior walls),interior finishes, and

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furnishings (rather than structural materials) because they require maintenance every few years and replacement several times over the life of the building. Consider the following criteria in materials selection:

Resource quantity: A fundamental strategy for resource-efficient building is to build less and use smaller quantities of materials in the construction process. The most cost-effective conservation strategy is to buy less product, or use the purchased product more efficiently. For example, gypsum wallboard installation typically results in a lot of scrap material because of sizing needs.

Reused materials: Many durable products such as doors, cabinets, and other easily removed mill work, and some architectural metals and glass, can be readily salvaged and reused. This practice has usually been limited to restoration work, but is becoming more common in building and renovation projects. Salvaging does require extra effort, but the quality and cost savings of some salvaged materials can be considerable. The additional labour cost may be entirely or partly offset by savings on new materials, transportation, and dumping fees.

Recycled content: Although many building products are now available with a high content of recycled materials, there is confusion about the definition of the term. There are at least three types of recycled content materials: a . Postconsumer material, generated by commercial, industrial, and institutional facilities or households, and that can no longer be used for its intended purpose. b. Recovered industrial process waste that cannot be reused in the same process, such as slag from metal and mineral smelting. c. Internally recycled materials from a manufacturing process, such as scraps from trimming and returned or substandard product.

Renewability and use of sustainable management practices: Renewable materials include wood, plant fibres, wool, and other resources that are potentially replaceable with in a limited time period (such as a few decades or less) after

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harvesting. Information on wood harvested through sustainable management practices is becoming more readily available, including certification programs and standards.

Local content and reduced transportation: Specifying products made with local materials and labour can contribute to low embodied energy consumption and life-cycle cost for building materials.

Regionally appropriate materials: Some types of construction and materials are more appropriate in one region than another because of climatic differences. For example, it is well known that utilizing thermal mass in building design has important energy and comfort benefits in the Southwest United States, where daily temperature swings can be extreme. However, in a hot, humid climate like that of the Southeast United States, lightweight construction and high ceilings may be beneficial.

Life-cycle cost and maintenance requirements: Over the useful life of a commercial building, which may be 30 or more years, some materials will require maintenance and replacement more than once. When the full range of costs is considered, materials that are more costly upon initial purchase may be justified in terms of avoided future costs. The higher initial cost may also be justified if the product compares favourably with others over their life cycle.

Resource recovery and recycling: Once a material has completed its initial service in a building, it potentially has additional use as a resource and can later be recovered and recycled. The potential recyclability of metal, plastic, glass, wood, and masonry are discussed below.

1. Metals are recyclable if they can be separated by type. Accordingly, steel and aluminium building elements have a high recycling value. Approximately 50 to70 percent of the energy and pollution from steel production can be avoided by current recycling technology.1 Up to 85 percent of the energy and pollution from aluminium manufacturing can be avoided by Re-melting.

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2. Most plastics are recyclable, but the current rates of recycling are not high because the wide variety of plastics in use makes them difficult to separate. Some plastics such as pure polyvinyl chloride (PVC) would be recycled from buildings more often if designed for easy removal. Additives, coatings, and colour and smake recycling difficult.

3. Glass products are recyclable if separated and uncontaminated; however, littler cycling of glass building products now occurs. Recycled glass products are made with consumer container glass salvaged from the waste stream. Re-melting glass offers only a marginal energy and pollution reduction.

4. Heavy timber is recyclable by salvaging and by re-sawing. Engineered structural wood products, wood panels, and millwork are candidates for salvage and reuse, particularly if they are fastened in such a way that they can be easily removed.

5. Concrete, clay, and other masonry products and ceramics are examples of materials that are usually difficult to salvage and reuse. Some recycling of these products occurs by crushing them for use as granular fill in road and sidewalk base. Health and Indoor Air Quality Issues. H S F I CA N Poor indoor air quality is caused by outdoor and indoor sources of gaseous and particulate air pollutants that exceed the capacity of the buildings ventilation and filtration equipment to dilute or remove them to an acceptable level.3 Although many pollutants originate outdoors or from occupant activities, equipment, and processes, other pollutants are generated from materials. The various types of indoor air pollutants are:

1. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by interior materials and their components; 2. VOCs emitted by cleaning and maintenance products periodically used with those materials 3. Fibre shed from textiles, insulation, and panel products; 4. Soil, biological materials (e.g., fungi and bacteria), and gases released by biological activity; and 5. Dust and other particulates from spraying, sanding, or finishing.
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These material-based pollutants may affect the health and productivity of building occupants, maintenance personnel, and construction tradespeople.* SUGGESTED PRACTICES AND Review emission levels from building products at the following stages:

Installation
To prevent exposure among trades people and building occupants during construction or renovation. Information on potential hazards during the installation period is documented in manufacturers Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs). These sheets are a requirement by law for any material that may have health risks; however, they typically do not disclose a full list of contents. Additional information is available from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

Building occupancy: To prevent exposure of building occupants to emissions from materials during building use. Information on risks of occupant exposures (typically those risks extending more than a few weeks after construction) is difficult to determine, because emissions data are difficult to obtain or unavailable from manufacturers. This information will become more available in the next few years as standards are developed for accurately measuring and interpreting such data.

Maintenance and removal: To prevent exposure of building occupants and trades people during maintenance procedures and removal or demolition. Maintenance and removal risks are reasonably well known for many conventional materials.

Consider these additional materials issues and effects:

Sink effect: Rough and porous materials may contain microscopic planes and cavities that can adsorb airborne molecules. These molecules, which may be pollutants, can be released (desorbed) from the material after several hours or days. This sink effect of materials can

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be quite significant when pollutant molecules are adsorbed. Hard, smooth, and nonporous surfaces typically have a low sink effect.

Moisture and temperature: Moisture and heat in materials increase their deterioration and increase emissions of pollutants. Moisture also supports microbial growth.

Soiling and cleaning: Improper cleaning practices may disturb soil and introduce exposure to chemicals in cleaning products. Soft floor coverings such as carpet are susceptible to this improper practice. Nonporous flooring with minimal seams and low-maintenance coatings are less prone to this occurrence.

Natural materials: There is a common perception that natural materials are better environmental choices and less of a health risk than man-made synthetic materials. Toxicity and emissions testing of products should help clarify which is the better choice with regard to health risk; however, predicting all potential health effects is not always possible.

Survey of Materials:
To adhere to sustainable principles, the material selection process needs to incorporate life-cycle assessment elements and the more conventional criteria such as cost, aesthetics, performance, availability, code, and manufacturer warranty. This section uses two lifecycle assessment criteriaminimizing natural resource use (resource efficiency options)and creating a healthy, comfortable, non-hazardous space for building occupants (health and pollution issues)to discuss materials in eight of the 16 standard organizational format divisions used by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI). CSI provides leadership for its membership and the building industry through its standard product organizational format and its work in development and advancement of specifications. Incorporating environmental elements into product review and specification has made the process even more challenging. Since the scope of traditional practice is currently being expanded to include these new

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elements, it will take time to achieve industry consensus with regard to environmentally sound material selections. The materials discussed below are genericthat is, they are product classes (organized by CSI divisions); several manufacturers may produce products in those classes. This is neither a comprehensive listing of all materials for a given use nor an exhaustive list of materials. Resource guides and manufacturers product data can provide additional information.

Division 2: Concrete Making portland cement for concrete requires substantial energy, causing a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions.5 Because concrete is such a high-mass material and is used in buildings in large quantities, considering alternatives is important. If the selection is based on life-cycle assessment principles, other materials may be preferable.

Resource-efficient option: Use fly-ash concrete, available in many regions, as an alternative to conventional mixes. Fly ash is a waste material from coal-burning power plants. It can be used to replace up to about 30 percent of the Portland cement in conventional mixes. It is also mixed with ground blast-furnace slag, a waste from metal smelting. Fly ash produces a superior concrete with excellent finishing characteristics; however, only some types of ash are appropriate for certain applications and the proportions are restricted. Seek technical advice and refer to ASTM standards.

Recycled aggregates and lightweight aggregates are available for some concrete applications. Recycled aggregate may contain crushed concrete, brick, and other masonry waste; or it may contain crushed glass. Lightweight concrete is made with expanded volcanic materials such as pumice and perlite in place of part of the usual stone aggregate. These materials place less load on structures (particularly when used on wood or lightweight steel floors) and provide some thermal insulation value.

Anticorrosion agents such as epoxy coating extend the life of steel reinforcement, especially for applications such as parking slabs where salt is used in winter. These agents have been found to extend the life of slabs substantially, avoiding repair and replacement costs.
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Using low-waste formwork is a final step in resource conservation. Systems such as modular steel forms, slip forms, and preformed blocks can substantially reduce waste material from concrete forming.

Health and pollution issue: Air pollution emissions from concrete are low. Additionally, concrete is often confined to foundations and concealed structure where exposure to building air is minimal, although testing on radon emissions is on going. Other exceptions are some concrete additives and some form-release agents, particularly in inter iorapplications.6 Concrete additives such as water reducers or super plasticizers may produce odours and risk of skin and bronchial irritation. Form-release agents are sometimes made from diesel oil or other odorous petroleum oils that produce emissions. Wax- or mineral oil-based products are available substitutes.

Division 3: Masonry Masonry products are made from concrete, clay, glass, and various types of standard and lightweight aggregates. Quarried stone is also used. Most masonry products are installed with mortar made from portland cement, sand, and lime.

Resource-efficient options Consider lightweight concrete blocks and bricks made with expanded aggregates such as pumice to reduce weight and add insulating value.

Other options are brick and block products with waste and recycled contents, such as sewage sludge and ash from incinerators and coal-burning plants. However, such ash should be tested for pollutants that could cause unacceptable health or environmental exposures. Hollow blocks are available with waste wood fibre and other recycled content. Native stone or lightweight cultured stone made from cement and recycled aggregates are appropriate for some uses. Glass block is available with recycled glass content.

Health and pollution issues: Overall, masonry products produce minimal air pollution. If sealers are needed to repel water, a low-volatility, water-dispersed product is safer than a solvent-based variety.
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Division 4: Metals Steel is the most common metal used in building products. It is highly recyclable, and its scrap has value. Aluminium, the second most common metal, is probably the most recyclable material in buildings. Stainless steel and brass products are alloyed metals that are recyclable if carefully separated by type. Copper is also a highly valued recyclable. Metal plating is common in building products, especially in architectural metals, door hardware, and office systems and furniture. Chromium, cadmium, brass, and nickel plating is often carried out by electroplating plants, sometimes resulting in high levels of pollution. Emissions such as hexavalent chromium and cadmium and acid wastes are environmentally toxic. Plastic polymer coatings and powder coatings are alternatives; however, the use of plated metal versus plastic polymer coatings should only be evaluated by comparable lifecycle assessments, which can be done by using ASTM life-cycle assessment standards.

Resource-efficient options Steel with verified recycled content of 30 percent or greater is available from sources in the United States. Aluminium from U.S. sources may have 20 percent or more of verified recycled content, which usually is derived from recycled consumer-product containers. Salvaged steel and aluminium beam and bar sections are also widely available from scrap dealers. These may be appropriate for some non structural uses. Architectural metalwork such as antique iron and brass, lighting fixtures, and door hardware are also readily available from building salvagers.

Health and pollution issues Indoor air pollution is a minimal problem with metal products. The only exceptions are products that may require polishing, cleaning, or repainting in place.

