Chemistry Review

History
The Atomic Theory all matter is composed out of extremely small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest particle that retains the properties of an element. Democritus (400 BC) said all matter is made up of indivisible and unchangeable units. He said that theyre all the same matter, but their shape, size and orientation makes different things. John Dalton (1700s) said that: o All elements are made of tiny particles called atoms. o All atoms of one element are identical, though atoms of different elements are different, specifically in terms of mass. o Atoms cant be created, destroyed or subdivided. o Atoms of one element combine with atoms of another element to form compounds. The molecules of these compounds always have the same proportions of elemental atoms. He was influenced by: o Law of Conservation of Mass by Lavoisier during a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the Products. Matter is indestructible. o Law of Definite Proportions by Proust whatever quantity of substance you take, the proportions of the masses of elements composing this substance will always remain equal. JJ Thomson (1850s) realized that: o Atoms were not the smallest unit of matter, subatomic particles existed. o Matter was not neutral, there was a negative charge to subatomic particles, and had to have a positive charge to cancel it. o Atoms have an electron (negative particles) cloud roaming freely in a positive umbrella charge. Ernest Rutherford discovered the true nature of the atom. He created the Gold Foil Experiment, which had a thin sheet of gold foil few atoms thick that was hit with positively charged alpha particles. The gold foil was surrounded by a material that marks where the particles hit. It was expected that the particles would go through the gold foil with little deflection, but what was seen was that some particles were heavily deflected. From his he concluded that: o Atoms are composed of a positively charged dense nucleus made of protons and neutrons which makes up most of its mass. This nucleus is what deflected the alpha particles heavily. o The nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud which makes up most of the atoms volume, and is where the negative charge is. Nile Bohr thought that the electron cloud outside the nucleus wasnt just random. He tried an experiment, where he passed electricity through Hydrogen gas which caused it to emit light. He watched the spectrum of the light, and with a mathematical equation, and determined that electrons outside the nucleus are in orbits. He stated that: o Electrons around the Nucleus are in possible rings called Orbits. o These orbits have definite radius and correspond to a definite Energy Level. The further away from the nucleus means the more energy the electron has. o Electrons are always in one of these energy levels. There is no in between energy levels. o Electrons are in a ground state normally and when given energy, they jump up energy levels to an excited state. Because the energy is unstable, the electron will fall back down to its ground state, and thats what creates the different color lights which create different light spectrums.

The Atom
(E)Element Symbol the one or two letter symbol that represents an element. Capitalization matters! An element can have a different amount of neutrons and/or electrons, but the amount of protons is what dictates what the element is, so cannot be changed. (A)Atomic Mass the total weight of the atom. It is the combined number of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom, but not the electron, because it doesnt weight enough to matter. It is measure in amu or atomic mass unit, which is 1/12 of the weight of a Carbon atom. (B)Atomic Number the number it is given on the periodic table. This cannot change. It also represents the amount of protons in the nucleus of the atom. (C)Charge an atom can gain or lose electrons, and when that happens, the charge of the atom changes. It can become +# if it lost electrons and became less negative, or -# if it gained electrons and became more negative. (D)Amount the amount of that atom in a compound. Isotopes When two atoms of same elements have different amount of neutrons, they are isotopes. An isotope has more or less electrons than the amount of Protons. The decimal atomic mass number in the periodic table is caused by the isotopes. It is made from the weighted average (usually in 1000) of the masses of all isotopes of the element. An isotope is represented in naming by Hydrogen-2 and in symbol by 2H. Ions When an atom gains or loses electrons, it becomes an Ion. Ions are represented in naming by Hydrogen Ion and in symbol by H-2. Isoelectronic When atoms or ions have the same amount of electrons, they are said to be isoelectronic and have the same electron configuration.

Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics is the study of law of motion which describe the motion of particles of very small masses, for example, electrons. They orbit the nucleus on certain energy levels, with each energy levels holding 2n2 electrons (n is the number of energy levels, up to n=4). The probability of finding an electron on a certain energy level is calculated by Wave Mechanics, which gives you orbitals that electrons exist in. Orbit the path an electron travels around an atom. Orbital the shape resulting from all possible orbitals, each orbital holds a maximum of 2 electrons. There are 4 possible orbitals: s sublevel starts on 1st energy level. Contains 1 orbital, hold up to 2 electrons in total. p sublevel starts on 2nd energy level. Contains 3 orbitals, hold up to 6 electrons in total. d sublevel starts on 3rd energy level. Contains 5 orbitals, hold up to 10 electrons in total. f sublevel starts on 4th energy level. Contains 7 orbitals, hold up to 14 electrons in total. These sublevels or orbits hold electrons in a way dictated by these laws: Aufbau Principle electrons cannot be in a higher energy level till all lower energy levels are filled. Pauli Exclusion Principle orbitals can be empty, have one electron, or two electrons. These electrons are always going in opposite directions. Hunds Rule electrons will not pair up in orbitals until all orbitals of that sublevel has been filled.

Electron Configurations is a way to represent electrons in their energy levels and sublevels. The electron configuration for Iron (Fe) is: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6. Each sublevel in an energy level is represented by a 3 digit/letter combination: The first number is the energy level it is on. The second letter is the type of sublevel it is on. The third number is the number of electrons in that energy level. Shorthand Electron Configuration is a shorter way to write out Electron Configurations. It is done by using Noble Gases as landmarks. For example, the SEC for Iron (Fe) is: *Ar+4s23d6. The Noble Gas (in square brackets) replace the Electron Configuration for it in the Shorthand Electron Configuration, and the rest is written after the square brackets. Energy Level Diagrams is another way to represent electrons in their energy levels and sublevels. See charts.

The Periodic Table

The first periodic table was made in 1868 by a Russian scientist named Dimitri Mendeleev, who wanted a way to sort the 60 elements existing at the time. He did it by: Organized elements by increasing Atomic Mass. Started a new row each time he saw repeating characteristics and similarities. This is called periodicity. He left blank spaces because he felt that there were elements that existed there but was yet ot be discovered. He was right. Then in 1913, a scientist named Henry Mosely made some improvements on his periodic table: He organized the elements in increasing Atomic Number (number of protons) instead. Put the missing elements into the table. Solved the irregularities in the periodicity. And that is where the modern periodic table came from. It is: Elements are organized in increasing Atomic Number, because the number of protons of an element cannot be different, or it would be a different element all together, unlike the other subatomic particles, which could change and still retain to be the same element. Rows are formed to form columns of elements with similar physical and/or chemical properties. Rows formally known as periods. Each row corresponds to the energy level outside the nucleus of an atom of the element. If it was in row/period 5, it would have 5 energy levels. Columns formally known as groups or families, numbered from 1 to 18. Each group usually has similar characteristics. Group 1, 2, and 13-18 also represent the amount of valence electrons in their outermost energy level, group 1 has 1 valence electron, group 13 has 3 valence electron, etc. Metals take up the left and middle of the periodic table, and most of the periodic table. They usually lose electrons to form cations. They have characteristics such as being shiny, highly dense, conduct electricity, and bendable. Metalloids take up a small space between the metals and non-metals, forms a diagonal line. They can gain or lose electrons, and can have characteristics of either or both metals and non-metals. (Boron, Silicon, Geranium, Arsenic, Antimony, Telleurium) Non-metals takes up the right of the periodic table. They usually gain electron and form anions. They have characteristics such as being dull, low density, poor conductors of electricity, and brittle. Hydrogen is in this category.

