RUNNINGHEAD: Opposing Opinions

Opposing Opinions and Behavior Modification Katherine M. Goodman Moiah Faulkner-Wheeler Queens University 0f Charlotte

Opposing Opinions

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH STUDY:

The research topic of college students and their reaction to an unfamiliar environment is a broad topic that yields little scientific conclusion and we wanted to create a study in which we will be able to quantitatively test the relationship between students and an opposing environment. We decided that the topic of politics was emotionally laden enough to provide the type of atmosphere that would facilitate a recognizable reaction if said reaction was applicable. The plausibility of a student being involved in a political conversation in which peers express opposing opinions is higher in an academic setting than most other places that facilitate discussion and we considered this to be an understood factor in regards to our sampling measurements. It has been suggested that if most people fear social isolation it is not isolation from some general amorphous public but only from specific groups to which they are attracted and want to belong (Lasorsa, 1991, p. 131). The theory, Spiral of Silence, also states that ones perception of the distribution of public opinion motivates ones willingness to express political opinions (Taylor, 2001, p. 311). Depending on ones surroundings, they may or may not express their beliefs or even their true beliefs. Fear of isolation is associated with one making neutral comments that do not state their opinion; acting as though one is clueless (playing dumb), lie, and just plainly avoid the conversation (Neuwirth, Frederick, & Mayo, 2007). Decisions to speak out can also be influenced by such factors as a persons knowledge about the topic, interest in political matters or public affairs, importance or salience of the topic to the person, confidence in the correctness of ones opinion, the extremity of ones opinion, communication apprehension and shyness, and the extent to which ones opinion is based on moral principle (Hayes, 2007, p. 786). College students who have opposing political opinions/beliefs to the majority of peers may be faced theoretically with circumstances that cause them to alter their normal communication behavior. This concept is known as the fear of isolation and is one of the key concepts within the Spiral of Silence theory. This theory was developed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann after observing German election opinion polls and the unforeseen outcome that transpired from the political race. Miller (2002) states that: Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion.

Opposing Opinions

The theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view. (p.172) Although the scholarly scope of this theory tends to focus on the mass medias relationship with opinion, we have directed the application of research purposes to the individual relationships maintained within a definitive area of demographic similarity; students for example. We can conclude that the fear of isolation is applicable on a scale capable of measurement by us through surveys of student populations located on the Queens University campus. The direct reaction of the students acknowledgement to the opposing opinion from peers and their decision to not involve themselves based on the fear that the groups reaction to minority opinion will inevitably cause judgment, seclusion, and isolation from your group. The hypotheses we are proposing will determine the actual likelihood of the students reaction to peer opposition.

LIT REVIEW
Spiral of Silence Theory crated by Elisabeth Noelle-Nueman states the term spiral of silence refers to the increasing pressure people feel to conceal their views when they think they are in the minority (NoelleNueman 372). This theory is the basis behind the study being quantitatively discussed as to the findings derived through survey research analysis. The foundation on which this theory was built upon is the idea of propaganda and more particularly the propaganda surrounding Nazi Germany and Hitlers time in power. Noelle-Nueman was well aware of the level of exposure that people were being subjected to. Quasi-statical organ is a sixth sense that tallies up information about what society in general is thinking and feeling (Noelle-Nueman, 373) and by observing how the Nazi propaganda machine was able to do exactly what is set out to do, create a conformist society, she used these observations to initiate the now labeled spiral of silence theory of communication.

Opposing Opinions

Hard core nonconformist are those who have been overpowered and relegated to a completely defensive position in public (Noelle-Nueman, 379). This initial label that is associated with the theorem was developed as a way to describe not only the differences of how personal perception can create reality no matter what the surroundings but also to distinguish how extreme the reactionary comprehension of individuals can vary. Much empirical evidence supports Noelle-Neumann's belief that people may be so affected by their perception of what others thinks of a message that they feel pressured to conceal their real opinion. In the presence of a hostile climate of opinion, one may very well be hesitant to speak out, as Noelle-Neumann repeatedly has shown. (Lasora 132). The application of Noelle-Neumanns theory will be focused in the same manner as the research described here by Lasora. The research that is going to be discussed will be based upon measurements of political ideology and how college students face with new social surrounds could be faced with opposing opinions to that of their own. We are looking to quantitatively measure whether or not those individuals engage in behavior modification and to what degree. The most extreme measures that one can take when in the minority especially within a peer group and that is the theory known as the bandwagon effect. Train test: a question about conversation with a stranger while traveling used to determine whether people are willing to speak out in a support of their viewpoint (Noelle-Nueman pg 376) The train/plane test reveals a series of factors that determine the likelihood that people will voice their opinions.(Noelle-Nueman pg 376) Noelle-Neumann now describes two types of individuals who form this vocal minority that remains at the top of the spiral in defiance of threats of isolation. She calls them the hard core and the avant-garde NoelleNueman (pg 379) The avant-garde are the intellectuals, artist, and reformers who form the vanguard of new ideas. Unlike the hard core, they seek public response, even though its usually negative. (Noelle-Nueman pg 379)