Division 5: Wood and Plastic Woods used in construction and interior finishing are primarily domestic species. Woods used in furniture, doors, and specialty millwork are often imported tropical varieties. Appropriate forest management is vital to more sustainable wood sources in many cases. Processed woods and wood substitutes are an alternative and are discussed further in Division 12, Furnishings, below. Most plastics are made from non renewable petroleum

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or natural gas feed stocks. Their production may involve use of toxic and potentially hazardous substances. Plastics are sometimes used in building systems as claddings and panels, but most often in interior finishes. These uses are discussed below in Division 9, Finishes.

Resource-efficient options Determine whether domestic wood is produced through sustainable forest management. Although this can be difficult, ASTM is developing a sustainably harvested wood standard that can be specified in building construction. An increasing number of producers have sustainable-based management programs and participate in third party certification programs. Low-grade fibre, small-diameter trees, and fast-growing, less-utilized tree species can be used in engineered wood products and value-added products such as I joists, oriented strand board, laminated veneer lumber, finger-jointed lumber, open-web wood joists and trusses, stressed skin wood panels, and wood/steel joists. Salvaged timber and wood products are available from operators who disassemble old buildings and bridges and then clean, grade, and often re-saw the timber. Structural sheathing made from pressed post-consumer newsprint is also available. This material not only uses a recycled material but also adds substantial insulating value and acoustic absorption to the wall or roof. In some circumstances, non-structural insulating sheathing such as wood-fibre or glass-fibre boards can also be used with steel-strap and bracket-shear braces.

Health and pollution issues Indoor-air-pollution emissions from glues used in the manufacturing process of some engineered wood products are substantial. Those made with exterior-type glues (phenolic resins) and urethane (polyurea) adhesives have some of the lowest emissions.

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Division 6: Thermal Insulation and Moisture Protection Insulation Thermal insulation can be an important factor in the energy performance of commercial buildings, depending on the climate, building form and orientation, occupancy, and use. Achieving high insulation values by designing larger cavities or using higherperformance materials may be cost-effective. Once the desired insulation value has been determined, a material can be selected that is resource efficient and that addresses health issues.

Resource-efficient options Mineral-fibre insulation is made primarily from basalt rock or steel mill slag. It is available in loose-fill form, batts, and rigid boards, and can be used for most applications. Glass-fibre insulation is now available with 30 percent or more post-consumer recycled glass content from cullet.8 It is available in loose-fill form, batts, and rigid boards. Cellulose thermal insulation and acoustic sprayed coatings contain at least 70 percent postconsumer paper waste. These are available only in loose-fill form. Wall scan be insulated using the blown-in batt system, installed with a high-pressure blower and containment screen. If installed to density specifications, the insulation does not settle after application. Horizontal spaces are filled with a low-pressure blower. Some systems use a small amount of moisture to encourage stabilization. Sprayed cellulose systems are designed for acoustic and fire retardancy and may contain mineral fibre. Foamed polystyrene insulation is available with post-consumer recycled content from recycled fast-food containers and hot drink cups. Expanded types are made with a steam process and a non-chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gas. Extruded types, which offer higher performance, were previously made with CFCs. However, they are now made with hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which have far less ozone depleting potential. New extruded products containing no HCFCs will soon become available, although they contain chemicals that are now being evaluated based on their global warming potential.

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 Urethane foams are high-performance insulating materials available as rigid boards or sprayed-in-place systems. These also were once made with CFCs and are now made with HCFCs. Vermiculite and perlite are naturally occurring minerals that can be used in insulating plaster mixes and in loose-fill applications such as filling cores of masonry walls. A spray-in-place foamed silicate insulation made from sodium silicate and magnesium oxy chloride is available for use where fire retardancy and material safety are critical. Used for cavity-fill applications and some surface uses, it is very moist when applied and can take several days to dry. Reflective film-radiant insulation can be used effectively to reduce the radiant component of energy transfer, such as excess heat gain from the sun. This material can be particularly useful for reducing cooling loads in commercial buildings in sunny climates. It is made from aluminium foil and metalized plastics and usually installed in a roof cavity with an adjacent air space.

Health and pollution issues Carefully handle and thoroughly clean up after using some thermal insulations, which may have health risks. It is recommended that they be applied in such a way that they can be completely contained or isolated and cannot enter the building air handling system. Mineral fibres and glass fibres are now recognized by the United States government as possible carcinogens, and care should be taken by workers handling them. Cellulose fibre is relatively safe, but it contains borates and sulphates as fire retardants and stabilizers that are irritating and may require additional safety measures. The same is true for spray able cellulose insulation containing mineral fibre. Vermiculite and perlite dust are potentially dangerous if inhaled, and should be handled with caution. These natural mineral products should be certified as asbestos free. Codes require a non-combustible covering over plastic insulations and may even prohibit them in some uses. All plastic insulation materials release some gases such as styrene and all are flammable, producing toxic gases when they burn. They are primarily useful for exterior

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applications. Cutting with a hot wire releases toxic gases and should be avoided on building sites.

Cladding and Roofing Choices of materials used in cladding and roofing are important for building longevity. The materials used for these purposes should be durable, recyclable, and appropriate for the climate and application.

Resource-efficient options Metal panels such as galvanized steel and enamelled or anodized aluminium are appropriate for pitched roofs and cladding. They have the merit of using very little material to cover the area, and they are durable and recyclable. Composite shingles, tiles, and panels made from a variety of fibre-reinforced cement products (some coated with plastics, enamels, or thin metals) are also available for pitched roofs and cladding. These are durable, and some contain recycled content. Although they are not recyclable, these are a good choice for durability and resource efficiency. Stucco is a resource-efficient and durable finish where it is protected from moisture and frost damage by effective detailing. Acrylic-modified stucco is less massive and can be installed on exterior insulation board, adding to thermal performance. Where shingles are chosen for roofing, higher-quality asphalt shingles and fibre glass shingles are a moderately durable option. Some may be available with recycled content. For flat roofs, torch-on roofing has important advantages. Also called cold-process builtup roofing, it is fairly durable and repairable; although recycling systems are not in place, this roofing is relatively easy to remove. Flat and shallow-pitched roofs can also be prepared with drainage mats and topsoil to grow grass, helping control rainwater runoff and adding insulation value to the building, while also providing habitat for birds and other wildlife.

Health and pollution issues Roofing, because of its location, is usually not an important contributor to indoor air pollution.
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 Hot mopped asphalt roofing releases extremely high levels of air pollutants during installation and may be restricted in some urban areas because of its contributions to smog. It is also a health risk to installers.

Sealants:
Sealants are used in small quantities and are therefore not a cause for serious resource efficiency concern. However, they present important health concerns because many are solvent-based and toxic.

Resource-efficient options Regardless of material type, the sealant with the best service life can be the best choice because of the high labour cost of replacement and the potential for costly building damage with lower-quality products.

Health and pollution issues Generally, sealants used outside the building are not much of an indoor air pollution concern. Acrylics, silicones, and siliconized acrylics are typically the safest sealants to handle for inside use and have the lowest solvent content. Those used indoors in any quantity, such as vapour-barrier caulking, should be carefully selected only after review of health evaluations in MSDSs. Quantities of solvent-based products, such as common acoustic caulking, butyls, and urethanes, should be avoided indoors.

Division 7: Finishes Interior finishes are the most important materials category for reducing indoor air pollution. They are also significant from the perspective of resource conservation because they wear out and are replaced regularly over the life of the building.

Gypsum Products Gypsum products are the most common interior panels used because of their ease of installation, fire retardance, and low cost. Installation typically results in a high level of scrap
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materials discarded to the landfill. Gypsum can be recycled, minimizing its contribution to limited landfill space. Restrictions on dumping gypsum and other construction debris have helped start a gypsum-recycling industry in various parts of the United States.

Resource-efficient options Some gypsum-board manufacturers can verify at least 10 to 15 percent recycled material content. Gypsum is recyclable if not contaminated with paint or adhesives. The paper facing can be made from recycled paper.

Health and pollution issues Gypsum products themselves are minor sources of indoor air pollutants, although the paper facing and adhesives can be sources. Gypsum surfaces are potential sinks to the extent that they absorb other pollutants. In the construction phase, the application of adhesives, sealers, paints, and caulking are the main concerns.

Engineered or Composite Wood or Plastic Panels: These panels have recycled content, but the adhesives and sealers used in their manufacture and installation may be sources of indoor air pollution.

Resource-efficient options Hardboards are durable and resource-efficient. They are made with wood fibre that is pressed and heated to form panels. No adhesive is usually needed because the natural lignin in wood binds the fibres. These boards are reusable if installed for later removal. Particleboard and medium-density fibre board (MDF) panels are pressed from saw dust, small chips, and fibres and bound with glue. They can contain low-grade wood and sawmill waste. These are resource-efficient products but should be chosen for low pollution potential. Low-density fibre boards made from paper and wood fibre are also resource-efficient. Some are made from 100 percent recycled newsprint, and most processes use no glue. Low density fibreboards are used as acoustic panels, underlayment, and tack boards, among other things. They also can be recycled.
35

 Veneered wood panels, such as oriented strand board with hardwood facing, are resourceefficient choices for interior finishing work. They are used for cabinets and mill work and can offer wood-grain surfaces while minimizing the use of wood. If installed for easy removal, these have good reuse potential. Recycled plastic panels made from consumer-product waste are available for interior uses such as toilet partitions and functional worktops. These have a good reuse potential. Some vegetable-oil-based plastics are available in flexible and rigid forms. They can be coloured and filled with minerals, metal shavings, or other plastic waste and wood fibre, giving them a large range of texture and colour possibilities. If installed for easy removal, these have good reuse potential. Fibre-reinforced cement boards made with recycled fibre are a resource-efficient choice. These very durable products can be used as substrates for tile and decorative finishes. In some installations they can have good reuse potential if designed for easy removal. Health and pollution issues Engineered wood products made with exterior glue (phenol formaldehyde) have low formaldehyde emissions. Products stabilized by ammonia treatment or other methods also have low emissions.

36

High-Pressure Laminates:
These surface materials are made by laminating paper and colorants together with melamine (phenolic) resin. They are a relatively resource-efficient use of plastics because a very small quantity of materials suffices to produce a durable surface.

Resource-efficient options No manufacturers of high-pressure laminates known at this time offer substantial recycled content in their products, although some have made important process improvements, such as waste-to-energy and heat-recovery systems that exceed industry norms. Their products may have a small resource-efficiency advantage over others.

Health and pollution issues Because the dust from cutting these laminates and emissions from glues used for installation can be quite significant, work ideally should be performed off the premises, if possible, and the adhesives chosen for safe handling characteristics. If work is to be performed on site, care should be taken in minimizing the dust and glue emissions.

Ceramics and Terrazzo: Ceramics and terrazzo are not only among the most durable finishes, they also have extremely low emissions. They do not adsorb odours, are easily cleaned, and resist abrasion and wear. Although they are costly to buy and install, their life-cycle cost is among the lowest of all finishes for some applications because of their long life and the minimal maintenance they require. The main air-pollution factors in the field are the setting method, the grout, and any sealers required to protect unglazed surfaces. Energy use in manufacturing should also be considered as part of a life-cycle assessment perspective.

Resource-efficient options Using local or regionally manufactured ceramics reduces their high transportation cost. Some tile is available with recycled content (up to 70 percent), using materials such as scrap glass and feldspar waste from mining. These have important resource-efficiency merit. Some manufacturers also have added innovative conservation measures to their operations.

37

 Terrazzo made with cement and crushed stone is also resource-efficient.