Alkali Metals (Group 1) they have one valence electron, so are very reactive. Hydrogen is not in this group. Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2) they have two valence electron, and become increasingly soluble with increase temperature. Transition Metals (Group 3 to 12) the elements between the metals and non-metals. Rare Earth Metals (No grouping) broken into Lanthanides and Actinides, outside of the main body of the periodic table. Halogens (Group 17) they have 7 valence electrons, so are very reactive. Their name means salt formers, because they tend to form salt when reacting with a metal. Noble Gas (Group 18) they have a full valence shell, and are inert (not reactive) for the most part. Only Neon and Helium is truly inert, other Noble Gases will still react. Representative Elements the groups of 1, 2, 13-18. Sometimes labeled 1A, 2A, 3A,8A. Atomic Radius the size of the atom. The size of the atom gets bigger as it goes to the left of the periodic table, and the size of the atom gets bigger as it goes down a column in the periodic table. This is because the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus gets weaker with every new energy level because of the SHIELDING the electron gives and so the electrons can drift farther and the atomic radius gets bigger. As it gets to the right of the periodic table, the amount of unshielded proton increase, and so the electrons are clutched harder and the atomic radius gets smaller. Ionization Energy the amount of energy it takes to take one or more electrons from an atom. The ionization energy gets higher as it moves to the left of the periodic table, and as it moves up in the periodic table. This is because the amount of positive charge of the protons of the nucleus of the atom is more countered by the negative charge of electrons as the amount of energy level increases, and so it is barely hanging onto the valence electrons and will give it easily as there are more energy levels. As it gets to the right of the periodic table, the amount of unshielded protons increases, and so it takes more energy to take an electron away from the atom. Noble gases have the highest ionization energy because they have a full shell and refuse to give electrons. Electronegativity the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. It is measured by the electronegativity value on periodic tables, from 0 to 4, with 4 being the highest. The electronegativity of atoms increases as they move up the periodic table, and as they move to the right of the periodic table. This is because as they move to the right of the periodic table, the more unshielded positive proton charge there is, and it will grab electrons more. And as it moves up the periodic table, there is less energy level of electrons shielding the positive charge of the protons, and so it will grab electrons more. Noble gasses do not have an electronegativity value because they have a full shell and do not need electrons. Electronegativity also dictates what kind of bonds would be formed. Electronegativity difference of 0 is Pure Covalent Bond. Electronegativity difference of 0 to 1.7 is Polar Covalent Bond. Electronegativity difference of 1.7 or more is an Ionic Bond.

Naming
Couple things to remember: In names, capitalization does matter. No element name is capitalized ever! Ionic Compounds (between a metal and a non-metal usually, end with ide, no numbers or prefixes) Normally: Cation + Anion-ide (sodium + chlorine -> sodium + chlor-ide -> sodium chloride) Mutlivalence Metal: Cation(valence) + Anion-ide

(chromium + oxygen -> chromium(II) + ox-ide -> chromium(II) oxide) Polyatomic Anion: Cation + Polyatomic Anion (sodium + cyanide -> sodium + cyanide -> sodium cyanide) Covalent Compounds (between two non-metals, end with ide, prefixes used, no numbers). Watch out: Prefix: 1 Mono, 2 Di, 3 Tri, 4 Tetra, 5 Penta, 6 Hexa, 7 Hepta, 8 Octa, 9 Nona, 10 Deca If the prefix is followed by a vowel, the final a or o is dropped in the prefix. For the first atom, when there is only one of them, the prefix mono is not needed. The first atom is Normally: (prefix)element + (prefix)element2-ide (phosphorus + oxygen P2O3 -> di-phosphorus + tri-oxide -> diphosphorus trioxide) Acidic Compounds (Hydrogen as Cation, always in aqueous solution (aq)) With ide ending: hydro-element-ic acid (hydrogen + chlorine -> hydrochloric acid) With ate ending: element-ic acid (hydrogen + carbonate -> carbonic acid) With ite ending: element-ous acid (hydrogen + sulphite -> sulphous acid) Hydrogen Compounds (a compound with hydrogen no in an aqueous solution) With a metal: cation + hydride (sodium + hydrogen -> sodium hydride) With a non-metal: hydrogen + element-ide (no prefixes) (hydrogen + chlorine -> hydrogen chloride)

