1 Procesos de EOR en NFR Taller 2

EOR Processes in NFR Workshop -2
EOR Processes and Reservoir Characterization in NFRs The Cantarell, Ku, Maloob, and Zaap Fields
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng
Professor of Petroleum Engineering University of Alberta Dept. of Civil and Env. Eng., School of Mining and Petroleum Edmonton, Alberta, CANADA
tayfun@ualberta.ca URL: www.ualberta.ca/~tayfun
PEMEX Workshop, Ciudad del Carmen, 9-13 November 2009
OBJECTIVE
DAY-1: Reservoir Characterization for NFVR (Naturally Fractured Vuggy Reservoirs): What are the problems in NFVR characterization? What are the problems in NFR development (drilling, production, well and reservoir management, completion, modeling, data gathering, EOR) in relations to the characterization. Pore scale characterization of NFVR. Tools used for larger scale characterization: Cores, outcrops, logs, drilling data, well tests. Heterogeneity, permeability distributions. Use of different logs (resistivity, radioactive and sonic logs) in reservoir characterization. Estimation of porosity, porosity-permeability correlations, the use of NMR logs in permeability estimation. From geology to petrophysics, production data to wells tests reservoir characterization of NFVR. DAY-2: Reservoir Characterization for NFVR. Use of well test analysis in reservoir characterization. Basic principles, use of different well tests for reservoir characterization. Type curve and derivative analysis. Pitfalls in well test interpretations. Characterization of naturally fractured reservoirs through well testing.
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DAY-3: Use of fractal geometry and stochastic techniques in reservoir characterization. Definition of fractal dimension, self-similar and self-affine fractals. Analysis of logs using fractal techniques. Generation of representative static reservoir models. Concept of stochastic modeling. Fracture surface characterization. Fracture networks. Use of fractal geometry in characterization of fracture surfaces and networks. Use of pressure transient analysis and tracer tests in fracture network characterization and mapping fracture network permeability. Using production data in reservoir and fracture swarm characterization. Practical modeling of fracture network permeability. DAY-4: Selection of EOR process in NFVR: Immiscible, miscible, thermal, chemical techniques in NVFR. Heavy-oil vs. light oil. Laboratory analyses and field cases. Followed by a discussion period. DAY-5: EOR methods applicable to offshore NFVR with 28-38 API and water and gas production problems due to active aquifer and gas cap. Current and potential applications in RMNO fields. Field examples analog: The Yates, Bati Raman, Spraberry, Qarn Alam, Midale-Weyburn, Yibal, Ekofisk, North Sea fields etc. Followed by a discussion period.
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DISCUSSION ON Abkatun-Pol-Chuc, Caan: Selection of EOR process applicable to offshore NFVR with 28 API and water and gas production problems due to active aquifer. There is oil in the matrix surrounded by water or by gas. Dimensionless groups to characterize different EOR Processes in Abkatun-Pol-Chuc in order to select the appropriate EOR Process.
DISCUSSION ON Light oils: EOR process applicable to offshore NFVR with 28-38 API High Pressure (active aquifers) and High temperature in the reservoir. Cluster of small offshore reservoirs. Dimensionless groups to characterize different EOR Processes in order to select the appropriate EOR Process.
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Type of Fracture Reservoirs NFR Type Definition Example Amal, Libya Edison, California Wolf Springs, Montana Agha Jari, Iran Haft Kel, Iran Spraberry, Texas Kirkuk, Iraq Gachsaran, Iran Hassi Messaoud, Algeria
Type 1
Fractures provide the essential reservoir porosity and permeability
Type 2
Fractures provide the essential permeability
Type 3
Fractures assist permeability in an already producible reservoir Fractures provide no additional porosity or permeability but create significant reservoir heterogeneity (Barrier)
Type 4
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Common fracture styles, their displacements, and their orientations relative to principal stress orientations common in the Earths upper crust (after Narr et al. 2006).
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
FRACTURE CLASSIFICATION
EXPERIMENTAL FRACTURES Shear Extension Tensile NATURAL FRACTURES Tectonic (due to surface forces) Regional (surface or body forces) Contractional (body forces) Surface related (body forces)
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TYPICAL FOLD RELATED FRACTURE ORIENTATIONS
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TECTONIC FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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CONJUGATE FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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CONTRACTIONAL FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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CONTRACTIONAL FRACTURES
Nelson, 2001
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Tectonic fracture intensity
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(After Nelson, 2001)