Health and pollution issues Cement mortars, usually modified with acrylic additives, are among the safest setting materials to handle. They also have good performance in most applications. Where adhesives and caulkings are used, such as for cove bases and flexible joints, a lowsolvent-content product such as an acrylic can be chosen. Plastic adhesives contain some solvents and contribute to indoor air pollution. Cement- and cellulose-based grouts are very safe and have low emissions. Onlyepoxymodified grout (used for some wet and high-wear applications) contains hazardous components. Glazed tile and high-fired tile usually do not require sealers. If a porous tile is chosen, the safest sealers are the low-volatility, acrylic or water dispersed silicon types. Sealers containing hazardous solvents contribute to indoor air pollution.

Wood Flooring: Many resource-efficient types of wood flooring are available, including salvaged, laminated, and veneered products. The most important air quality issues are the installation method and the finish.

Resource-efficient options Salvaged solid-wood flooring is widely available. This is high-quality material available for a modest cost; however, the installation is more expensive than for new material because it requires extra labour for fitting and refinishing. Salvaged flooring also requires sanding and refinishing on-site. New wood flooring materials include a wide range of veneered and laminated products that have a plywood or MDF core with a hardwood surface. These are usually prefinished at the

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factory with a very durable, low-maintenance finish. These are source-efficient choice, but are less repairable than solid wood. Domestic hardwoods such as oak, maple, birch, and ash, and imported species such as Australian eucalyptus and Scandinavian beech, are most likely to come from sustainable sources. Sustainably-managed sources of tropical hardwoods are also available.1 0 A steeltrack system using wedges to hold flooring in place, or a floating system using edge gluing where necessary, makes wood floors easy to remove. A nail-down system is also salvageable, but with some loss of material. A glue-down system is probably the least salvageable, but is required for parquet flooring.

Health and pollution issues Factory prefinished products offer air-quality benefits because no sanding or finishing is performed on-site. If sanding is performed on the premises, the area must be carefully isolated; this should include sealing off the doors and HVAC system and using temporary fans. Final cleanup with a high-performance high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter vacuum is recommended. For finishing on-site, consider the water-dispersed urethanes (actually urethane-acrylic blends) with low-volatility contents because they are among the lowest-emission finishes. Those with cross linker additives are very durable. Hardening oils, solvent varnishes, and acid-cured varnishes give off prolonged emissions of pollutants.11 If edge gluing is required, white carpenters or woodworkers glue is a low-toxicity product. If gluedown methods are required, use a low-volatility flooring adhesive.

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Resilient Floorings: Vinyl, rubber, linoleum, and cork floors have merit for their easy maintenance, and some types are very durable. Some materials are manufactured with renewable contents, and others have recycled content. In terms of air quality, there are important distinctions among material types, installation methods, and maintenance products.

Resource-efficient options True linoleum is made with many renewable materials (linseed oil, cork, wood dust, and jute), as are cork products. Linoleum is highly durable. Recycled rubber tile and sheet goods made with waste tires are also available. These can provide good, resource-efficient choices for heavy-traffic and utility areas.

Health and pollution issues Resilient flooring products produce some air-pollutant emissions; as do the setting and maintenance products used with them. Some manufacturers provide emissions data to aid in the selection process. In some applications, interlocked rubber tiles can be laid without adhesive. Maintenance products for resilient flooring can also be high pollution sources. Flooring with sealed low-maintenance surfaces reduces both maintenance costs and the use of cleaners and waxes.

Carpets and Under pads: Given their high level of use and frequency of replacement over the life of a building, carpeting and under pads are important products to consider for resource-efficiency and pollution potential. Several products with recycled content, lower pollution potential, and lower maintenance requirements are now available.

Resource-efficient options Polyester and nylon-blended carpets are available with recycled content from polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) soft-drink containers. The properties of these materials are similar to those of other polyesters. Care should be taken in reviewing these products for high performance and durability.

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 Commercial, high-density, low-pile wool carpet is also available. Wool-face fibre is a renewable material with inherent fire resistance and adequate durability for some commercial uses. Carpet tile and releasable roll carpet systems can possibly be switched from low wear are as to high, to extend the life of the floor. They are also easily removed and replaced during renovation. Carpet tile by design requires the lowest quantity of materials over the buildings life, as replacement can occur in smaller instalments. The lowest-maintenance carpets are typically the low-pile, dense-loop, and needle punch types, all of which capture little soil and show less wear. One type of nylon fibre, Nylon 6, offers a high level of recyclability. Recycling is an industry priority today because carpeting is sent in large quantities to landfills and does not easily decompose. The major obstacles are the recyclability of the face fibre, the added colorants, and separation of the different materials in the product. Carpets made from fewer materials require less separation for recycling. Carpet pad is usually made from sponge plastics and rubber as well as woven and nonwoven textile fibres. Rubber pad made from recycled tire rubber, a resource-efficient choice, is dense and durable with a long life expectancy. Fibrous pad made from recycled synthetic and natural fibre from textile mill waste is also available in commercial grades.

Health and pollution issues The manner in which carpet is constructed affects the emissions it produces. A majority of carpet is made by tufting the face fibre into a polypropylene mat, and gluing it in place with a synthetic latex resin. The synthetic latex is a source of air pollution, including 4 phenyl cyclo hexene (4PC), an irritant cited in several cases of Sick Building Syndrome. One method of low-emission carpet construction is to eliminate the latex bond through fusion bonding. Carpet made in this manner has a sponge plastic backing into which the face fibre has been heat-welded. It has a low indoor pollution potential. Needle punched carpets are also made without latex. Among latex-bonded carpets, including wool products, emissions vary widely. Some carpet manufacturers have made considerable effort to provide

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low-emission products and provide test results, including VOC and other emissions at different time periods. Airing out new carpet has often been recommended as a pollution-reduction measure, but the evidence of its effectiveness is still being studied. While this can help reduce some shortterm volatile emissions and reduce odours adsorbed during manufacturing and storage, other carpet contents can produce emissions for many months.

Finished Concrete Flooring: Finished concrete flooring is an integral system of slab and finish produced by adding colorants and sealers to the topping concrete either before or after it cure. The concrete is usually stamped with tile patterns and grid lines to control cracking and to enhance its appearance. It is a durable and low-maintenance finish.

Resource-efficient options Finished concrete may be appropriate for areas that would otherwise be surfaced with tile or terrazzo. Systems with integral colour added to the entire topping layer are more resistant to damage and less likely to require re-colouring than systems dyed after the concrete is laid. Proper sealing and waxing can lead to longer life.

Health and pollution issues Finished concrete is low in emissions. The choice of sealers is the main concern. Water-dispersed acrylic sealers and waxes meeting low-volatility standards are among the safest.

Paints: Paint is an important indoor air pollution and toxic waste consideration. Volatile emissions from paint tend to be short termthat is, they decrease to a small fraction of the wet emission rate within a few days or weeks. Some of the most toxic emissions from paints and coatings are from evaporating solvents and a wide variety of volatiles released by oxidation. These volatiles are produced by both solvent- and water-based paints. As much as 12 percent of water-based paints may be solvents, although currently paints for interior applications are available containing very little toxic solvents. Water-borne acrylics are

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clearly preferable to alkyds (solvent-based oil paints) for handling safety, and they are highly durable and produce no hazardous waste from cleanup.

Resource-efficient options Several U.S. companies are now providing recycled paints made by mixing left over manufacturing product with returned customer products. These recycled paints are generally good-quality acrylic latex paints, suitable for moderate-duty interior use, although the colour range is quite limited. For exterior use, solvent-based products are required in some applications. These paints can be recycled either through municipal programs or through paint suppliers.

Health and pollution issues The first priority is to avoid paints containing lead, mercury, hexavalent chromium, and cadmium. Although regulations have nearly eliminated many of these toxic components from consumer paint lines, industrial and commercial paints may still contain them. Check MSDSs for these toxic contents as they must be disclosed. Selecting paints with the least volatile emissions, provided they still meet the other project criteria, is important. Many such paints are water-dispersed acrylic and latex products. Some of the emerging third-party certification groups provide environmental standards for paints.

Ceiling Tile: Ceiling tile is the most common ceiling treatment in commercial and public buildings. Because of the large area it covers, its potential for disturbance during renovation, and its contact with HVAC systems, it is important to evaluate ceiling tile in terms of resource efficiency and indoor air quality.

Resource-efficient options Ceiling tile is usually made from mineral fibre with added clay or gypsum fillers for fire retardancy and a minimal amount of wood fibre, and it is then painted. Most ceiling tile contains significant amounts of recycled material. Reusable and paintable tile should last many years if handled carefully.

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Health and pollution issues Tile collects dust and adsorbs odours. Ceiling tile with mineral-fibre content may also begin to shed hazardous fibre if disturbed or as it ages. Both problems can bea concern where the ceiling is used for a plenum carrying recirculated air back toHVAC plants. If this type of system is used, the tile should be checked for damage, and the plenum space cleaned with a high-performance vacuum as advisedby an IAQ professional. In either new or renovation projects, install ducts in HVAC ceiling plenums if possibleto secure the plenums from contamination by debris in the suspended ceiling. Older products classified within CSI Division 9 may contain hazardous materialssuch as asbestos and lead paint. A discussion of these issues and suggested practicesto address them is outside the scope of this manual. Professional advice and listingsof qualified consultants can be obtained from regional Environmental ProtectionAgency offices, or local departments of public health.

Division 8: Specialties

Resource-efficient options. Several panel systems available for office partitions and non-structural interior uses allow changes to floor plans without major demolition and waste. Although they usually cost more than lightweight steel framing and gypsum panels built on-site, they are reusable and allow rapid changes to be made with minimal disruption. They also have many components that can be recycled when the panels are no longer useful. Usually referred to as demountable systems, they typically have steel or aluminium tracks at the top and bottom to hold gypsum panels that lock into place. Door modules, glass, different surface finishes, and several other options are available. The manufacturers claim typically less than 10 percent material waste with relocation. Used systems can be purchased and matching components traded between departments or buildings or stored for future use. These products can have important resource-efficiency merits.

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Division 9: Furnishings Furnishings are an important resource-efficiency and indoor-air-quality consideration for organizations. A major cost and maintenance component for interiors, they are essential to workplace satisfaction and comfort.

Resource-efficient options The most resource-efficient option is to repair any good-quality furniture currently owned by the organization. Good-quality used office furniture can also be purchased from local office-furniture suppliers. Some furniture manufacturers and several resale operators offer reconditioned furniture as a purchase or lease option. These are usually classic and durable lines that have been bought back or returned by lessees and have had surfaces and hardware replaced. Steel, glass, and solid-wood furniture has significant resource-efficiency merits and recycling potential. It also has minimal indoor pollution potential. Tropical hardwoods are common in office furniture, both as solid components and veneers. Rare woods such as rosewood, teak, and ebony are becoming scarce, and extracting them can contribute to forest degradation. To find well-managed sources of tropical hardwoods, refer to the guides listed in the Resources section below. Some conscientious furniture manufacturers offer substitute woods that are more environmentally and economically sustainable. Manufactured hardwoods are another option. These are typically northern hard woods that have been dyed and machined to create beautiful and unique wood finishes. Upholstery foams used in chairs are generally high-density urethane products. These were once manufactured with ozone-depleting CFCs, but are now made with less-depleting HCFCs. HCFCs are also due to be phased out from upholstery-foam manufacture in 1996.

