Bio 11 Zoology Experiment 20 Types Of Tissues

MUSCULAR TISSUE: 1. How is syncitium brought about in muscle cells? -Numerous mitoses but no cytokinesis SUPPORTING AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE: 1. Give examples of each kind of cartilage (3) - Hyaline cartilage: nose, larynx, and trachea - Elastic cartilage: external ears, Eustachian tube, epiglottis - Fibro cartilage: invertebral disks, pubic symphsis, disk of knee joint, pads between femur and tibia 2. Bones are prepared by the grinding method will not show osteocytes but only the cavities or lacunae. Why? -Because they have already been replaced by grinding that is why only the cavities are shown - No soft structure can survive the grindling process VASCULAR (BLOOD) TISSUE: 1. Explain why blood is considered as belonging to the connective tissue group - It has intercellular spaces through which blood cells are suspended - Located in a fluid medium - Traced to the connective tissues of the bone marrow 2. Function of erythrocytes -it has a role in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body 3. Functions of WBC A. Polymorphonuclear leucocytes Neutrophil -scavengers within extravascular tissue, destroying bacteria or other infectious organisms that invade the body, phagocytic. Eosinophil -functions specially as phagocytic to destroy larvae of parasites that have invaded tissues (allergic responses), against helminthic infections Basophil secretes histamine and heparin B. Lymphocytes Make antibodies (B lymphocytes)

 Recognition and rejections of foreign tissues (T lymphocytes) C. Monocytes/ Macrophil differentiate into macrophage to elicit an immune response replenish resident macrophages and dendritic cells under normal states phagocytic

Bio 11 Zoology Experiment 21 Microscopic Anatomy Frog Organs

SKIN: 1. Function of Chromatophores: they color the skin and eyes of animals 2. they change hues to resemble the environment creating camouflage they use to signal other creatures What are the secretion of cutaneous gland? Frog: secretes mucus to keep skin moist (big glands secret mucus) Higher vertebrate: sebum, tears, sweat, etc.

INTESTINE: 1. What do goblet cells secrete? - Goblet cells secrete and produce mucus 2. What is mesothelium? - Pavement epithelial cells in surface view that lines the internal cavity (derived from the mesoderm) - The mesothelium is the membrane that lines three of the bodys cavities: the pleura or thoracic cavity; the peritoneum or abdominal cavity; and the pericardium or heart sac. Mesothelial tissue is also found in the male internal reproductive organs and it covers the internal reproductive organs in women. - The mesothelium comes from the mesoderm cell layer that lines the body cavity in the embryonic state. STOMACH: 1. What do neck cells secrete? - mucus secretion. 2. What do the zymogenic and parietal cells secrete? - Zymogenic (chief cells) secrete pepsinogen and rennin - Parietal cells are wedged in between the chief cells and secrete hydrochloric acid (and intrinsic factors) 3. What is the function of these secretions?

- Pepsinogen is activated into the digestive enzyme pepsin (which breakdown of proteins) when it comes in contact with acid produced by gastric parietal cells; - hydrochloric acid (and intrinsic factors) that lowers the pH of the stomach causing proteins from food to lose their folded structure exposing the peptide bonds; maintenance of the stomachs pH 4. What is the function of the muscularis mucosa? Expels substance of gastric glands 5. What is the importance of the muscular layer (tunica muscularis)? Facilitates in the movement of food KIDNEY: 1. Is the adrenal gland part of the excretory system? - No, it is a part of the endocrine system 2. How would you distinguish sections of veins from arteries? - Arteries thicker, smaller and circular - Veins thinner, bigger and irregular SPINAL CORD: 1. What is found in the central canal? - Contains the cerebrospinal fluid 2. What is the shape of motor cells? - Star or spindle-shaped 3. What is a motor neuron? - makes a synaptic connection with the interneuron and carries impulses out from the central nervous system to the different parts of the body - a type of cell in the nervous system that directly or indirectly controls the contraction or relaxation of muscles, which in most cases leads to movement. - also called motoneurons or efferent neurons. 4. What is a multipolar neuron? - type of neuron that possesses a single (usually long) axon and many dendrites, allowing for the integration of a great deal of information from other neurons. These dendritic branches can also emerge from the nerve cell body. - constitute the majority of neurons in the brain and include motor neurons and interneurons 5. Does your specimen still have the dura mater? - Yes, it has dura mater.