14
Fractures provide essential porosity and permeability

15

16
Fractures provide essential permeability

17

18
Fractures provide permeability assist Fractures provide essential porosity and permeability

19
Fractures provide essential permeability

20
FRACTURE PERMEABILITY
b 3l P q1 = 12 L
b p vf = 12 x
2
b2 Kf = 12
L L b
en cos 2 n e1 cos 2 1 K fm = K m + + ... + 12 D1 12 Dn

3 3
For 1 n Fracture Sets
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FRACTURE PERMEABILITY
K eff = K g exp{ (0)(1 / 2 1 / D )}
King, 1987
Bogdanov et al. (2003)
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PERCOLATION THEORY
P( p) ( p pc )
(after Hestir and Long, 1990)
p > pc
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K ( p pc )
Stauffer and Aharony (1994) proposed the following general scaling law between the conductivity (or permeability) and percolation threshold and exponent
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(after Hestir and Long, 1990)
K = Ap (d d c ) p Zhang and Sanderson (2002), d=fracture density
K = A p K ' 2 ( ' 3 )
Mourzenko et al. (2005)
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CURRENT ISSUES
Fractal feature of fracture networks. Fractal geometry ~ network permeability.
Fractal dimension @ percolation of fracture network (experimental work).
Fractal distribution of permeability upscaling.

25
D = ? @ Percolation Threshold ( D = 1.35 ???, Barton)

26
Selected percolation thresholds for various lattices. Site refers to site percolation and bond refers to bond percolation (after Stauffer and Aharony, 1994).
Lattice Honeycomb Square Triangular Diamond Simple Cube BCC FCC D = 4 hypercubic D = 5 hypercubic D = 6 hypercubic D = 7 hypercubic Site 0.6962 0.592746 0.5 0.43 0.3116 0.246 0.198 0.197 0.141 0.107 0.089 Bond 0.65271 0.5 0.34729 0.388 0.2488 0.1803 0.119 0.1601 0.1182 0.0942 0.0787
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Near the critical percolation threshold
p c , the following scaling law exist:
Percolation probability Accessible fraction Backbone fraction Correlation length Effective conductivity Permeability of a percolation network.
P( p) ( p pc )
p p
X A ( p) ( p pc )
X B ( p) ( p pc ) B
p ( p) | p p c | v
g e ( p) ( p pc ) K ( p) ( p pc ) e
The exponents in the above scaling law are universal and their values are presented in the following slide.
28
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Values of critical exponents of percolation (after Sahimi, 1993).
Exponent
D=2
D=3
5/36
0.41
B
v
0.47
1.05
4/3
0.88
1.3
2.0
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(after Mourzenko et al. 2005).
is fracture density, is fracture conductivity coefficient, is surface area, is dimensionless permeability and is dimensionless density. The extensive term represents the volumetric area of fractures, weighted by the individual fracture conductivities.
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K = A p K ' 2 ( ' 3 )
Ap
K '2
'3
A p
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Dual continuum and discrete fracture network concepts (after Dershowitz et al. 1998)
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Porous media equivalent

K =10
2
1.7 0.6 D ' s +113 S a
K = R /(8 F )
( 4 D ) / D
2[ E s Ds ) + ( Dv Ev )]
K = C ' (l1 / l n )
3
K eff = K g exp{ (0)(1 / 2 1 / D )}

en cos 2 n e1 cos 2 1 K fm = K m + + ... + 12 D1 12 Dn
3
For 1 n Fracture Sets

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UNSWEPT AREA: Viscous fingering or capillary trapping (micro scale). Mobility ratio or channeling or heterogeneity (larger scales)
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12 cm
Water
3.5 cc
20 cm
6.5 cc
q=1 cc/min
14 cc
15 cc
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop
Matrix : 0.35 mm Fracture : Oil Vis. = 2.2 cp

34
q=1 cc/min
q = 2.5 cc/min
3.5 cc
3.5 cc
7.5 cc
5 cc
17 cc
15 cc
24 cc
35 cc
35
WHAT IS Sor (SWEPT ZONE) In water wet rock, residual oil is trapped in a pore. If the capillary forces are greater than the force of driving fluid, trapping occurs.
GRAIN
WATER
OIL BLOB
P1
P2
FOR DISPLACEMENT OF OIL BLOB