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Health and pollution issues The main air-pollution potential associated with furniture is from glue-bonded wood products, soft plastics, fabric treatments, and finishes. Some furniture manufacturers provide emissions data for their products. Fabric coverings, foam fillings, and fabric-coated acoustic panels are dust collectors and Adsorb odours; clean them regularly to minimize these problems. Metal-coating systems and wood finishes are important environmental issues associated with furniture. Powder-coated metal finishes are a substitute for painting and plating. The process involves applying dry powder polymers to metal and fusing them with heat. Powdercoated finishes are harder than many paints and can actually rival plating for durability. For woods, factory-applied and -cured coatings such as urethanes have minimal emissions, and the factory can capture the resulting dust and recycle solvent.

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Specification

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1st CLASS BRICK WORK 1:3:3 CEMENT-SAND MORTAR IN SUPER STRUCTURE

BRICKS: All bricks should be of first-class of standard specification. MORTAR: Mortar should be specified. Proportion of cement sand mortar should be 1 cement : 3 coarse sand : 3 fine sand. Ingredients should be mixed thoroughly. Mortar should be used before the initial setting. SOAKING OF BRICKS:- bricks should be soaked properly in water for a period of 12 hours immediately before use. BONDING: - Bricks work should be carried out in proper bond. English bond is structurally good unless it is used in aesthetic location. Vertical joints in alternate courses should directly come over each other. VERTICALITY:-Verticality may be checked time to time with the help of plumb-bob. CURING: - Brick work should be kept wet for a period of ten days after laying. PROTECTION: - The bricks work shall be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc. during the construction and up to such time it is green and likely to damage easily. SCAFFOLDING: - Necessary scaffolding shall be provided to facilitate the construction of brick wall. Scaffolding shall be sound and strong and supports and members sufficiently strong so as to with stand all loads likely to come upon them. MEASUREMENT:- Bricks work shall be measured in cum(cu ft). The thickness of wall shall be taken as multiple of half brick as half brick, one brick, 11/2 brick etc.

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R.C.C WORK M-25 IN BEAMS, SLABS & LINTELS

STEEL:- Steel reinforcing bars shall be mild steel or deformed steel of standard specification and shall be free from corrosion, loose rust scale, oil, grease, paint etc. The steel bars shall be rounded and capable of bent without fracture. Bars shall be hooked and bent accurate by a specified in position as per design and bound together tight with 20 S.W.G annealed steel wire at their point of intersection. Joints in the bar should be avoidable as far as possible then joints have to be made on overlap of 40 times diameter of the bar shall be given with proper hooked at the end. While concreting steel bar shall be given side and bottom cover of concrete by placing precast cover block underneath of 1:2 cement mortar 2.5cm X 2.5cm (1 X 1) and thickness of specified cover 4-5cm for beams and 1-2cm for slabs. During laying and compacting of concrete the reinforcing bars should not move from there position and bars of the laid portions should not be disturbed. CENTRING AND SHUTTERING:- Centring and shuttering shall be made with timber or steel plate close and tight to prevent leakage of mortar, with necessary props, bracing and wedges. Sufficiently strong and stable and should not yield on laying concrete. A coat of oil washing should be applied over shuttering or paper should be spread over it to have a smooth and finished surface to prevent adherence to concrete. For slab and beam small camber should be given in centring with maximum 4cm. PROPORTION OF CEMENT-CONCRETE:- Cement concrete shall be 1:1:2 proportion by volume for slab, beam and lintel. MATERIAL:- Aggregate Shall be of inert material and should be clean, dense, hard, sound, shall be of 20mm size and should be retained in 5mm mesh and well graded such that void dont exceed 42%. Sand should be of standard specification, clean and free from dust, dirt and organic matter. Sea sand not be used. Cement shall be fresh Portland cement of standard ISI specification and shall have the required tensile and compressive strength. MIXING:- Mixing shall be done with machines. For small work hand mixing by bathes can be allowed.

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 MACHINE MIXING :- Stone ballast, coarse sand and cement shall be put in cement concrete mixer to have the required specification. The machine shall be added water after mixing the material dry. The water shall be added to the required quantity to have the required water-cement ratio. SLUMP:- Regular slump tests should be carried out to control the addition of water and to maintain the required consistency. A slump of 7.5cm 10cm (3 to 4) may be allowed for building work. LAYING:- Care should be taken that the time between mixing and placing of concrete shall not exceed 20 minutes, initial setting time should not interfered. Concrete shall be compacted before the initial setting starts i.e. 30 min. CURING:- After about 2 hours laying when concrete has begun to harden. It shall be kept damp covering with wet gunny bags or wet sand for 24 hours and then cured by flooding. FINISHING:- The exposed surface shall be plastered with 1:3 cement sand mortar not exceeding 6mm thick and plastering shall be applied immediately after removal of centring. MEASUREMENT:- Measurement shall be taken in cum for the finished work as deduction shall be made for volume for steel. Steel reinforcement shall be measured in a separate item in quintal. The rate of R.C.C work should be for the complete work excluding steel.

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HYSD REINFORCEMENT BAR 1.5% OF R.C.C WORK

HYSD:- HYSD reinforcement shall be of standard specification and shall be free from corrosion, loose rust scales, oil, grease, paint etc. the reinforcement shall be round and capable of being bent without fracture. Joints in the bars shall be avoided as far as possible, when joints have to be made an overlap of 40 times diameter of bars shall be given with proper hooks. Bigger diameter bar should be made by welding and tested before placing in position. Reinforcement will use at a rate of 1.5% by volume of total R.C.C work. BENDING OR OVERLAPPING:- Bars should be bent cold, correctly and accurately to the size and shape as directed by engineers in chief preferably bars of full length should be bent into semi inverted hooks having clear diameter equal to four times the diameter of bars with a length beyond the bend equal to 4 times in diameter of bars. PLACING:-Reinforcement bar should be placed in position. The bar should be kept in position by the following method. For beam and slab construction precast cover block in cement mortar 1:2 about 4cm x 4cm section of the specified thickness should be placed between the bar and shuttering. For cantilever and double reinforcement beam, the vertical distance between the horizontal bar should be maintained by support bar of steel. DIFFERENT BRAND AVAILABLE IN MARKET:- The various companies producing reinforcement bars are Tata iron & steel Co. , Rathi, Amba, Barnala etc.

Various types of twisted bars are such as follow-

i. ii. iii. iv.

Cold twisted high yield strength ribbed bars. Hot rolled high yield strength ribbed bars. Hot rolled ribbed bar as recommended by ISI. Now a days steel authority if India has introduced a new type of high strength mica alloy structural steel in market as SIAL-MA.

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MILD STEEL FRAME OF DOOR AND WINDOW OF ANGLE SECTION

STEEL:- Steel shall be of mild steel of best quality of standard specification and shall be free from corrosion loose rust & other object. The steel shall be of uniform section and xsection area of 35x35x5mm. The weight per meter of the steel shall be 2.6kg throughout the length. WELDING:- Before starting welding the joint should be prepared well and thoroughly cleaned to remove dirt, grease, oil, etc. from the work surface. Edges of thicker section should be levelled and lighter gauge should be provided with suitable backing. The work piece should be held firmly, preferably is suitable fixture. FRAME: - The frame shall be properly framed and joint by welded joint with electric are welding. All frame work shall be placed, neatly and truly finished to exact. The frame should be painted with two coat of red oxide as prime coat before in position. PAINTING: - The surface of frame shall be painted with 2 coat of approval paint over a coat of red oxide as primer. Two coat of primer should be applied on the frame before fixing in position. MEASUREMENT: - It should be measured in quintal. The cost of frame shall be taken in per quintal or may rarely also be per number.

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TEAK WOOD WORK IN DOOR AND WINDOW SHUTTERS

TIMBER: - The timber shall be of the kind as specified, well seasoned and free from sap, knots, wraps, cracks and other defects. All work shall be planned and neatly and truly finished to exact dimensions. SHUTTERS OR LEAVES (JOINERY):- The shutter may be panelled, glazed part panelled and part glazed battened or venetian as specified. The thickness of shutter shall be (11/2 to 2) 3cm to 5cm as specified. The styles, rails and panels shall be planed and neatly and truly finished to the exact dimensions. The styles and rails shall be framed properly and accurately with mortar and tenon joint and fixed with wooden pins. The thickness of panels shall be 12mm to 25mm (1/2 to 1) as specified. All joints shall be glued before being fitted. FITTING:- All doors shall be provided with handles on both sides and all windows with handle on inner sides. One of the doors of each room is provided with sliding bolts on the outer side for locking. Screws shall of suitable length and correct diameter and shall be fixed with screw driver not by hammering. The fitting may be of iron, brass or oxidized as specified of approved quality. PAINTING OR POLISHING:- The surface of shutter shall be painted with coat of approved paint over a coat of priming. The shutter may be polished also with French polish it has attractive grains. MEASUREMENT:- The measurement of shutters shall be taken in Sq m (Sqft) for finished work in closed position overlaps of two shutters shall not be measured. The rate shall be for complete work including hanging and fixing in position.

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PLASTERING ON CEILING WITH 1:3 CEMENT- SAND MORTAR

Before plastering the ceiling dust, sand or any other loose material should be cleaned with wire brush. Then the surface is cured properly and kept wet before plastering. The cement-sand mortar is prepared in the given ratio by keeping the suitable quantity of water. First a coat of neat- cement slurry is applied on ceiling and cement- sand mortar is applied on the ceiling and levelled with wooden float. The thickness of cement plaster may ensured by applying the patches (15cmx15cm) at a distance of about 1-1.5m The levelled surface is smoothen with metallic float and sometimes left rough to ensure proper adherence of white/colour washing or distemper. At the end of the day the plaster shall be left cut clean to line. When the next days plastering is started the edge of the old work shall scrapped, cleaned and wetted with cement- slurry. Curing shall be started as soon as the plaster has hardened sufficiently not be damaged when watered. The plaster shall be kept wet for at least 10 days. Measurement is done in Sq m (Sq ft).

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PLASTERING ON WALLS WITH 1:5 CEMENT-MORTAR

The joints of the brick work shall be racked out to a depth of18mm (3/4) and the surface of the wall shall be washed and kept wet for two days before plastering. The material of mortar cement and sand should be of standard specifications. The material of mortar shall be first dry mixed and then water added slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly. The thickness of plaster shall be as specified usually 12mm. To ensure uniform thickness of plaster patches of 15cm X 15cm strips 1m a part or 10cm wide plaster shall be applied first at about 2m, to act as a guide. External plastering shall be started from top and worked down towards floor. Internal plastering shall be started wherever the building frame is ready and centering of roof slab have been removed. Ceiling plaster shall be completed before starting the wall plaster. All corners and edges should be rounded. The work shall be tested frequently with a straight edge and plumb- bob. The plastered surface is kept wet for 10 days. The surface should be protected from rain, sun, frost etc. Measurement is done in Sq m.

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WHITE AND COLOUR WASHING ON INTERIORS AND EXTERIORS OF

BUILDING 1) Preparation of White Wash: White wash is made from pure fat lime (white stone lime) or shell lime. The unslaked lime is dissolved in a tub with sufficient quantity of water and it is thoroughly stirred with a wooden pole, until it attains the consistency of thin cream. As a rough guide about 5 litres of water should be added to each kg of lime for making the cream. This mixture is allowed to stand in tub for a period of 24 hours and then strained through a cleaned coarse cloth. Clean gum dissolved in hot water is then added in proportion of 4 kg of gum per cum of thin cream. To prevent glare and to obtain pleasing effect, indigo (Neel) in proportion of 3kg of Neel per cum of thin cream is also added. In order that the coat of white wash may stick well to the surface, alum or common salt taken in the same proportion as gum, is also added.