Opposing Opinions

Communication theories: perspectives, processes and contexts Katherine Miller Noelle-Nuemann sees the spiral of silence theory as an all-encompassing theory of public opinion that connects disparate processes of social psychology, interpersonal communication, and mass media Perceived support for ones opinions and willingness to speak out: carroll J. Glynn Individuals base their perceptions of majority opinion on cues from the environment. Therefore, those opinions having the most visible (vocal) adherents may appear to an observer to be more widely held than may actually be the case. (Glynn 453) Fear of Social Isolation: Pamela J. Shoemaker Taylor specifies the theory as consisting of four variables at two or more time periods: (1) individuals opinion, (2) individuals perception of predominant opinion, (3) individuals assessment of future trend concerning the opinion, and (4) individualswillingness to express her/his opinion public. (Shoemaker 65) Willingness to speak Exploring the forms of Self-Censorship: Andrew Hayes According to spiral of silence theory, using their quasi-statistical sense, people perceive which opinions are popular or gaining favor and which are unpopular or losing favor among the public (Hayes 785) But decisions to speak out can also be inuenced by such factors as a persons knowledge about the topic interest in political matters or public affairs , importance or salience of the topic to the person, condence in the correctness of ones opinion, the extremity of ones opinion, communication apprehension and shyness, and the extent to which ones opinion is based on moral principle. (Hayes 786) Most researchers have tested the theory in a social context by ascertaining a persons willingness to voice an opinion or enter a conversation as a function of information about the climate of opinion on that topic (Hayes 786)

Opposing Opinions

Willingness to enter a discussion with the passenger was used as a measure of opinion expression, and responses to this question were examined vis-a`-vis the persons perception of the climate of opinion on the topic (Hayes 787) Others have examined willingness to enter a conversation in the context of a group discussion at some kind of social gathering or while sitting in a waiting room. And some investigators have presented a hypothetical discussion situation to respondents without precisely specifying the context (Hayes 787) Another common operationalization of willingness to speak out is asking participants how willing they would be to express their opinion rather than enter a conversation. (Hayes 788) If the goal is to examine predictors of opinion expression, it is best to directly ask respondents how willing they would be to express their opinion rather than merely engage in a conversation or enter a discussion, as this is the behavior that spiral of silence theory addresses. (Hayes 788)

Perceived support for ones opinions and willingness to speak out: carroll J. Glynn The correlation between perceptions of opinion support and willingness to speak out was positive (Glynn 451) Political Outspokeness: Dominic L. Lasorsa One factor that might lead one to speak out in the face of a hostile climate of opinion is one's conviction that one's position is correct. (Larosa 132) The obtrusiveness of the issue could also affect one's willingness to speak out but instead of weakening the effect it should intensify it: the more directly involved one is with the issue the more likely one will be motivated to speak out on it (Larosa 133)

Opposing Opinions

It has been suggested that the climate of opinion affects outspokenness only with issues that have a distinct "moral" dimension (Larosa 133-134) Noelle-Neumann contends that people will eschew what they know is the "right" thing to do in favor of what they think is the "good" thing to do, the good thing being defined here as that which does not isolate one socially (Larosa 134) General political interest also may affect one's willingness to take a stand on an issue in a hostile environment. As Noelle-Neumann said in her seminal piece on the spiral of silence theory: We now have to examine whether the greater willingness for discussion among [those who agree with the opinion climate] is due to a more pronounced political interest. The question is answered in Table 3. The tendency to talk among the winning faction and the tendency to be silent among the losing faction is evident both among those who are politically interested and among those who are not. (Larosa 134) These findings, and especially the last one, suggest that factors other than demographic status and the climate of opinion can play a significant role in political outspokenness. Those interested in politics (and attentive to political news) tend to speak out, regardless of the climate of opinion. (Larosa 140) Opinion Expression Avoidance Exploring the forms of Self-Censorship: Andrew Hayes According to spiral of silence theory, if you are not confident that the opinion climate is friendly to your position you might feel uncomfortable providing your opinion and perhaps you would even refrain from doing so (Hayes 788) In order to avoid threatening our own or our interaction partners face, we prefer interactions that minimize disagreement, and if we do disagree, we may choose to express our opinions by hedging them or expressing them in such a way that our interaction partners are able to maintain face or by shifting the topic to other matters. (Hayes 789)