Bonding
Ionic Bonding (metal + non-metal) Forms ions. Metal lose valence electron (cation), non-metal gains electrons(anion). Electrons are lost and gained, not shared. Non-conductors as solids because ion lattice does not have free electrons. Conductors while molten or in aqueous solution because electrons are now mobile. High melting point and boiling point because strong ionic bonding and lattice. Hard because ionic lattice does not allow easy scratching. Brittle because when the lattice slides over, the same charge ions repel each other and the lattice breaks off. Covalent Bonding (non-metal + non-metal) Forms molecules. Non-metals share electron. Strong intermolecular (in the molecule) forces. Can have single bonds, double bonds or triple bonds. Non-conductors at all times because they have no valence electrons. Low melting point and boiling points because the covalent bonds are not as strong as ionic bonds. Soft solids because the lattice is not very strong and so can be distorted. Intramolecular Forces such as the Covalent Bond is strong, stronger than the Intermolecular Forces.

Intermolecular Forces include: o Ion-Dipole is when a dipole (Polar Molecule) has its polar end attracted to an Ion. o Dipole-Dipole is when two dipole molecules polar ends attract. o Hydrogen Bond is when there is hydrogen in one molecule, and it is attracted to a Flourine, Oxygen, or Nitrogen atom in another molecule because of the high electronegativity difference. o London Dispersion Forces is when Non-Polar Molecules become Polar for a split second because of the electrons moving, and attracts another molecule for a split second. This is what causes the vibrations at the atomic level. The strength of bonds goes in Ionic>Ion-Dipole>Hydrogen>Dipole-Dipole>London Dispersion.

Metallic Bonds (Pure metals or alloys) All the valence electrons of the metallic elements form a sea of electrons which holds all the ions together. The smaller the metallic ion, the stronger the metallic bond because there is less the sea of electrons has to pull on. The more the amount of valence electrons, the stronger the metallic bond because there are more electrons in the sea of electrons to pull on the ions. Forms a uniform lattice with electrons delocalized and flowing freely though the lattice. Overall charge is zero. Very dense because the ions are packed together by the sea of electrons. High melting points because there are a lot of bonds to break in the sea of electrons. Malleability and ductility because the ions can just slide over each other and back into the sea of electrons. Shiny because the free electrons makes them excellent light reflectors. Network Solids (large structures of covalent bonds) Made up of covalent compounds that join together to form a giant structure. 2D networks make weak attractions between layers, and so it would be slippery or soft. 3D networks are really strong because of the interlinking covalent bonds and so have hard hardness and high melting points and boiling points because a lot of energy is require to break all the covalent bonds. Includes: o Allotropes (elements that exist in two or more different forms) of Carbon include Diamond, Coal, and Graphite. o Buckminster Fullerene o Quartz

Shapes and Polarity

Molecules form certain shapes. These shapes are described by the VSPER theory, which predicts molecular shape into 5 different shapes. These shapes have different characteristics, and can be categorized by the amount of electrons in bond pairs and lone pairs in the molecule. These shapes include: H Linear (2 electron groups, all bond pairs) Example: CO2 C-O-C | Trigonal Planar (3 electron groups, all bond pairs) Example: CH2O O=C-H Tetrahedral (4 electron groups, all bond pairs) Example: CH4 Pyramidal (4 electron groups, 3 bond pair and one lone pair) Example: NH3 Bent (4 electron groups, 2 bond pair and 2 lone pair) Example: H2O