2) Preparation of Surface: The surface should thoroughly cleaned, brushed and rendered free from mortar dropping and other foreign matter. In case of re- white washing an old surface, all loose pieces and scales should be scrapped off. The old loose white wash is removed by rubbing with sand papers and holes in wall are filled with cement-mortar or lime putty.

3) Application of white wash: The wash shall be applied with moonj or jute brush, vertically and horizontally alternately and the wash kept stirred in the container while using. Two or three coats shall be applied as specified and each coat shall be perfectly dry before the succeeding coat is applied over it. After finishing the surface shall be of uniform colour. The white wash should not splash on the floor and other surfaces.

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 For final coat blue pigment powder should be mixed to the required quantity with the lime cream to give a bright white surface.

4) COLOUR WASHING: Colour wash shall be prepared with fresh slaked white lime mixed with water to make thin cream adding the colour pigment to the required quantity to give the required tint. Gum (glue) in the proportion of 100 gm. of gum to 16 litres of wash shall be added. The colour wash may be applied one or two coats as specified. The method of application should be same as for white washing. For new work the priming coat shall be of white wash. Measurement- All works shall be taken in Sq. m. Preparation of surface as cleaning, brooming, scraping etc. shall be included in item. The item shall include repairs of surface as holes, cracks, and patches etc. not exceeding 0.1 Sq. m with material similar to existing surface.

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Design And Reinforcement

58

Design of RCC Slab

Critical sets 9m9m thickness of slab. As per deflection criteria span is x . ( As the design of simply supported slab) =28 (for continues slab) Assuming %age of steel = 281.5 d= d= = 214.28 = 0.3%

d =215 mm (say) Assuming 10 mm dia. bars along both span and a clear cover 20 mm Overall depth D = 2400 mm

Effective Depth := 240-(20+ ) = 215 mm = 240-(20+ + ) = 205 mm

Effective Length :=9 =9 =1 Load and Moment :Assuming 1 m of . slab Self-weight of slab = unit weight of RCC Overall depth = 25 0.240 = 6 KN/

Maximum Moment = = 0.062 13.5 = 67.797 KN-m

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Area of steel ;-

= 0.5 =

[ [

]b d ]1000215= 942.28

c/c spacing =

= 83.35 mm

by using 12 mm bars c/c spacing = = = 120.25 mm

Provide 12mm dia. bars@120mm c/c Provide area of steel = = 942.477 mm

Along other span using 12 mm bars Effective depth ( =

Provide same steel on both sides Provide 12 mm bars @ 120 mm c/c. Check for d minimum: -

provide.

Percentage of steel:-

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Percentage of steel assumed. The design of the slab is safe.

Reinforcement for middle strip:Provide 12mm bars @ 120mm c/c spacing along both direction.

Reinforcement of edge strip :-

Considering strip :Width of strip = mm Assume 10mm bar c/c spacing of reinforcement along strip

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Design R.C.C roof slab

Critical section 7m X 9m

Thickness of the slab:As per deflection criteria Span/d = (As the design of simply supported continuous slab) Span/d = 28 (Assuming %age of steel= 0.3%) ( = 1.5% of steel in 2-war slab) Span/d = 28 X 1.5 = 42 D = span/42 = 7000/42 = 166.66 D= 170mm (Assuming 12mm dia bars along the both span with clear cover of 20mm) Overall depth = 170+ (6+20) = 196mm Taking overall depth= 200mm Effective depth:dx = 200-(20-6)= 174mm dy= 200-(20-12-6)= 162mm Effective length:Lx =7000mm Ly = 9000mm Ly/Lx =1.286 Loads and moments:Assuming the 1m of strip slab Self wt. of the slab = unit wt. of concrete slab x overall thickness = 25 X .2 = 5KN/m2 Floor finishing = 1KN/m2 Live Load Assuming = 2KN/m2 Total Load =5+1+2 =8KN/m2 Factor load = 8X1.5 = 12KN/m2
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Maximum Moment:Along the shorter span Mx= xwx Lx2 = 0.093X12X72 = 54.689 KN) Along longer span:My = y WyLx2 = 0.055X12X72= 32.34 KNm Area of steel:Along shorter span:Astx=0.5 fck/fy [1-1-(4.6 Mu/fck bd2)] bd = 0.9X25/415[1-1-(4.6X54.684X 106/25X1000X1942)] 1000 X 174 = 958.54mm2 C/c spacing = (1000X/4 X 122)/ 958.54 = 119.98 Provide 12mm dia bars @115mm c/c =115mm Provide area of steel= (1000X/4 X 122)/115= 983.45mm2 Along the longer span:Asty =0.5 fck/fy [1-1-(4.6 Mu/fck bd2)] bd = 0.5X25/415[1-1-(4.6X32.34X106/25X1000X1622] 1000X162 = 588.7mm2 c/c spacing= 192.11 provide = 190mm provide 12mm dia bars at 190mm c/c spacing provideAsty = 595.25mm Check for d minimum:Mulimt= .36 fck b xumax (d-.42xumax) 56.684X106=.36X25X1000X.48d(d-.42X.48d) D= 125.9

Percentage of steel:%age of steel along shorter span Pt= Astx/bd X100= (983.45/1000X200)X100 = .29% 0.29%<0.3% The design of the slab is safe. Reinforcement for middle span strip:63

Provide 12mm dia bar @ 115mm c/c spacing along shorter span Provide 12mm dia bar @ 190mm c/c spacing along longer span Reinforcement for edge strip: Ast= 0.12Xbd/100= 0.12X1000X200/100 = 240mm2 Ast= 240mm2

Consideration shorter edge strip:Width of shorter edge strip= Ly/mm Assuming 10mm dia bar = /4 (102) = 78.54 mm2 c/c spacing of reinforcement along shorter strip..

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Design of beam
Effective span of beam = 9m 1. Corners are simply supported 2. Overcoming load including wt. of slab = 50 KN/m 3. Load calculation:Dead load of the beam = 0.40.725 C assume section of the beam (400mm700mm) = 7 KN/m Overcoming load = 50 KN/m Total load = 57 KN/m Factored load = 571.5 = 85.5KN/m Ultimate bending moment = = = 865.68 KN-m Using &

Limiting moment of resistence = 25KN/ = 415KN/ = 0.36 b

Assume effective cover of 50mm Therefore effective depth = 700-50 = 650mm Therefore Since = 695.6 KN-m (since section will be designed as doubly reinforced)

Determining area of corresponding to = 0.87 = 0.48650 = 312mm Therefore 695.6 = 695.6 KN-m = 0.87415

= 3712.43

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Area of compression steel ( = Where (d- )

) corresponding to

=effective cover in compression zone 30 mm (assumed)

= 0.0035( = 0.0035( For table of = 355.11 N/ Now =

) ) = 0.00316 = 0.00316

corresponding to

(by linear interpolation)

(d- ) (650-30)

865.68-695.6 = 355.11 = 772.5

Determination of no. of bars:For assuming = 32 mm

No. of bars = 6

Check 1. = = 13.8420

2. Checking minimum amount of steel = = = 532.53

3712.43 provided Along other span using 12 mm bars

Effective depth (

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Provide same steel on both sides Provide 12 mm bars @ 120 mm c/c. Check for d minimum: -

provide.

Percentage of steel:Percentage of steel assumed. The design of the slab is safe.

Reinforcement for middle strip:Provide 12mm bars @ 120mm c/c spacing along both direction.

Reinforcement of edge strip :-

Considering strip :Width of strip = mm Assume 10mm bar c/c spacing of reinforcement along strip

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DESIGN OF BEAM
Effective span of beam =7 m i. ii. Corners are simply supported Over coming load includes weight of slab= 50 KN/m

Load Calculation :Dead load of beam = 0.3x0.6x25 (assuming section of beam 300x600) = 4.5KN Over coming load = 50KN/m Total load = 54.5KN/m Factor load = Wu = 1.5W = 1.5 x 54.5 = 81.75KN/m Factored B.M.=Mu=

Using M25 & Fe415 Limition Moment of resistance

Assume effective cover as 40mm Therefore effective depth = Therefore Mu limit = 395.5 x 106N-mm = 345.5KNm Since , Mu > Mu limit

Hence section will be designed as a double reinforced. Determine area of Corresponding Mu limit .

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Therefore

Area of Compression steel (Asc) corresponding to = Mu Mu limit Mu Mu limit = Where For table of fsccorresponding to Esc = 0.00311 Fsc= 355.11N/mm2 (by linear interpotation) Now, Mu Mu limit = Asc= 824.72 mm2 (assumed)

Determination of no. of bars For AstAssuming = 25 mm n = 6# For Asc Assuming = 22 mm n = 3#

Check:i. ii. Checking minimum amount of steel

provided

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Design of column
Size of the column : Concrete mix : Reinforcement : Factored Load : 4000KN Factored Moment : 300KNm Arrangement of reinforcement on four sides Provide 25mm diameter bars at a clear cover of 40mm Effective cover

Chart for

will be used

Referring to chart

Percentage of steel =

Provide 16 bars of 25mm

Lateral ties Diameter of ties = greater of following i. ii. Provide 8mm ties diameter of main bars

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Spacing of ties = lesser of the following i. ii. iii. Least lateral diameter of column =300mm 16 times diameter of main bars = 400mm 48 times diameter of ties = 384 Provide 8mm ties @ 350mm c/c.

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Design of foundation
(RAFT FOUNDATION) Taking weight on each column = 5000N No.of column = 120 Total loads of the column =

Approximate weight of the foundation (10% of column loads) = 60000KN Total load transmitted to soil = 660000KN Safe bearing capacity of soil = 100KN/m2 Therefore, Area of the raft foundation Total length of the Raft slab = 100m Therefore, width required to raft slab As per required .width provided = 90m Net upward pressure intensity of the raft slab

Design of the raft slab:

Projection of the raft slab from the force of the raft beam Consider a 5meter width strip of the raft slab Maximum Bending Moment Factored Moment Mu

Equating

Overall depth = 169.8 + 50 = 219.8 Provide on overall thickness of 250mm Actual effective depth d = 250-50 = 200mm

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Percentage of steel required [ Adopt 0.80% ]

Spacing of 18mm bars Provide 18mm bars @ 150mm c/c.

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Additional green features

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SOLAR WIND HYBRID SYSTEM

I. INTRODUCTION

Around 2 billion people world-wide do not have access to electricity services, of which the main share in rural areas in developing countries. The fact that rural electricity supply has been regarded as essential for economic development. It is nowadays a main focus in international development cooperation. A renewable energy resource is a favourable alternative for rural energy supply. In order to handle their fluctuating nature, however, hybrid systems can be applied. These systems use different energy generators in combination, by this maintaining a stable energy supply in times of shortages of one the energy resources. Main hope attributed to these systems is their good potential for economic development.