Opposing Opinions

For instance, you could conform by presenting an opinion you do not actually hold but that you know your interaction partner will smile upon. Or you might try to dodge the question somehow, perhaps by changing the subject in some fashion. Or you could talk about someone elses opinion rather than your own. An alternative approach might be to express ambivalence or lack of opinion, such as claiming that such things do not matter much to you so you have not really thought about it or that you have mixed feelings and are not sure what you think (Hayes 789) The most frequent strategy reported was to pretend that one did not have an opinion or plead ignorance about the topic being discussed. (Hayes 791) The most likely avoidance strategy reported was reecting the question, followed by expressing uncertainty or ambivalence, expressing indifference, talking about someone elses opinion, and changing the topic of discussion. The least preferred options were walking away from the group, saying nothing, and pretending to agree. (Hayes 794) opinion expression avoidance was judged a more likely response when the opinion climate was hostile compared to when friendly, with walking away from the discussion and attempting to change the topic most influenced by the climate of opinion (Hayes 796) Participants reported a greater likelihood of using various opinion expression avoidance strategies around an audience thought to be hostile to that opinion. (Hayes 796) is generally accepted that perceptions of the climate of opinion on a topic can affect a persons willingness to converse about that topic with others or publicly express their opinion. This study also illustrates that the climate of opinion can prompt various opinion expression avoidance behaviors. But again, the climate of opinion had a relatively small effect on the use of expression avoidance strategies, (Hayes 798) Fear of Isolation Political outspokenness: Dominic L. Lasora

Opposing Opinions

it has been suggested that if most people fear social isolation it is not isolation from some general amorphous public but only from specific groups to which they are attracted and want to belong (Larosa 131) The Spiral of Silence and Fear of isolation: Kurt Neuwirth NoelleNeumann defines public opinion variously as opinion which can be voiced in public without fear of sanctions, controversial opinions one is able to express in public without becoming isolated, as opinions in the sphere of controversy that one can express in public without isolating oneself., and more recently, .an opinion in value-laden areas that can be voiced in public without fear of sanctions and upon which actions can be based in public. (Neuwirth 451) It should be clear that the term public opinion refers not just to opinion, but also to behavior.. (Neuwirth 451) we can see that fear of isolation is a psychological variable representing a negative emotional state associated with the prospect of voicing ones opinion about a given topic (Neuwirth 452) fear of isolation is based not on an underlying supposition of static individual differences, dispositions or traits, but rather relies on an explanation grounded in the assumption that transitory mental conditions or states lead to the production or avoidance of particular communication behaviors in a delimited sphere of discourse. (Neuwirth 452) Given the opportunity to express an opinion, people do so by factoring in expectations about likely outcomes based on (a) their past history of interactions (reected in traits), (b) the fear engendered by the controversy surrounding the issue itself, and (c) more immediate situational factors associated with the particular and unique circumstances of speaking out(Neuwirth 452) Efficacy (sometimes referred to as response efficacy) entails the belief that performing a particular behavior will achieve a desired outcome Considering efcacy is important because efcacy serves as an alternative explanation to fear of isolation as a reason for falling silent (Neuwirth 454)

Opposing Opinions

10

fear of isolation is signicantly linked to avoidance strategies such as lying, making neutral comments but not revealing ones true belief, saying nothing, and general (i.e., lying and neutral comments combined) Avoidance. (Neuwirth 459) perceptions of prevailing opinion and each sides strength would show a connection with intention to speak out (Neuwirth 462) Efficacythe belief that ones actions will have an intended effectwas expected to show a positive relationship with willingness to speak out (Neuwirth 462) The results of this study strongly suggest that it is not sufcient to conceptualize not speaking out as the converse of speaking out. Not speaking out has distinct predictors and clearly is multidimensional in the sense that people can fall silent or they can engage in verbal behaviors (lying and neutral comments) that are designed to deceive their interlocutor. This suggests that previous research, which has used speaking out a main criterion variable, may be, if not epiphenomenal, then certainly incomplete. (Neuwirth 464) Fear of Social Isolation: Pamela J. Shoemaker Our social nature causes us to fear separation and isolation from our fellows and to want to be respected and liked by them (Shoemaker 66) In her early studies, Noelle-Neumann (1977) defines public opinion as pressure to conform, and her theorys first two theses demonstrate the role that fear of isolation plans in the Spiral of Silence. 1. As social beings, most people are afraid of becoming isolated from their environment. They would like to be popular and respected. 2. In order to avoid becoming isolated and in order not to lose popularity and esteem, people constantly observe their environment very closely. They try to find out which opinions and modes of behavior are prevalent, and which opinions and modes of behavior are becoming more popular. They behave and express themselves accordingly in public (Shoemaker 67)