Polarity is when a molecule has atoms that share electrons, but the electrons are not shared equally because one atom pulls on the electron more than the other, creating a polar covalent bond. Covalent bonds has two types, Polar Covalent Bond (where one atom pulls on electron more than other), and Pure Covalent Bond (where electrons are shared equally). How you can tell is by their electronegativity. If there is any difference in electronegativity, the bond is Polar, Pure Covalent Bonds only happen with 0 electronegativity difference. Molecules can also have polarity, although it is more complicated than just bonds. The basis is the same, if there is an electronegativity difference, there is something polar. But polarity on molecules can be cancelled out by their VSPER shapes: Linear can be Polar or Pure, if there is equal electronegativity on both ends, they cancel out and the molecule is Pure. If there is electronegativity difference then it is Polar. Trigonal Planar can be Polar or Pure, if there is equal electronegativity on all three ends, they cancel out and the molecule is Pure. If there is electronegativity difference in a single one of those three ends, the molecule is Polar. Tetrahedral can be Polar or Pure, if there is equal electronegativity on all ends, or two different same electronegativity on two ends, it is Pure. If there is an electronegativity difference in one, three, or four ends, it is Polar. Pyramidal is always Polar because the lone pair of electron throws off the electronegativity. Bent is always Polar because the lone pairs of electrons throws off the electronegativity.

Stoicheometry
Stoicheometry is the calculation of chemistry. There are a two numbers to know that are standardized and used throughout Stoicheometry. The Mole is 6.02x1023 of something. The amount of something at STP in gas form is 22.4L. The Mass Number on the periodic table is actually the mass of 1 mole of the element, or the molar mass. Naturally, compounds formed by these elements can have their molar mass obtained by totalling the molar mass of all the atoms in one molecule or formula unit. For example: Ca3(PO4)2 = 3 mole of Ca 40.08g x3 = 120.24g 2 mole of P 20.97g x2 = 61.94g 8 mole of O 16.00g x8 = 128.00g Total = 310.18g Molar Mass Conversion formulas: Starting with Mass: To moles: To molecules/formula units: To atoms: Starting with Molecules/Formula Units: To mass: To moles: To atoms: Starting with Atoms: To mass:

To moles: To molecules: Starting with Moles: To mass: To molecules: To atoms: Law of Combining Volumes when gases react, the volume of the reactants and the products measured at STP are always in whole number ratios. Percent Compositions the percent of a certain element by mass in a compound. This is done by: 1. Find the molar mass of the compound. 2. Find the mass of each part of the compound (multiple atoms of each element means multiplying the molar mass of the element by that amount). 3. Divide the mass of each part by the molar mass of the compound, and multiply by 100. Emperical Formula the simplest form of a Molecular formula, where the different elements are in lowest number ratios. It can be found from Percent Composition or Molecular Formulas. From Percent Composition: 1. Assume there is 100g of compound. 2. Multiply the percent composition of each element into the 100g to find the mass of each element. 3. Convert it to number of moles. 4. Now divide the number of moles of each element by the smallest number of moles of one element. The number you get is the amount of that element in the emperical formula. 5. If there are halves, multiply all values until all values are whole numbers. From Molecular Formulas: 1. Divide all amounts of elements in the Molecular Formula by the greatest common factor. Finding Molecular Formula from Emperical Formula: 1. Find the molar mass of the compound. 2. Find the molar mass of the Emperical Formula of that compound. 3. Multiply all amounts of elements in the Emperical Formula by that number. Mole to Mole Ratios and Balancing Equations: 1. Write out the reactants and products of a chemical reaction. 2. Balance the amount of each element on each side. This creates the mole to mole ratio. 3. Convert: Mass to Mole: Mole to Mass: Mass to Mass: Limiting Reactant: Sometimes chemical reactions do not have enough of one products, and so the entire reaction must stop because there is not enough of one product. These reactions always have a limiting reactant (the

reactant that is used up completely in the reaction and thus limiting the reaction), and an excess reactant (the reactant not used up). How you find which one is the limiting reactant is by: 1. Balance an equation with the reactants and products. 2. Calculate the amount of products each of the given amounts of reactants can make. 3. The reactant that creates the least amount of products is the limiting reactant. 4. The other reactants are the excess reactants. To find how much excess there is: 1. Once all the excess reactants have been identified, do the equation backwards. Using the amount of products produced by the limiting reactant, find out how much reactant is needed to create that amount. 2. Subtract the calculated amount of reactants needed from the given amounts, the difference is the excess. Percent Yield is the percentage comparison between the amount of products produce in an experiment and the amount of products that theoretically should be produced. The equation is:

There are several reasons why an experiments actual yield may be different from the theoretical yield: Inaccurate measurements or measuring equipment. Competing reactions. Contamination of reactants or equipment.

Organic Chemistry
Deals with compounds that are either organic or inorganic: Organic Compound contains both Carbon and Hydrogen. Inorganic Compound anything else. Condensed Structural Formula basically the drawing for covalent bonds but without the bond symbols. Molecular Formula a formula that tells the amount of each element in the compound. Straight Chains a chain of Carbon and Hydrogen without any branches. Branched a chain of Carbon and Hydrogen that has one or more branches off of it. Saturated an organic compound that has only single bonds. Unsaturated an organic compound that has one or more double or triple bond. Hydrocarbons an organic compound that contains only Hydrogen and Carbon. Isomers compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. Types and naming: Alkanes (single bonds only, contains CnH2n+2) (branch# - branchtype-ly prefix-ane) 1st carbon = the one that allows the branches to be lowest number possible chain = longest CH chain Alkenes (one double bond, contains CnH2n) (branch# - branchtype-ly doublebond# - prefix-ene) 1st carbon = the one that allows the double bond number to be lowest possible chain = the longest CH chain with the double bond in it Alkynes (one triple bond, contains CnH2n-2) (branch# - branchtype-ly triplebond# - prefix-yne)

1st carbon = the one that allows the triple bond number to be lowest possible chain = the longest CH chain with the triple bond in it Cycloalkanes (forms a loop of carbons with hydrogen or branches attached) (branch# - branchtype-ly cyclo-prefix-ane) branch# only required if there is more than one branch 1st carbon = wherever chain = the loop of carbon Benzene (alternating single and double bond carbon loop, C6H6) (branch# - branchtype-ly benzene) branch# only required if there is more than one branch 1st carbon = wherever chain = the loop of carbon Alcohol (chain with OH attached) (branch# - branchtype-ly OH# - prefix-anol) 1st carbon = the one that allows the OH# to be the lowest possible chain = the longest CH chain with OH attached but not in it Aldehydes (chain with HC=O on end) (branch# - branchtype-ly prefix-anal) 1st carbon = the one that the double bond oxygen is attached to on the end chain = the longest CH chain with COH on one end Ketones (chain with C=O in middle) (branch# - branchtype-ly C=O# - prefix-anone) 1st carbon = the one that allows the C=O# to be lowest possible chain = the longest CH chain with C=O in the chain Ether (chain with an oxygen in the middle) (branch# - branchtype-ly shortestsideprefix-ly branch#-branchtype-ly longestsideprefix-ly ether) 1st carbon = the one beside the oxygen chain = the longest CH chain with an oxygen in it Carboxylic Acid (chain with COOH on end) (branch# - branchtype-ly prefix-anoic acid) 1st carbon = the one with the double bond with oxygen and attached to the OH chain = the longest CH chain with COOH on the end Ester (chain with O=C-O in middle) (branch# - branchtype-ly Obranchprefix-ly branch# - branchtype-ly - =Obranchprefix-anoate 1st carbon = the one directly attached to the oxygen in the chain (not the double bond one), and the one directly attached to the double bond oxygen chain = the longest CH chain with O=C-O in it Prefixes: 1- Meth 2- Eth 3- Prop 4- But 5- Pent

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