Hybrid systems are another approach towards decentralized electrification, basically by combining the technologies presented above. They can be designed as stand-alone minigrids or in smaller scale as household systems. One of the main problems of solar as well as wind energy is the fluctuation of energy supply, resulting in intermittent delivery of power and causing problems if supply continuity is required. This can be avoided by the use of hybrid systems which can be defined as a combination of different, but complementary energy supply systems at the same place, i.e. .solar cells and wind power plants

A hybrid energy system consists of two or more energy systems, an energy storage system, power conditioning equipment and a controller. A hybrid energy system may or may not be connected to the grid. Examples of energy systems commonly used in hybrid configurations are small wind turbines, photovoltaic systems, micro hydro, diesel generator, fuel cells, micro turbines, and Stirling engines. Typically batteries are used for energy storage but other options are flywheels and hydrogen energy storage systems. Power conditioning equipment consists of one or more of the following: controlled rectifiers, inverters/grid-tie inverters, charge controllers, and DC-DC converters. The task for the hybrid energy system controller is to control the interaction of various system components and control power flow within the system to provide a stable and reliable source of energy. With the wide spread introduction net-metering, the use of small isolated or grid connected hybrid energy systems is expected to grow tremendously in the near future. A number of hybrid energy systems in
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use/ under going testing in various parts of the world. Design of a hybrid energy system is site specific and it depends upon the resources available and the load demand.

Solar energy and wind energy are two renewable energy sources that can be effectively combined to produce electrical power by photo voltaics (PV) and wind turbines (WT) respectively. Hybrid PV/WT systems of several sizes have been developed and interesting results have been extracted from installations of these compound systems. Considering the application of PV and WT systems on buildings, the use of small size wind turbines is necessary. These WTs can be of horizontal or vertical axis, must be of low cut - in wind speed and also aesthetically compatible with the building architecture. PV panels are more flexible than WTs regarding size and installation requirements and have been already applied successfully in several buildings.

In this paper we present the concept of the hybrid PVT / WT systems, which combine photovoltaic, thermal and wind turbine subsystems, aiming to cover effectively electrical and thermal needs of buildings. The output from the solar part depends on the incoming solar radiation and is obtained during sunshine. On the other hand the output of the wind turbine part depends on the wind speed at the location of the installation and is obtained any time of the day or night that the wind speed is over a lower limit. Therefore the PVT and WT subsystems can supplement each other, being primarily used to cover building electrical load and secondary to increase the temperature of the existing thermal storage tank of PVT system by their surplus electrical energy.

II. DESIGN APPROACHES

Various models based on different approaches have been designed to get the optimum configuration. These can be classified as follows: Logistical Dynamic

A) Logistical Approach:

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Logistical models are used primarily for long term performance predictions, component sizing and for providing input to economic analyses. Generally they can be divided in following three categories: Time series (or quasi steady state) Probabilistic: Time series + probabilistic: As the name suggests models in this category are based on the use of a combined time series and statistical approach.

B) Dynamic Approach : Dynamic models are used primarily for component design, assessment of system stability and determination of power quality. They are generally used for hybrid power systems with no storage capability, or systems with minimal storage such as flywheel. Depending on time step size and number of modelled components they can be divided into following three categories: Dynamic Mechanical: Dynamic Mechanical, steady state electrical model: Dynamic mechanical and electrical model: A combined approach of time series probabilistic + dynamic mechanical and electrical model gives the best performance of a wind solar hybrid system.

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I I I . WO RKIN G O F WIND -S O L AR H YB RID S YS T E M

Fig. Schematic of Wind- Solar Hybrid System

During daytime, solar photovoltaic array converts sunlight into electricity and stores this DC power in battery bank. Wind generator starts generating power when wind speed exceeds the cut-in speed of the wind turbine. The wind turbine is of self regulated type with protection for over speed. The hybrid controller has inbuilt solar charge controller and wind charge regulator. It maximizes charging current and prevents excess discharge/overcharge of the batteries. Inverter converts DC power into AC power to operate all standard electrical appliances. Inverter has inbuilt protection for short circuit and overload. During windy period, excess energy generated by wind battery charger is dissipated through a dump load. Usually, a DC/AC inverter needs to be installed additionally. Hybrid systems are applied in areas where permanent and reliable availability of electricity supply is an important issue. Maintaining high availability with renewable energies alone usually requires big renewable energy generators, which can be avoided with hybrid systems. At favourable weather conditions, the renewable part of the system satisfies the energy demand, using the energy surplus to load the battery. The batteries act as buffers, maintaining a stable energy supply during short periods of time, i.e. in cases of low sunlight or low wind. Moreover, the battery
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serves to meet peak demands, which might not be satisfied by the renewable system alone. A charge controller regulates the state of load of the battery, controlling the battery not to be overloaded. The complementary resource produces the required energy at times of imminent deep discharge of the battery, at the same time loading the battery. In some regions the exploitation of both wind and solar resources can become favourable, i.e. at coastal or mountain areas with high degree of solar radiation. Of utmost importance is here that wind and solar energy supply complement each other so that energy provision is possible over the whole year. Main applications for rural electrification in developing countries include independent electric power supply for Villages, Farmhouses, Residential Buildings, Missions, Hotels, Radio Relay Transmitters, Irrigation systems, Desalination Systems.

IV. METHODOLOGY

In order to address the shortcomings of existing instructional techniques for electrical power systems, a hybrid wind-turbine and solar cell system has been implemented. The system was designed and implemented with the following goals: To be completely different from traditional electricity labs and to be fresh and interesting. To be intimately related to real-world industrial power issues such as power quality. To show a complex, interrelated system that is closer to the real world than the usual simple systems covered in educational labs. To motivate learning by introducing such elements as environmental and economic concerns of practical interest to the students.

V. ESTABLISHMENT OF A SOLAR WIND HYBRID UNIT

The hybrid unit contains two complete generating plants, a PV solar-cell plant and a wind-turbine system. These sources are connected in parallel to a 12V DC line. The power is next connected to a DC to AC inverter and is then supplied from the inverters output to a single-phase 60 HZ, 120 VAC load. The overall project structure is presented in Figure 1. The wind turbine is installed at the top of a steel tower that has a height of 18.3 meters and a diameter of 8.9 cm. The wind turbine depicted is a 0.7 kW unit and the solar panels depicted number four in all with a capacity of 50 Watts each. The instrumentation panel depicted
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monitors the outputs of the generator using digital panel meters. A small wind turbine was chosen for its low maintenance and many safety features. One of the low maintenance features is the turbines brushless alternator and an internal governor. The turbine generates 0.4 kW when turning at its rated speed of 47 km/hr and it is capable of generating up to 0.7 kW at its peak wind speed of 72 km/hr. The actual systems pictures are shown inFigure 2.

Fig. Actual Picture of Wind/PV Hybrid Power Station

The turbines blades are made of a carbon fibre reinforced composite that will intentionally deform as the turbine reaches its rated output. This deformation effect changes the shape of the blade, causing it to go into a stall mode, thus limiting the rotation speed of the alternator and preventing damage in high winds. Another feature of the wind turbine is a sophisticated internal regulator that periodically checks the line voltage and corrects for low voltage conditions. The solar panels are 12 VDC units and were chosen for their ultra clear tempered glass that is manufactured for long term durability. Figure 3 shows the DC voltage measured across the 12 volt DC bus where the wind turbine and PV arrays outputs are connected. A slight ripple in power regulation can clearly be seen. This ripple is a function of the unpredictable nature of wind and sunshine along with the dynamic effects of the electrical load. As mentioned earlier, one of the largest problems in systems containing power inverters is power quality. This problem becomes serious if the inverter used in the system does not have a good sinusoidal waveform output and causes problems such as harmonic
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contamination and poor voltage regulation. According to the IEEE (a professional society which codifies such issues) standards, a maximum of 3 to 4% total harmonic distortion (this is a quantitative measure of how bad the harmonic contamination is) may be allowed from inverter outputs. However, many inverter outputs have much more harmonic distortion than is allowed. The inverter used in this system has a power rating of a 1.5 KVA and was manufactured by Trace Technologies . The battery banks contain 4 deep-cycle lead-acid batteries connected in parallel. High power capacity heating resistors, energy efficient light bulbs, incandescent light bulbs, and two small AC motors constitute electrical loads that can be applied to the system. To monitor and store the voltage, current, power, and harmonic contamination data, two Fluke power quality analyzers (types 39 and 41) are used in the system. In addition, permanently mounted AC/DC digital panel meters form part of the systems instrumentation.

Fig. Established Wind/PV Hybrid Power Generation Unit

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VI. EXISTENCE OF SOLAR WIND HYBRID SYSTEM

A) Solar Energy:
Advantages 1. The main advantage of solar energy is that this energy is free and available in plenty. 2. The equipments used for solar energy are simple in construction, also they require minimum maintenance. 3. It is pollution free. 4. The solar thermal power plants are feasible in deserts, dry sunny areas where other sources of energy is not available. 5. Solar p v systems are economical and feasible for remote, stand alone power plants

Disadvantages 1. Solar energy is not in the concentrated form. 2. The capital investment for equipment is more than conventional ones. 3. Efficiency of the plant is less. 4. Low energy density, 0.1 to 1 kW / sq. m 5. Large area covered by solar collectors. 6. Direction of rays changes continuously, also varies during the day, season and with weather conditions. 7. Energy is not available at night and during cloudy periods.

B) Wind Energy:
Advantages 1. Wind energy is readily available, non polluting power system so it has no adverse influence on environment.

2. Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport. 3. On a small scale, up to a few KW system is less costly. On a large scale costs can be competitive with conventional electricity and lower costs could be achieved by mass
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production. 4. It has low operating cost and also can be useful in supplying electric power to remote areas where other energy sources are scarcely available.

Disadvantages 1. Wind energy available is dilute and fluctuating in nature. 2. Unlike water energy, wind energy needs storage capacity because of its irregularity. 3. Wind energy systems are noisy in operation, a large unit can be heard many kms away. 4. Due to the involvement of the construction of high towers with gear box, generator, couplings, etc., the wind power system has a relatively high overall weight. 5. Large areas are needed, typically, propellers one to three meters in diameters. 6. Present systems are neither maintenance free nor practically reliable 7. Wind power plants can be located only in the vast open areas in locations of favourable wind. Such locations are generally away from load canters. 8. Presently, it is only in one to a few MW range, does not meet the energy needs of large cities and industries.

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Fig.Installed solar system

84

Fig. wind mill plan

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C) Existence of Solar Wind Hybrid Power Plants:

As seen above, there are problems in utilizing the solar as well as wind energy efficiently. In order to overcome these problems, concept of hybrid power plant is introduced. In this both solar and wind power plants are used so that their disadvantages are reduced to a considerable amount. As we know that sun is available in the day only, energy is not available during night from sun whereas wind energy is available throughout the day and its capacity increases in the nights. Here when sun is not available wind energy comes to play and vice-versa. Thus hybrid power plants are more useful than individual ones and therefore they are extensively used nowadays.

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CONCLUSION
Obviously, a complete hybrid power system of this nature may be expensive and too labour intensive for many Industrial Technology Departments. However, many of the same benefits could be gleaned from having some subset of the system, for example a PV panel, batteries, and an inverter, or even just a PV panel and a DC motor. The enhancements to instruction, especially in making electrical power measurements more physical, intuitive, and real-world are substantial and the costs and labour involved in some adaptation of the ideas in this paper to a smaller scale setup are reasonable. The use of solar and wind hybrid power generation is an especially vivid and relevant choice for students of Industrial Technology as these are power sources of technological, political, and economic importance in their state. The key elements of this test bed concept presented in this paper are two or more renewable power sources connected to a power grid with complex electrical interactions. In coming years, man will have to increasingly depend on renewable energy sources. Because of the disadvantages involved in using solar or wind energy individually, a hybrid system which avoids the individual advantages will become more famous in coming years. Also the renewable energy equipments will become cheaper and efficient with modern technology.