Opposing Opinions

11

when studying fear of isolation as a variable, we must distinguish between its effects on opinions held and its effects on willingness to express opinions (Shoemaker 67) Fear of negative evaluation is negatively related to the individuals own opinion. The individuals perception of the predominant opinion is positively related to willingness to voice an opinion, even if it is in the minority. (Shoemaker 71) The conformity hypothesis: William J. Gonzenbach Noelle-Neumann argues that to avoid social isolation individuals constantly scan the information environment, attempting to determine evidence that their personal opinion is shared or not shared - by the majority of people (Gonzenbach 633) Conformity Influence without reason: Elizabeth Suhay Experimental studies support this notion, showing that people who identify more closely with a group than others are more likely to be influenced by it (Suhay 6) In general, peers provide the individual with helpful social reality tests when they indicate whether they agree with the individuals point of view. The people with whom one identifies provide the best social reality tests: The perceived, expected or believed agreement of similar others in the same situation implies that our behavior is a function of the objective world. Agreeing with in-group members generates subjective validity, the perception of truth; disagreeing with them generates subjective invalidity, the perception of falsehood. Agreeing with out-group members, however, generates subjective invalidity (Suhay7) Noelle-Neuman (1993) argues that political minorities are less likely than others to voice their opinions due to social discomfort and embarrassment, and Gerber, Green, and Larimer (2008, 2010) and Panagopoulos

Opposing Opinions

12

(2010) argue that the desire to feel pride and avoid embarrassment or shame motivates citizens to conform to voting norms in their communities (Suhay 8-9) Overall, the findings suggest that the self-conscious emotions pride and embarrassment play an important role in increasing individuals susceptibility to social influence by peers (Suhay 23) Individuals feel pride when they conform; this prideful reaction reinforces and strengthens opinions that reflect the group. On the other hand, individuals feel embarrassment or shame when they deviate from group norms; this shameful reaction weakens opinions that are out of step with the group. (Suhay 24) The conformity hypothesis: William J. Gonzenbach An individuals fear isolation from the majority and thus conform to what they perceive to be the dominant opinion. (Gonzenbach 633) Noelle-Neumann argues that the source of conformity is fear off isolation, claiming that the unambiguous nature of the stimuli in the Asch experiment rules out the effect of learning and supports the effect of fear of isolation (Gonzenbach 634)

VARIABLES OF MEASUREMENT
RESEARCH QUESTION: Do college students who have opposing political ideologies to fellow peers alter their communication behaviors and social interactions? INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Holding opposing political ideologies Operational Definition: Opposing political ideology will be measured by a 5 point Likert scale that will establish the participants perception of opposing political ideology Conceptual Definition: Opposing political ideologies is when the a student political ideology differs from their peers DEPENDENT VARIABLE: The altered behaviors and their social interactions.

Opposing Opinions

13

Operational Definition: A 5 point Likert scale that will determine and illustrate the alterations in communication behaviors and social interactions.

Conceptual Definition: An alteration in communication behavior will be defined as a change to the students' day-to-day behaviors as a form of communication.

HYPOTHESIS 1: Students who receive little or no support of their political ideas from their peers are less willing to express their opposing opinions to their peers. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Receiving support from their peers with regard to their political ideology Operational Definition: 5 point Likert scale that will determine if the participant feels as if they receive support of their political ideology Conceptual Definition: received support will be defined by an individual perceives that their opinion will be favored by or consistent with the vast majority. DEPENDENT VARIABLE: The willingness to express Operational Definition: By ta 5 point Likert scaled that will measure the willingness of the participant to enter a conversation with conflicting opinions. Conceptual Definition: Willingness will be defined as whether the individual is willing to have or enter an open conversation expressing their true opinions.