Bio 11 Zoology Experiment 2 Animal Integumentary

Table 2. Integuments of various animal types Animals Planaria Earthworm Snail Grasshopper Lobster Frog Chicken Human Chitinous integument Chitinous integument Skin (naked) Skin Skin Chitin Calcium carbonate None Feathers/claw Hairs/nails Kind of Integument Slimy Epithelium Epithelium Mantle Skin Derivatives Cilia Cuticle Shell

Bio 11 Zoology Experiment 3 Skeletal System

Table 3. Skeleton of various animals types Animal Chicken Butterfly Garden slug Dog Sea Star Prawn Cockroach Earthworm Corals Man Exoskeleton (specify kind): Pulmage,claws Chitinous plate (scleites) Shell Pelage, claws Skin Cuticle (Chitinous Plate) Cuticle (scleites) Cuticle (Chitinous Plate) Calcereous Pelage, nails Endoskeleton (present/absent) Present Absent Absent Present Present Absent Absent (Fluid-Hydrostatic) Absent Present

Table 4. Comparison of bones of the forelimb and hindlimb Forelimb Humerus Radio-ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Table 5. Comparison of various types of vertebrae TYPES OF VERTEBRAE Sacral vertebra Hindlimb Femur Tibia-fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Structure

Atlas

Urostyle

_ Neural spine + Neural arch + Neural canal centrum zygapophyses + + (post) _

+ (slight protrusion) + + + (prominence) + (pre) +

+ (modified into a keel) + + + _ _

Transverse processes For the Pictures of the Skeletal System: Frog Anatomy GENERAL REGIONS OF THE SKULL AND LOWER JAW (mandible) The skull consists of (1) the cranium and (2) maxillary arch/bones of the upper jaw PART LOCATION CHARACTERISTICS

Cranium Maxillary arch

Dorsal side Bordering the orbit laterally

- Encloses the brain and some sense organs- Hollow median portion of the skull- Expands anteriorly into a pair of olfactory capsules

Premaxillary process

- Adjoins the paired triangular bones of the Snout region where the arch meets its cranium- Attached to the otic region (posteriorly) by pair 2 dorso-ventrally opposed triradiate bones

Synarthrosis Olfactory capsule Otic capsule Occipital region Foramen magnum

Anterior to the cranium Posterior to the cranium Posterior region of the skull Center of the occipital region

- Immovable type of joint- Sutures in the skull which separates the bones Hidden from view by a pair of triangular bones Lodges the inner ear Bears a hole at the center (foramen magnum) Where the spinal cord passes thorugh

- Pair of smooth processes- Articulate with the Occipital condyle Ventrolateral to the foramen magnum first vertebra (connection to the atlas)

Large cavity on each side of the orbit cranium THE VERTEBRATE PART LOCATION - Right below the occipital FIRST vertebrate : condyles- First part of the ATLAS vertebral column

Houses the eyeball CHARACTERISTIC

Articulate the occipital condyles of the skullCervical vertebra

Centrum Neural arch Neural canal

Dorsal to the centrum

- Body of the vertebra- Concave in frontbehind - Forms a canal - Contains the spinal cord Posteriorly directed

Convex

- Mid-dorsal side of the neural Neural spine arch Transverse - Junction of the centrum and the processes neural arch Zygapophyses - Anterior and posterior edges of (PRE and POST) the neural arch NITH vertebrate: SACRAL TENTH vertebrate: UROSTYLE THE PECTORAL GIRDLE PART LOCATION - Most dorsal component of the Suprascapula pectoral girdle Scapula Glenoid fossa Fenestra Clavicle Coracoid Epicoracoid cartilages

- Extend laterally and help support the body wall - Short paired processes- Serve for articulating successive vertebrae

CHARACTERISTIC

- Flat- Trapezoidal- cartiliginous - irregular bone- smooth concavity on its proximal - articulates with the suprascapula end - smooth concavity on the scapulas end - where the upper arm fits - gap that separates the scapula - thin- where a Y-shaped bone rests (belongs to the - anterior to the fenestra sternum) - posterior to the fenestra - contributes to the glenoid fossa joins the two halves of the pectoral girdle

THE STERNUM Set of bones and cartilages lying in the mid ventral axia which consist of two portions (anterior and posterior to the PG) Episternum Omosternum Mesosternum Xiphisternum flat, rounded cartilagefirst portion inverted Y-shaped bonetwo arms rest on the clavicle second portionbone wedged between the coracoids in its anterior end cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternum