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Rain Water Harvesting

Introduction
Introduction Where there is no surface water, or where groundwater is deep or inaccessible due to hard ground conditions, or where it is too salty, acidic or otherwise unpleasant or unfit to drink, another source must be sought. In areas which have regular rainfall the most appropriate alternative is the collection of rainwater, called rainwater harvesting. Falling rain can provide some of the cleanest naturall y occurring water that is available anywhere. This is not surprising, as it is a result of a natural distillation process that is at risk only from airborne particles and from man-made pollution caused by the smoke and ash of fires and industrial processes, particularly those which burn fossil fuels. Most modern technologies for obtaining drinking water are related to the exploitation of surface water from rivers, streams and lakes, and groundwater from wells and boreholes. However, these sources account for only 40% of total precipitation. It is evident, therefore, that there is considerable scope for the collection of rainwater when it falls, before huge losses occur due to evaporation and transpiration and before it becomes contaminated by natural means or man-made activities. The term rainwater harvesting is usually taken to mean the immediate collection of rainwater running off surfaces upon which it has fallen directly. This definition excludes run-off from land watersheds into streams, rivers, lakes, etc. Water Aid is concerned primarily with the provision of clean drinking water; therefore the rainwater harvesting projects which it supports are mainly those where rainwater is collected from roofs, and only to a lesser extent where it is collected from small ground, or rock, catch men

Rainwater harvesting

Advantages of rainwater harvesting Relatively cheap materials can be used for construction of containers and collecting surfaces Construction methods are relatively straightforward Low maintenance costs and requirements

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 Collected rainwater can be consumed without treatment providing a clean collecting surface has been used Provides a supply of safe water close to homes, schools or clinics, encourages increased consumption, reduces the time women and children spend collecting water, reduces back strain or injuries from carrying heavy water containers

Disadvantages of rainwater harvesting Supplies can be contaminated by bird/animal droppings on catchment surfaces and guttering structures unless they are cleaned/flushed before use Poorly constructed water jars/containers can suffer from algal growth and invasion by insects, lizards and rodents. They can act as a breeding ground for disease vectors if they are not properly maintained

How it works Roof catchments

Rainwater can be collected from most forms of roof. Tiled roofs, or roofs sheeted with corrugated mild steel etc are preferable, since they are the easiest to use and give the cleanest water. Thatched or palm leafed surfaces are also feasible; although they are difficult to clean and can often taint the run-off. Asbestos sheeting or lead-painted surfaces should be avoided. The rainwater is collected in guttering placed around the eaves of the building. Low cost guttering can be made up from 22 gauge galvanised mild steel sheeting, bent to form a V and suspended by galvanised wire stitched through the thatch or sheeting. The guttering drains to a down-pipe which discharges into a storage tank. The down-pipe should be made to swivel so that the collection of the first run-off can be run to waste (the first foul flush), thus preventing accumulated bird droppings, leaves, twigs and other vegetable matter, as well as dust and debris, from entering the storage tank. Sometimes a collecting box with a mesh strainer (and sometimes with additional filter media) is used to prevent the ingress of potential pollutants.

The storage tanks

The capacity of the storage tank is based upon several design criteria: rainfall patterns and volume, the duration of the dry period and, of course, the estimate of demand. Sometimes sophisticated calculations are involved, but these tend not to take into account human behaviour and the willingness to use water if it is available and not to conserve it for future
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use, in the hope that the dry spell will soon be over. The following simple calculation can be used to approximate the potential supply of rainwater from a collecting surface. This can help to determine the capacity of storage tanks:

S = R x A x Cr

Where : S = Mean rainwater supply in m3 R = Mean annual rainfall in mm/year A = Surface area of catchment in m2 Cr = Run-off coefficient

The run-off coefficient accounts for losses due to splashing, evaporation, leakage and overflow and is normally taken to be 0.8.

The provision of the storage tank is the most costly element of a rainwater harvesting project, usually about 90% of the total cost. Storage can range from small containers made for other purposes, for example oil drums, food cans etc, but used as domestic storage, up to large tanks of 150 cubic metres or more at ground level, or sometimes beneath it. These tanks are made of concrete or ferrocement and are used as storage for schools, clinics or other institutions with large areas of roof. Domestic storage tanks for household use can be made cheaply in a variety of ways. Basket tanks are baskets made of bamboo, originally intended for carrying or storing maize, which have been plastered internally and externally, in two stages, with sand/cement mortar. Storage of up to two cubic metres can be provided by such baskets. Corrugated galvanised mild steel sheeting, bent and welded or bolted into a circular plan, and often coated with sand/cement mortar, can provide similar storage capacity, but at a greater cost.

Eight year old Falida fills her jerry can at one of the two new 4000 litre capacity rainwater harvesting tanks at her school in Kitayita, Uganda. Previously, water had to be collected from an unprotected source half a kilometre away. These were the first jars constructed in the community and the exercise was used as a workshop to train local masons in jar construction.

Tanks of larger capacity can be made of ferrocement, which substitutes chicken wire for the bamboo reinforcement of the basket tank. These are cheaper to construct than tanks made of masonry, block work, reinforced concrete etc, and do not require the rendering with
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waterproof cement mortar that masonry and block work often need. Ferrocement tanks Above ground level, tanks are constructed with a plain or reinforced concrete base, cylindrical walls of ferrocement and a roof of ferrocement, or sometimes mild steel sheeting. The construction of ferrocement walls is carried out by first assembling a cylindrical mesh of chicken wire and/ or fence wire reinforcement, with or without the aid of formwork. On to this, a cement-rich mortar of 3:1 sand: cement is applied by trowel and built up in layers of about 15 millimetres to a finished thickness of between 30 to 100 millimetres, depending on wall height and tank diameter. Thicker walls may have two layers of mesh. The mesh helps to control local cracking and the higher walls may call for the provision of small diameter vertical steel reinforcing bars for bending resistance. Sometimes barbed fence wire is wound spirally up the wall to assist with resistance to ring tension and stress distribution. Effective curing of the mortar between the trowelling of each layer is very important and affects the durability of the material and its resistance to cracking. Mortar should be still green when the next layer is placed. This means that the time gap between layers should be between 12 and 24 hours. The finished material should then be cured continuously for up to 10 days under damp hessian, or other sheeting. A ferrocement tank is easy to repair and, if the mortar has been properly applied and cured, should provide long service as a water- retaining structure at a fraction of the cost of a reinforced concrete structure.

A rainwater harvesting tank at a commercial building

Rock catchments Just as the roofs of buildings can be exploited for the collection of rainwater, so can rock outcrops be used as collecting surfaces. Indeed, if access to the catchment area by animals, children etc., can be prevented, a protected catchment can collect water of high quality, as long as its surfaces are well flushed and cleaned before storage takes place. A significant proportion of Gibraltars water is obtained from sloping rock catchments on the Rock. At the foot of the slopes, collecting channels drain into pipes which lead to tanks excavated inside the rock. Some artificial collection surfaces have also been formed: cracks and voids in rock surfaces have been filled in and a large, soil covered, sloping area has Rainwater harvesting been covered in corrugated mild steel sheeting supported on short piles driven into the subsoil. This is a huge example of what may be possible on a smaller domestic or village scale. Sometimes it proves difficult to prevent the collected water from being polluted. If so, it is sensible to use this water for purposes that do not require a potable water supply, such as house cleaning, laundry, horticulture etc, and reserve for drinking

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water, cooking and personal hygiene the better quality water which has been collected from a clean roof. Use can also be made of other forms of ground catchment where, although the collection coefficient can be as low as 30%, useful volumes of water can be collected and used for agriculture and animals.

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Benefits of green buildings

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Benefits of green buildings

Green buildings deliver a suite of financial and environmental benefits which conventional buildings do not, says Manfred Braune, technical executive at the Green Building Council of South Africa (GBCSA). She says the vertical garden feature is the tallest in the country, with more than 7 500 plants (mainly indigenous) in the building fed mainly by rainwater from roof storage and seasonal changes are made to plants.

Increased productivity
In Green and friendly office properties, Braune says among the many benefits, is the increased productivity due to improved ventilation, temperature and lighting control which result in increased health, comfort and wellbeing of building occupants.

Lower operating costs

Braune explains that green buildings result in lower operating costs particularly savings in energy and water usage. As an example, he says the Green Star SA buildings profiled in one report cite energy savings of between 25 and 50 percent compared to a building designed to SANS 204 standards. The payback periods of energy and water saving initiatives are becoming markedly shorter as a result of increasing utility costs and the wider availability of more affordable green building technology, he says. Early this year, Absa installed the Energy Centre in Absa Towers West and this will make the Absa Towers Campus one of the greenest office campuses in the country. In late 2006, an initial investigation was undertaken to evaluate all power generation options, including diesel emergency generators, rotary UPS systems, gas engines and gas turbines. The concept of an Energy Centre, which is a self generation of electricity through gas, was motivated by the need to create a reliable energy back-up supply for all Absa buildings within Johannesburg CBD, according to the bank.

The concept of an Energy Centre, which is a self generation of electricity through gas, was motivated by the need to create a reliable energy back-up supply for all Absa buildings within Johannesburg CBD, according to the bank. During peak electricity demand the cost is higher for electricity.
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If Absa run on its own generators, it saves more than two-thirds of current electricity running costs, in just one year. The gas engines, off which the Energy Centre will run, are quiet and effective with no smoke or exhaust gas smells. The gas engines include provision to be able to recover waste heat from the engines and exhaust, which can be used for heating and cooling of Absa buildings. This provides exciting opportunities for even further improvements of the energy efficiency and will reduce the running costs even more, says the bank. Absa says the Energy Centre will also help Eskom reduce load on the electrical network and load shedding; and also ease the load of the Absa Campus, off the City Power grid during peak times when the country's power supply is under pressure.

Higher returns on assets:

He notes that higher returns on assets have also been reported. Extensive studies in the US and Australia have shown rental rates in green buildings to be approximately 6 percent and 5 percent higher respectively, he says.

Increased property values:

Based on decreased operating costs, lease premiums and more competitive, less risky, future-proofed, green buildings enhance property values.

Green buildings are future proofed against increases in utility costs, potential energy and water supply problems, tightening legislation, carbon taxes and the impact of mandatory energy efficiency disclosure, as well as costly retrofits or even obsolescence to ensure they are not at a competitive disadvantage in future. This has been empirically proven in the US and Australia with 11 and 12 percentvaluation premiums respectively, but not yet in South Africa, according to Braune.

Enhanced marketability:
Green building creates a differentiated product in the market, which is viewed as technologically advanced and environmentally and socially responsible. These attributes can be positively linked to the company brand and image of the owner and/or the tenant.
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Reduced liability and risk:

Green buildings are future proofed against increases in utility costs, potential energy and water supply problems, tightening legislation, carbon taxes and the impact of mandatory energy efficiency disclosure, as well as costly retrofits or even obsolescence to ensure they are not at a competitive disadvantage in future.

Ability to attract and retain Government and other major tenants:

Braune says the Department of Public Works planned Green Building Framework is likely to include certain green building requirements for government accommodation. This will increasingly apply to large multi-national tenants too.

Responsible investing:
Investment in green building forms an integral part of the worldwide trend to more responsible, sustainable and ethical investing.

Competitive edge in attracting and retaining talent:

This will especially apply to younger graduates who are increasingly aware of environmental and health issues, says Braune.

Minimising costs and impacts of churn :

According to Braune, this would be as a result of increased comfort and occupant satisfaction and more flexible spaces.