HYPOTHESIS 2: College students who affiliate themselves with social circles that express opposition toward their personally preestablished political constructs are more prone to assimilate, succumbing to the bandwagon effect. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Affiliation themselves with social circles that express oppositions toward their pre-established political construct

Opposing Opinions

14

Operational Definition: This will be measured with a 5 point Likert scale that will establish the participants perception of opposition in social arenas and will quantitatively measure their reaction to conflict.

Conceptual Definition: Opposition is identified as the conflict created by majority opinion of the social group members in contrast to the beliefs being measured in response.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Assimilate among peers, succumbing to the band wagon effect Operational Definition: 5 point Likert scale will be used to identify levels of assimilation the student would engage in when responding to paralleling social situations that present a conflict of antagonistic manner from peers. Conceptual Definition: The theoretical concept of group-think is a fundamental comparable to the definitive identification of the terminology being used for measurement and will be used in relation to the social constructs surrounding the confrontational dialect that leads one to reluctantly conform.

HYPOTHESIS 3: A college students fear of isolation from peers is has an impact in the decision to engage in opinion expression avoidance. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Fear of isolation from the peers Operational Definition: This will be measured by a 5 point Likert scale that illustrate when a student fears isolation. Conceptual Definition: Fear of isolation is defined by a psychological variable representing a negative emotional state associated with the prospect of voicing ones opinion about a given topic (Neuwirth, Frederick, & Mayo, 2007, p. 452). DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Decision to engage in opinion expression avoidance

Opposing Opinions

15

Operational Definition: A 5 point Likert scale that will demonstrate the student lack of expression of their opinion and what actions they would or would not conduct.

Conceptual Definition: Decision to engage in expression avoidance will be defined by lying, making neutral comments but not revealing their true beliefs, saying nothing, and/or general avoidance.

METHODOLOGY
A face to face survey (with closed ended questions) of Queens University of Charlotte students18 years and older was conducted on the Queens University of Charlottes campus. The surveys were completed in various locations on this campus. These locations includes South housing dorm, the library, McEwen Building, and the Walker Science building. The surveys sample was non-probability and was completely based of volunteer and convenient respondents. The survey itself consisted of

Likert Scale: used uniformly throughout questionnaire Same rating Same measurement Better analysis

Rating scale: Strongly agree (1) --- agree (2) --- neutral (3) --- disagree (4) ---- strongly disagree (5)

Opposing Opinions

16

QUESTIONAIRE
Research Question:
I.V.: Holding Opposing Political Ideologies 1. My peers hold different political opinions from my own. 2. My peers are aware of my opposing political opinions. 3. I feel like my peers are judging me when I share my opposing political beliefs. 4. I feel that judgment is unavoidable when sharing a belief that is different from anothers opinion. D.V.: Altered Behaviors and Their Social Interactions 1. I tend to express myself differently around different groups of people. 2. I pay attention to what people are talking about and what their opinions are before I join in the conversation. 3. I notice myself not speaking up like I used to when confronted with opposing ideologies. 4. There are people in my social circle that I consider a good friend that have opposing political ideologies than mine. 5. I have found myself changing the subject of conversation when a topic seems to be politically motivated in opposition of my beliefs.

Hypothesis 1:
I.V.: Receiving support from their peers in regard to their political ideology 1. My political opinion is accepted amongst my peers. 2. I do not feel discomfort when discussing my political ideology with my peers 3. I feel support for my political beliefs from my peers 4. My peers share similar political opinions to mine. D.V.: The Willingness to Express 1. If I was at a social gathering where people were discussing politics and expressing view that differ from mine own, I would feel less willing to share

Opposing Opinions

17

2. If I was directly asked to share my opinion about politics amongst a group that had opposing opinions, I would most likely not share. 3. I would not fully express my opinion when having a conversation with a peer that has expressed opposing ideals to my own. 4. Any statement that doesnt agree with my beliefs scares me.

Hypothesis 2:
I.V.: Affiliating themselves with social circles that express oposition towards Pre-Established Political Constructs (1) Any statement that doesnt agree with my beliefs makes me feel threatened (2) Communication environments that are unfamiliar to my belief system means they are going to oppose my participation (3) when I am surrounded by people with opposing point of views and it doesnt bother me (4) Opposition scares me

D.V.: Assimilation among Peers, Succumbing to the Band Wagon Effect 1. I would lie about my personal beliefs if my peers who having opposing opinions confronted me with a question based on politics in order to prevent conflict in the group 2. No matter how passionate I am about a political issue, if my friends think differently I will not speak up 3. My opinions about political issues come second to my acceptance within my peer group. 4. My personal opinion about people can be changed if I learn that they hold strong opinions about politics that I do not agree with 5. I would be willing to forego my personal beliefs in order to appease my social circle of peers.