THE PELVIC GIRDLE Strengthens the posterior design of the body and provides support to the hind limbs Consists of left and right halves, solidly fused on its posterior end Each half is called OS INNOMINATUM (innominate bone) PART LOCATION CHARACTERISTIC - cup-shaped depression- where the proximal end of the thigh bone fits- formed by the convergence of - each rear end of the innominate the raised edges of the bones comprising the girdle Acetabulum bone (ischium, ilium, pubis) articulates with the lateral processes Ilium of the 9th vertebra forms the anterior boreder of the acetabulum - wedged between the ilium and - fan shaped bone- contributes to the posterior Ischium the next bone border of the acetabulum - wedged ventrally between the Pubis ilium and ischium - apical end contributes to the acetabulum

Bio 11 Zoology Experiment 4 Musculature

For the Pictures of the Frog Musculature: Frog Anatomy 1. A. Axial Musculature HEAD (3 pairs) LOCATION ORIGIN stout muscles at the back Temporalis (1) of the skull Mid-dorsal line posterior to the Depressor Mandibulae temporalis and tympanic (2) membrane Mid-dorsal line Mid-ventral side of the Median Raphe (3) head (a septum) INSERTION ACTION Posterior region of the mandible Raises lower jaw

Angle of the jaw

Lowers the jaw

Mylohyoid TRUNK

LOCATION

Median raphe ORIGIN

Coccygeosacralis(DORSAL)Anterior portion

Inner surface of Raises floor of the lower jaw mouth INSERTION ACTION Transverse Lateral of anterior processes of sacral part of urostyle vertebra

Coccygeoiliacus(DORSAL)Both coccys are the Vshaped muscles bordered by the ilium of the pelvic girdle- Taper towards the anus Posterior portion Posterior part wedged between the coccygeoiliacus

Longissimus dorsi(DORSAL)

External oblique Rectus abdominis(VENTRAL)

Lateral side of the abdomen Ventral abdominal wall (thin and flat muscle) Pubis

Lateral posterior part of the urostyle Ilium Posterior end of the skull, dorsal surface of the Urostyle vertebrae Beneath muscles Lumbo-dorsal of the ventral side fascia of the abdomen sternum

Keeps coccyx in line with ilium

Extends back and elevates head

Longitudinal septum of connective tissue Linea alba (not a muscle) (white line) 1. B. Appendicular Musculature FORELIMB LOCATION ORIGIN Flat muscle next to and partly hidden from view Fascia on the Latissimus by the depressor anterior trunk dorsi(DORSAL) mandibulae region - Chest regionMuscleforming the apex Sternoof the triangular mass of radialis(VENTRAL) muscle on the chestEpisternum

Compress the abdomen Compress the abdomen TENDONS

INSERTION

ACTION

Shoulder joint and Draws arm away humerus from the body Draw arms towards the chest

Proximal end of the radio-ulna

Anterior portion hidden from view by the edge of the mylohyoid

Pectoralis(VENTRAL)

Deltoid

- (1-2) pectoral girdle and sternum(3) almost a Humerus (hidden Posterior to the sterno- separate muscle; from view by the radialis (divisible into 3 fascia of the rectus distal end of the portions) abdominis sterno-radialis) Stout muscle wedged between the distal ends of the sterno-radialis and the latissimus dorsi in the Proximal end of the upper arm coracoid humerus

Distal end of the humerus and Stout muscle at the back proximal end of the Straightens the Triceps Brachii of the arm Scapula-coracoid radio-ulna forearm HINDLIMB (THIGH) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Posterior border Stout muscle on the of the ilium and frontal surface of the the anterior thigh, extendin well to the border of Triceps extensor femoris dorsal and ventral sides acetabulum Medial to the triceps femoris on the dorsal side Semimembranosus(DORSAL(stout muscle) Ischium Separate the triceps and semimembranosu s Long slender Posterior margin Biceps femoris(DORSAL) muscle of ischium Medial margin of the Posterior margin Gracilis major(VENTRAL) thigh (stout) of ischium Long, flat muscle traversing the thigh obliquely and partly Lower end of Sartorius(VENTRAL) covers a stout muscle ilium

Straightens shank Proximal end of and bends the the tibio-fibula thigh Back of the knee, proximal end of the tibio-fibula Draws the thigh medially and bends the shank Draws the thigh medially