The wovin wall situated in the building's auditorium is the first of its size in South Africa and it absorbs acoustics while all components can be recycled and re-used. With lease terms in South Africa typically ranging between three and five years, churn can lead to significant costs.

Green building owners :

Located in Pretoria, Gauteng is NedbankMenlyn Maine, the banks regional head office and first building in South Africas first green precinct.
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According to According to Kerry Tangney, Nedbank manager for design, it is the third occupied Nedbank building to achieve the sought after 4-Star Green Star Rating from the GBCSA. The other two buildings are the Nedbank Phase II head office in Sandton and Ridgeside in Durban. She says Menlyn Maine is included in the Clinton Climate Initiative as one of 16 green cities being developed worldwide. The initiative is headed by former US President Bill Clinton, and forms part of the Climate Positive Development Programme. Asked what makes this building special, she points to three things:

Enhancement and promotion of a green lifestyle:

Tangney explains that waste collection and recycling has been carefully integrated with a view to reducing landfill waste by up to 50 percent. Bins are provided in pause areas for: confidential paper (shredded), general paper, light bulbs, printer cartridges and batteries, glass and tin, plastic and polystyrene, biodegradable matter and mixed waste.

Environmentally friendly materials and internal standard design:

She says the vertical garden feature is the tallest in the country, with more than 7 500 plants (mainly indigenous) in the building fed mainly by rainwater from roof storage and seasonal changes are made to plants.

Furthermore, Ramos says in designing Absa Towers West, which houses over 3 000 people, they carefully considered global best practices in order to maximise the aesthetics and functionality of the building while delivering improved efficiencies. Glass used is 100 percent recyclable, reusable and interchangeable and it has been specially glazed to be environmentally friendly. Also, the wovin wall situated in the building's auditorium is the first of its size in South Africa and it absorbs acoustics while all components can be recycled and re-used.

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Operational efficiencies:
Energy efficient CFL and LED lighting and motion sensors are used throughout the building and there is decentralised air-conditioning, low-flow taps, dual-flush toilets and waterless urinals, she says. In Gauteng, Absa Towers West is not only transforming the Johannesburg CBD, its taking green building elements in the city centre to an all new level, according to the bank. Absa Towers West covers three city blocks and consists of two office buildings and a parkade, which provides 12 levels of parking space with four basements and eight storeys above ground. The two office buildings comprise 15 storeys with eight levels of office space, three levels of combination space and four levels of basement parking. Sandile Mthiyane, head of Africa corporate real estate services engineering explains that Absa wanted to create a business environment for employees, customers and other stakeholders who align with the banks sustainability strategy and the regeneration of the Absa CBD Campus.

Based on decreased operating costs, lease premiums and more competitive, less risky, future-proofed, green buildings enhance property values. Absa Towers West has created a challenging and rewarding place to work, providing an opportunity for the bank to become a leader in transforming workplaces as energy savers. Mthiyane points to three things that make this building special. Firstly, the bank avoided 2 700 tones of CO2 at Absa Towers West because of the efficiencies built-in. He says the Absa Energy Centre has generated clean energy using natural gas saved 37 000 tones of CO2 with Absa Towers Campus not using coal generated energy from Eskom. Thirdly, he says Absa Towers West boasts the largest grey water recycling system in South Africa that is capable of recycling 43 000 litres a day. To date, over 20 million litres have been recycled and reused to flush toilets and urinals, instead of wasting and using clean drinking quality water from the water utility. By promoting the new way of work and using state-of-the-art technology, Absa Towers West encourages collaboration and teamwork among colleagues, thus embodying the One Absa better together philosophy, says Maria Ramos, group chief executive of Absa and head of Barclays Africa.

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Furthermore, Ramos says in designing Absa Towers West, which houses over 3 000 people, they carefully considered global best practices in order to maximise the aesthetics and functionality of the building while delivering improved efficiencies. Ramos says a green building is one which reduces environmental impact in terms of energy and water consumption as well as material sources and emissions. It provides improved indoor environmental quality, which has been proven to improve the productivity of employees, she says.

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CONCLUSION

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Increased productivity
In Green and friendly office properties, Braune says among the many benefits, is the increased productivity due to improved ventilation, temperature and lighting control which result in increased health, comfort and wellbeing of building occupants.

Lower operating costs

Braune explains that green buildings result in lower operating costs particularly savings in energy and water usage. As an example, he says the Green Star SA buildings profiled in one report cite energy savings of between 25 and 50 percent compared to a building designed to SANS 204 standards. The payback periods of energy and water saving initiatives are becoming markedly shorter as a result of increasing utility costs and the wider availability of more affordable green building technology, he says. Early this year, Absa installed the Energy Centre in Absa Towers West and this will make the Absa Towers Campus one of the greenest office campuses in the country. In late 2006, an initial investigation was undertaken to evaluate all power generation options, including diesel emergency generators, rotary UPS systems, gas engines and gas turbines. The concept of an Energy Centre, which is a self generation of electricity through gas, was motivated by the need to create a reliable energy back-up supply for all Absa buildings within Johannesburg CBD, according to the bank. The concept of an Energy Centre, which is a self generation of electricity through gas, was motivated by the need to create a reliable energy back-up supply for all Absa buildings within Johannesburg CBD, according to the bank. During peak electricity demand the cost is higher for electricity. If Absa run on its own generators, it saves more than two-thirds of current electricity running costs, in just one year. The gas engines, off which the Energy Centre will run, are quiet and effective with no smoke or exhaust gas smells. The gas engines include provision to be able to recover waste heat from the engines and exhaust, which can be used for heating and cooling of Absa buildings. This provides exciting opportunities for even further improvements of the energy efficiency and will reduce the running costs even more, says the bank.

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Absa says the Energy Centre will also help Eskom reduce load on the electrical network and load shedding; and also ease the load of the Absa Campus, off the City Power grid during peak times when the country's power supply is under pressure.

Higher returns on assets:

He notes that higher returns on assets have also been reported. Extensive studies in the US and Australia have shown rental rates in green buildings to be approximately 6 percent and 5 percent higher respectively, he says.

Increased property values:

Based on decreased operating costs, lease premiums and more competitive, less risky, future-proofed, green buildings enhance property values. Green buildings are future proofed against increases in utility costs, potential energy and water supply problems, tightening legislation, carbon taxes and the impact of mandatory energy efficiency disclosure, as well as costly retrofits or even obsolescence to ensure they are not at a competitive disadvantage in future. This has been empirically proven in the US and Australia with 11 and 12 percent valuation premiums respectively, but not yet in South Africa, according to Braune.

Enhanced marketability:
Green building creates a differentiated product in the market, which is viewed as technologically advanced and environmentally and socially responsible. These attributes can be positively linked to the company brand and image of the owner and/or the tenant.

Reduced liability and risk:

Green buildings are future proofed against increases in utility costs, potential energy and water supply problems, tightening legislation, carbon taxes and the impact of mandatory energy efficiency disclosure, as well as costly retrofits or even obsolescence to ensure they are not at a competitive disadvantage in future.

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Ability to attract and retain Government and other major tenants:

Braune says the Department of Public Works planned Green Building Framework is likely to include certain green building requirements for government accommodation. This will increasingly apply to large multi-national tenants too.

Responsible investing:
Investment in green building forms an integral part of the worldwide trend to more responsible, sustainable and ethical investing.

Competitive edge in attracting and retaining talent:

This will especially apply to younger graduates who are increasingly aware of environmental and health issues, says Braune.

Minimising costs and impacts of churn:

According to Braune, this would be as a result of increased comfort and occupant satisfaction and more flexible spaces. The wovin wall situated in the building's auditorium is the first of its size in South Africa and it absorbs acoustics while all components can be recycled and re-used. With lease terms in South Africa typically ranging between three and five years, churn can lead to significant costs.

Green building owners:

Located in Pretoria, Gauteng is Nedbank Menlyn Maine, the banks regional head office and first building in South Africas first green precinct. According to According to Kerry Tangney, Nedbank manager for design, it is the third occupied Nedbank building to achieve the sought after 4-Star Green Star Rating from the GBCSA. The other two buildings are the Nedbank Phase II head office in Sandton and Ridgeside in Durban. She says Menlyn Maine is included in the Clinton Climate Initiative as one of 16 green cities being developed worldwide.

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The initiative is headed by former US President Bill Clinton, and forms part of the Climate Positive Development Programme. Asked what makes this building special, see points to three things:

Enhancement and promotion of a green lifestyle:

Tangney explains that waste collection and recycling has been carefully integrated with a view to reducing landfill waste by up to 50 percent. Bins are provided in pause areas for: confidential paper (shredded), general paper, light bulbs, printer cartridges and batteries, glass and tin, plastic and polystyrene, biodegradable matter and mixed waste.

Environmentally friendly materials and internal standard design:

It says the vertical garden feature is the tallest in the country, with more than 7 500 plants (mainly indigenous) in the building fed mainly by rainwater from roof storage and seasonal changes are made to plants. Furthermore, Ramos says in designing Absa Towers West, which houses over 3 000 people, they carefully considered global best practices in order to maximise the aesthetics and functionality of the building while delivering improved efficiencies. Glass used is 100 percent recyclable, reusable and interchangeable and it has been specially glazed to be environmentally friendly. Also, the wovin wall situated in the building's auditorium is the first of its size in South Africa and it absorbs acoustics while all components can be recycled and re-used.

Operational efficiencies:
Energy efficient CFL and LED lighting and motion sensors are used throughout the building and there is decentralised air-conditioning, low-flow taps, dual-flush toilets and waterless urinals, she says. In Gauteng, Absa Towers West is not only transforming the Johannesburg CBD, its taking green building elements in the city centre to an all new level, according to the bank. Absa Towers West covers three city blocks and consists of two office buildings and a parkade, which provides 12 levels of parking space with four basements and eight storeys above ground.

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The two office buildings comprise 15 storeys with eight levels of office space, three levels of combination space and four levels of basement parking. SandileMthiyane, head of Africa corporate real estate services engineering explains that Absa wanted to create a business environment for employees, customers and other stakeholders who align with the banks sustainability strategy and the regeneration of the Absa CBD Campus. Based on decreased operating costs, lease premiums and more competitive, less risky, future-proofed, green buildings enhance property values. Absa Towers West has created a challenging and rewarding place to work, providing an opportunity for the bank to become a leader in transforming workplaces as energy savers. Mthiyane points to three things that make this building special. Firstly, the bank avoided 2 700 tones of CO2 at Absa Towers West because of the efficiencies built-in. He says the Absa Energy Centre has generated clean energy using natural gas saved 37 000 tones of CO2 with Absa Towers Campus not using coal generated energy from Eskom. Thirdly, he says Absa Towers West boasts the largest grey water recycling system in South Africa that is capable of recycling 43 000 litres a day. To date, over 20 million litres have been recycled and reused to flush toilets and urinals, instead of wasting and using clean drinking quality water from the water utility. By promoting the new way of work and using state-of-the-art technology, Absa Towers West encourages collaboration and teamwork among colleagues, thus embodying the One Absa better together philosophy, says Maria Ramos, group chief executive of Absa and head of Barclays Africa. Furthermore, Ramos says in designing Absa Towers West, which houses over 3 000 people, they carefully considered global best practices in order to maximise the aesthetics and functionality of the building while delivering improved efficiencies. Ramos says a green building is one which reduces environmental impact in terms of energy and water consumption as well as material sources and emissions. It provides improved indoor environmental quality, which has been proven to improve t he productivity of employees, she says.

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