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Mobilization of Oil Blob
DARCY LAW
YOUNG-LAPLACE
q w L P1 = P = k
q w L 2 Cos > k r
v = injection velocity k = permeability
P2 = Pnw Pw = Pc =
2Cos r
For mobilization of oil blob
Since k ~ r2, then
q>
w = water viscosity ow = interfacial tension = contact angle r = pore size L = pore length q = injection rate
2 (Cos)r w L
v w N ca = ( Cos )
37
CAPILLARY NUMBER, Nca

N ca = v w
ow
viscous = capillary
w = water viscosity = contact angle r = pore size q = injection rate
v = injection velocity ow = interfacial tension k = permeability L = pore length
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Immiscible
Miscible
From Stegemeir (Improved Oil Rec. by Surf. And Polymer Flooding, 1977)
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N ca =
k P v= L
v w
ow
viscous = capillary
P k N ca = L ow
In reservoir it is not practical to increase significantly the pressure differential between injection and production well over that of waterflood. Infill drilling feasibly reduce the interwell distance (L) by no more than a factor of two or four. The only way to reduce the Nca the four orders of magnitude required to reduce the ROS is to reduce the IFT.
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BEREA SANDSTONE
75 m
Modified capillary number for waterfloods at constant injection rates:
N ca mod
w v w = ( S oi S or ) ow cos( ) o
0.4
After Abrams, SPEJ Oct. 1975. 42
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A field scale capillary number was defined for 5-spot pattern as follows: u : superficial water velocity k : absolute permeability korw : end-point water relative permeability P : injector-producer pressure drop A : pattern area d : injector producer distance rw : well radius
P d a
v w N ca = ( Cos )
uw =
o 10kk rw P d A w ln 0 . 619 r w
DISPLACEMENT IN OILWET AND WATERWET MEDIA

OIL WET OIL WET OIL WET
OIL
GRAIN OIL
GRAIN
OIL
GRAIN
WATER
WATER
WATER
WATER WET
OIL OIL
WATER WET
WATER WET
GRAIN
GRAIN
OIL
GRAIN
WATER
WATER
WATER
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Jadhunandan and Morrow, SPE 22597, 1991 45
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Oil Saturation (%)
80 70 60 50 WATER WET 40 MIXED WET 30 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10

WATER INJECTED, PV
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is the only measure of WETTABILITY

Sandstone : Water-wet, Carbonates: Oil-wet Wettability changes with pH, organic compounds existing, rock type. (A good review of wettability by N. Morrow, JPT Dec. 1990, 14761484, SPE 21621)
WETTABILITY OF DIFFERENT ROCK TYPES

NAPHTHENIC ACID
NAPHTHENIC ACID
o
= 35
WATER
= 106
WATER
SANDSTONE
CALCITE
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INTERFACIAL TENSION (IFT)
There exists a few molecule thick zone at the interface between two immiscible fluids. At this zone, molecular attraction is different than inside.
van der Walls forces (F~ ( )/r7 ) and electrostatic forces (F~ ( )/r2 )
WATER
OIL
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INTERFACIAL TENSION (IFT)
INTERFACIAL TENSION () = FORCE / LENGTH = DYNE / CM (WORK/AREA)
IF > 0 IMMISCIBLE o-w = 10-30 dyne/cm @ 75 oF steam-w = 70 dyne/cm (Surface tension, ST) IFT < ST, pressure.
IF = 0 MISCIBLE
IFT decreases with increasing temperature and

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CAPILLARY PRESSURE, PC
CAPILLARY TUBE
h
OIL
ForceUp = AT * 2 r
AT = OS WS = OW cos( )
ForceDown = gh( r 2 )
WATER
CAPILLARY PRESSURE, psi
DRAINAGE (nw-w)
2 cos( ) Pc = Pnw Pw = = hg r
IMBIBITION (w-nw) 100 WATER SATURATION, %
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RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, kr
DARCY is no longer valid when two immiscible fluids flow in porous medium. In this case flow depends on saturation, viscosity ratio contact angle, capillary number and time. kro = ko/k, krg = kg/k, krw=kw/k
WATER WET 1 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, kr Oil
OIL WET 1 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, kr Oil Water
Water
Swi
50
S or
100
Swi
50
S or
100
WATER SATURATION, %
WATER SATURATION, %
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RELATIVE PERMEABILITY Relative Permeability

1
kro HOW FAST krw 1

0 0 Swi
3
1-Sor 1
Sw, fraction HOW MUCH
1 = OOIP (1-Swi) (Logs, Pc, SCAL)