Proximal end of tibio-fibula Proximal end of tibio-fibula

Bends the leg Adducts thigh and Adductor Distal end of draws thigh magnus(VENTRAL) Covered by the sartorius Pelvic girdle femur ventrally HINDLIMB (SHANK) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Gastrocnemius muscles Loosely bound to the (!) small head top Achilles tendon- Flexes leg and (calf muscle)(DORSAL adjoining muscles of the of aponeurosis passes over the extends foot

Proximal end of tibio-fibula

AND VENTRAL)

shank by a superficial which covers the back of the ankle fascia which may be slit knee(2) big head- joint tendon back of the knee connected to the ligament bending the femur and the tibio-fibula Distal end of tibio- Straightens the Lateral to the fibula and proximal shank and bends the Peroneus(DORSAL) gastrocnemius Distal end of femur end of tarsal bones foot Anterior border of the Tibialis shank and bound with the anticus(DORSAL AND peroneus by a common 2 tendons onto the VENTRAL) fascia (long, thin muscle) Distal end of femur tarsals Bends the foot Long, thin muscle adhering to the posterior margin of the bone (push the ventral portion of the Tibialis gastrocnemius away from Entire length of Proximal end of posticus(VENTRAL) the tibio-fibula) tibio-fibula the tarsals Extends the foot

Bio 11 Zoology Exercise 5 Motion and Locomotion

Animals Python House Lizard Eel

Mode of Locomotion Undulatory Swimming Pedal Locomotion (Quadruped) Undulatory Swimming Pedal Locomotion (Quadruped)

Common Frog Duck Chicken Mouse Chimpanzee Pedal Locomotion (Bipedal) Pedal Locomotion (Bipedal)

Pedal Locomotion (Quadruped) Pedal Locomotion (Quadruped) Pedal Locomotion (Quadruped)

Horse

Dove Tortoise

True Flight Pedal Locomotion (Quadruped)

Bio 11 Zoology Exercise 6 Digestive System

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How is the tongue attached? attached to the floor of the lower jaw anteriorly What are the functions of the stomach? Where digestion occurs, secretion of enzymes used for breaking down food What is the function of the rugae? Increases the surface area of the stomach for absorption What is the significance of bile? It emulsifies fat, neutralizes the acidic food entering the intestine and creates a pH favorable for pancreatic and intestinal enzymatic action What are the other functions of the liver? It secretes bile, monitors and controls the balance of the body by removing the toxins in the body What are the enzymes that pancreatic juice contains? Pancreatic amylase, lipase, deoxyribonuclease, carboxypeptidase What is the endocrine role of the pancreas? It secretes insulin that has profound effects on metabolism

Bio 11 Zoology Exercise 7 Respiratory System

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How many gill arches are there? There are 4 pairs of gill arches What is the significance of the presence of many blood capillaries in these structures? They needed for the movement of gills for respiration, Blood enters and leaves the gills through these small blood vessels. How many spiracles are there in the abdomen and the thorax? Thorax: 6 spiracles Abdomen: 12 spiracles How is the croaking sound produced? A frog creates vocal sound in much the same way a human does. The frog first fills its lungs with air, then expels the air with high pressure across its larynx, or vocal chords. The vibration of the vocal chords as the air moves across them produces sound.

Bio 11 Zoology Exercise 10 Excretory System

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What is meant by this condition (Retroperitoneal) ? Situated behind the peritoneum. It is closely attached to the posterior abdominal wall and partly covered by peritoneum, rather than suspended by that membrane.

Bio 11 Zoology Exercise 13 Circulatory System

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Does the sinus venosus contract? Yes it also contracts. What is meant by the pacemaker of the heart? Specialized area of heart muscle that controls and regulates heart beat Heart decreases in size and color changes to light red: SYSTOLE (contraction) Heart returns to larger size and to dark red: DIASTOLE (relaxation) Explain the dark appearance of the vein. Vein color is determined in large part by the color of venous blood, which is usually dark red (and not blue as is commonly believed) as a result of its low oxygen content. The presence of valves can easily be demonstrated, how can this be done? The valves work in the same way as one- way swing doors, the blood pushing the valves open as it travels toward the heart; the valves close as blood fills that part of the vein, and prevents backward flow.