2 = Recoverable Oil Reserves

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3 = Residual Oil SCAL, logs, MB

52
DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL OIL SATURATION

METHODS Core Analysis Logs Volumetric-Reservoir Engineering Studies Production Data Chemical Tracers Well Testing (need support from core analysis)
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ADVANTAGES - DISADVANTAGES
Volumetric-Reservoir Engineering Studies: Remaining after waterflood but no information about the oil distribution Chemical Tracers: Distribution Field ROS from Material Balance (% PV) 16 25 40 44 ROS from Tracer Test 12 12 29 12
Both low, no TOR. More wells between producers Oil in isolated pockets. Infill. Tertiary oil recovery (TOR) Oil in isolated pockets. Infill.
1 2 3 4
Data from: Determination of Residual Oil Saturation, D.C. Bond, C.R. Hocott, F.H. Poettmann (Editors), Interstate Oil Compact Comm., Oklahama City, OK, 1978 Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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FLUID SATURATIONS by CORE ANALYSIS Vacuum distillation Distillation (water) -Extraction (oil) using solvents High temperature retorting (@atmospheric P and 1200 oF) M S o res = S o core Bo E 1 V 2
( )
( )
(S ) (S )
Bo E M V
o res o cores
Average waterflood residual oil in the reservoir (flooded region) Average waterflood residual oil from cores Formation Volume Factor of Oil Bleeding Factor = 1.1 Mobility Ratio Permeability Variation
Kazemi (JPT Jan. 1977)

55
RESIDUAL OIL SOR (core, log, tracer) < SOR (Material Balance) SOR (PNC) = SOR (Resistivity logs) SOR (Single well tracer) < (SOR (logs)
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Residual Oil Saturations for Different (US) Sandstone Oil Reservoirs

50 45 40 35
Residual Oil, %
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6 Sample 7 Sample 8 Sample 9 Sample 10 Sample 11 Sample 12 Sample 13 Sample 14 Sample 15 Sample 16 Sample 17 Sample 18 Sample 19 Sample 20 Sample 21 Sample 22 Sample 23 Sample 24 Sample 25 Sample 26 Sample 27 Sample 28 Sample 29 Sample 31 Sample 32 Sample 33
Material Balance
Resistivityogs
PNC (Log-Inject-Log)
Core (pressure)
W OR-Rel. Perm.
Babadagli, T. SPE 93884, produced using the data from: Determination of Residual Oil Saturation, D.C. Bond, C.R. Hocott, F.H. Poettmann (Editors), Interstate Oil Compact Comm., Oklahoma City, OK, 1978 Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop 9-13 November 2009 File-1
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MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, kr

Although there exist analytical, statistical and stochastic techniques, the most reliable way of obtaining kr curves is the experimental methods. There exist three methods: 1. Steady State: Calculation is simple - relies on Darcys Equation - but the experimentation takes longer time. Unsteady State: Easier to measure but longer calculation time is required for JBN and Welge techniques. Centrifuge: Less common than other two methods.
2.
3.
STEADY STATE
w qw L k rw = kAPw o qo L
k ro = kAPo
PoL
Poi
qwi qoi
Pwi
qwL qoL L
PWL
The experimental procedure is difficult and time consuming Calculation is simple End effect is a problem.
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UNSTEADY STATE
Difficulty arises due to capillary end effect, viscous fingering and the effort required for the computations.
P1
P2
qwi L
qT = qwL + qoL
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CENTRIFUGE
A fast technique based on unsteady-state flow. Relative permeabilities are determined by mathematical models. Viscous fingering is avoided. Does it really represent the flow process in reservoir?
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SO, WHICH METHOD IS GOOD? (SPE 18292, SPE 28826)
Experiments
Reservoir Displacement Processes
Waterflooding
GOGD
WAG
Steady-state: Does not resemble to displacement but fast.
Unsteady-state: Indirect but fast and resembles to flooding in reservoir
Centrifuge: Indirect, fast but not proven for water/oil systems.
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IFT
After Bardon and Longeron, 1978 SPE AIME

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WETTABILITY
After Donaldson and Crocker, US DOE Report BERC/RI77/15, Dec. 1977.
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THREE PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (TERTIARY RECOVERY)