I. VEINS (Venous system) A. External jugular vein From what organ is the blood drained? lingual vein from tongue maxillary vein from lower jaw B. Innominate vein What organs or parts of body are drained by each of these veins? Internal jugular vein from head, brain, and spinal cord

 Suprascapular vein - from shoulders C. Musculocutaneous vein What parts of the body are drained by each of them? from sides of head from sides of body D. What do you call each of these veins (3 tributaries to the postcaval vein) Hepatic portal vein from liver Renal portal vein from kidneys Ovarian or Spermic veins from gonads E. What possible routes can the blood take from the hindlimb to the heart? Renal portal circulation Anterior abdominal vein by way of the liver

II. INTERNAL ANATOMY OF FROG HEART What is the significance of the differences in size of the two atria? Right receives blood from all parts except lungs. Left receives from lungs. Describe the valves that guard this opening. Spiral valve in the conus arteriosus: direct deoxygenated blood into the aortic arches of leading to the gills and lungs. direct oxygenated blood into arches that supply other parts of the body modification arising from the formation of a typhlosole-like septum ventral edge is free Within the truncus arteriosus are two longitudinal divisions or septa which divide the truncus into three channels. Where to these channels lead? Common carotid artery Systemic artery Pulmocutaneous artery What structure minimizes the mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the frogs heart? The spiral valve in the conus arteriosus, longitudinal septa and interatrial septum

III. INTERNAL ANATOMY OF MAMMALIAN HEART What kind of blood enters the left atrium? Oxygenated blood from the lungs Right ventricle is smaller and has thinner wall compared to the left ventricle. What is its significance? The left ventricle is more muscular than the right ventricle because it pumps the blood at a higher pressure. Just as any other muscle in your body If you work one and not the other - the one you work gets bigger and the opposing wont. The left ventricle pumps blood at a higher pressure because it has a further distance to travel, blood from the left ventricle goes to all areas of the body. The right ventricle only has to pump blood to the lungs which is a much shorter distance, therefore less pressure is required. What is the advantage of having two ventricles? There is no opportunity for the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. There is more efficiency of the heart since each ventricle has a specific task. Right ventricle: pumps blood to the lungs Left ventricle: pumps blood to the other parts of the body

IV. ARTERIES (Arterial System) What is the function of the carotid gland? Motors blood pressure. Carefully lift the dorsal aorta and see the small arteries rising from its dorsal wall. What part of the body is supplied by these arteries? Coeliac Left and right gastric artery supplies stomach and pancreas Hepatic artery supplies liver and anterior part of pancreas Anterior Mesenteric Supplies lumbar/back region, kidneys, urogenital system What body part of the viscera does it supply? Posterior portion of the rectum Dorsal wall of the uterus (female) Follow each branch and determine the organs supplied Epigastric artery SUPPLIES ventral abdominal vein

Recto-vesicular artery SUPPLIES rectum and urinary bladder Femoral artery SUPPLIES skin and anterior thigh muscles Sciatic artery extension of iliac artery to the rest of the hindlimb

Bio 11 Zoology Exercise 14 Nervous System and Sense Organ

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What type of symmetry exists in Dugesia? Bilateral Compare it with Hydra? Radial What is the relationship between type of symmetry and type of nervous system present? Ladder type is more probable to occur in animals which can be divided into 2 similar halves. Diffuse type or nerve net is more probable to occur in animals without a definite head region and exhibit radial symmetry How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in human? MAN: 12 pairs of cranial nerves Why is the number of spinal nerves varying in different groups of vertebrate? The number of spinal nerves in different group of vertebrate varies because of the different number of vertebra found in spinal cord. What do the 1st and 3rd nerves innervate? It innervate the shoulder and the forelimb region. What do these nerves innervate (4th, 5th, 6th Spinal Nerve) ? Muscles of abdominal wall and skin What are the function of the anterior and posterior choroid plexi? Deposition of cerebrospinal fluid into brain vesicles What is a neurosecretion? Hormones produced by the nervous system that are synthesized by neurosecretory neurons What are some diecephalic secretions, stored in the hypophysis, that have other target organs? ACTH, MSH, oxytocin, vasopressin, vasotocin, mesotocin, gonadotropins

What is the function of the ventricles? (Frog brain) Serve as passageway of cerebrospinal fluid Helps to hold the soft brain tissue in place against the wall of the cranium What is the function of the Eustachian Tube? Permits pressure equalization in both sides of the tympanic membrane