GOGD (Gas Oil Gravity Drainage) Waterflood Steamflood Immiscible gas flooding Water alternating gas Chemical flooding
Corey: Gas-oil measured at the presence of connate water Stone: Only kro is a function of both water and gas saturation Porous media is water-wet
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THREE PHASE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY (TERTIARY RECOVERY)

More hysterisis in USS curves than in SS curves. USS curves indicate more oil-wet conditions. Owing to a different trapping mechanism, gas RP curves showed much Weaker dependence on the direction of gas saturation change under SS compared to the USS SS more reliable! For strong-wetting conditions : SS is more reliable
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NATURALLY FRACTURED RESERVOIRS - NFR
Data acquisition ?????Reservoir simulation Dilemma: How to incorporate different (and limited) data sets and map the fracture network. NFR characterization is mainly based on the fracture sets seen in the logs and cores.
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CORES: Used to determine: Origin, geometry and occurrence of fractures Geomechanical modification Fracture orientation Fracture dip relative to core axis and to bedding, as well as relative orientation of fractures should be measured. Fracture aperture and height: Needed for fracture density, porosity, etc.
After Narr, Schechter, Thompson Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization SPE, 2006
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IMAGE LOGS Direct source of information. Two types; resistivity based and acoustic.
(Courtesy Frank Lim, NFR SPE)
(a)Open fractures in resistivity image (dark sinusoids), (b) Core form the same well, (c) image of whole core After Narr, Schechter, Thompson
Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng PEMEX Workshop Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization SPE, 69 2006 9-13 November 2009 File-1
After Narr, Schechter, Thompson Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization SPE, 2006
Open fractures: filled with conductive mud filtrate Closed fractures: filled with resistive mineralization Image logs are good for orientations. Aperture could also be computed. Apparent fracture height can be measured from image logs.
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FRACTURE DENSITY Fracture surfaces area/unit volume Fracture surface area : computed form cores or image logs.
D Vr = hr 2
df =
A
i =1
nf
fi
Vr
h
i =1
nf
fi
Dhr
L2/L3 is reduced to 1/L. For a set of parallel fractures, L is equal to their average spacing (perpendicular distance between fractures). Fracture density provides fracture spacing
f =
a
i =1
nf
fi
A fi
Vr
a
i =1
nf
fi
h fi
Dhr
af is fracture aperture.
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Fracture Permeability
Wo2 kf = 12
3 wo kf = 12s
Muskat Eq.
Lambs Equation
If w is in inches (IF=# fractures/ft)
k f = 4.54 *10 6 * w 3 * IF
k f = 2.77 *10 5 * w 3 * IF
If w is in cm (IF=# fractures/ft)
DIRECT PROPORTIONALITY!!!!
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FRACTURE SPACING
Calculated in core and outcrops by counting the number of fractures encountered along a line of some given length perpendicular to the fracture set an dividing the length of measurement line. In more complex environments, the same is done along lines in specific dimensions.
Nelson, R.A. Geological Analysis of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, Gulf Publ. 2001
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1 Procesos de EOR en NFR Taller 2

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EOR Processes in NFR Workshop -2

PEMEX Workshop, Ciudad del Carmen, 9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Fractures provide the essential reservoir porosity and permeability

Fractures provide the essential permeability

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

TYPICAL FOLD RELATED FRACTURE ORIENTATIONS

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

CONJUGATE FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Tectonic fracture intensity

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

(After Nelson, 2001)

Fractures provide essential porosity and permeability

(After Nelson, 2001)

(After Nelson, 2001)

Fractures provide essential permeability

(After Nelson, 2001)

(After Nelson, 2001)

(After Nelson, 2001)

Fractures provide essential permeability

(After Nelson, 2001)

en cos 2 n e1 cos 2 1 K fm = K m + + ... + 12 D1 12 Dn

For 1 n Fracture Sets

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

K eff = K g exp{ (0)(1 / 2 1 / D )}

Bogdanov et al. (2003)

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

(after Hestir and Long, 1990)

(after Hestir and Long, 1990)

K = Ap (d d c ) p Zhang and Sanderson (2002), d=fracture density

Mourzenko et al. (2005)

9-13 November 2009

Fractal distribution of permeability upscaling.

D = ? @ Percolation Threshold ( D = 1.35 ???, Barton)

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Near the critical percolation threshold

p c , the following scaling law exist:

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009

Values of critical exponents of percolation (after Sahimi, 1993).

Tayfun Babadagli, PhD, PEng

9-13 November 2009