Hypothesis 3:
I.V.: The complete scale as developed by Watson & Friend (1969) based on fear of isolation testing 1. I worry about what people will think of me even when I know that their opinion shouldnt matter 2. I get anxious when I feel like people are sizing me up 3. Other peoples opinions of me are important to my self esteem 4. I worry that people who are important to me might judge me if I disagree with them. D.V: Decision to engage in opinion expression avoidance When confronted with opinions that are different from my own I will:

Opposing Opinions

18

1. Change the topic 2. Leave the situation 3. Stay Silent 4. Express indifference 5. Pretend I agree DEMOGRAPHICS Gender : Age Male Female

______ Sophomore Commuter Hayworth Graduate Junior Senior

Academic year: Freshman Residence: On-campus Type of student:

Traditional

Major/Minor _____________ Student Athlete (if so, what sport) _________

Do you have a profession you are aiming for? Yes No If so, please specify? ___________________ Where are you from? __________________ Academic setting before college (high school): Who raised you growing up? Parents Public Private Home-schooled Guardian other

Single-parent No

Grandparents

Are you politically affiliated? Yes Do you vote? Yes No

Did you vote for the 2012 Presidential Election?

Yes

No

What party best represents how you define yourself politically? Democrat Republican Libertarian Independent Green Other (Please specify) _________________

Opposing Opinions

19

REFERENCES
Baldassarri, D., & Bearman, P. (2007). Dynamics of Political Polarization. American 72(5), 784-811. Dalisay, F. S. (2012). The Spiral of Silence and Conflict Avoidance: Examining Antecedents of Opinion Expression Concerning the U.S. Military Buildup in the Pacific Island of Guam. Communication Quarterly, 60(4), 481-503. doi:10.1080/01463373.2012.704567 Sociological Review,

Opposing Opinions

20

Dalisay, F., Hmielowski, J. D., Kushin, M., & Yamamoto, M. (2012). Social Capital and the Silence. International Journal Of Public Opinion Research, 24(3), 325-345 Edelstein, A. S. (1962). SINCE BENNINGTON: EVIDENCE OF CHANGE IN STUDENT POLITICAL BEHAVIOR. Public Opinion Quarterly, 26(4), 564-577. Glynn, C. J., Hayes, A. F., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Perceived support for one's opinions and speak out. Public Opinion Quarterly, 61(3), 452. Gonzenbach, W. J. (1992). THE CONFORMITY HYPOTHESIS: EMPIRICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SPIRAL OF SILENCE'S FIRST LINK. Journalism 69(3), 633-645 Hayes, A. F. (2007). Exploring the Forms of Self-Censorship: On the Spiral of Silence and the Opinion Expression Avoidance Strategies. Journal Of Communication, 57(4), doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00368.x Hayes, A. F., Shanahan, J., & Glynn, C. J. (2001). Willingness to Express one's Opinion in a Realistic Situation as a Function of Perceived Support for That Opinion. International Public Opinion Research, 13(1), 45-58. Jeffres, L. W., Neuendorf, K. A., & Atkin, D. (1999). Spirals of Silence: Expressing Opinions Climate of Opinion Is Unambiguous. Political Communication, 16(2), 115-131. doi:10.1080/105846099198686 Lasorsa, D. L. (1991). Political Outspokenness: Factors Working Against the Spiral of Silence. Quarterly, 68(1/2), 131-140. Miller, D. T., & Morrison, K. (2009). Expressing deviant opinions: Believing you are in the Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 740-747.

Spiral of

willingness to

Quarterly,

Use of

785-802.

Journal Of

When the

Journalism

majority helps.

doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.008

Opposing Opinions

21

Morrison, K., & Miller, D. T. (2008). Distinguishing between silent and vocal minorities: Not all deviants feel marginal. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 94(5), 871-882. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.871 Navazio, R. (1977). An Experimental Approach to Bandwagon Research. Public Opinion 41(2), 217-225. Neuwirth, K., Frederick, E., & Mayo, C. (2007). The Spiral of Silence and Fear of Isolation. Communication, 57(3), 450-468. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00352.x Scherer, H., & Tiele, A. (2008). No Silence - No Spiral? Public Expression of Opinion Tested in a Realistic Setting. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-17. Shanahan, J., Scheufele, D., Fang, Y., & Hizi, S. (2004). Cultivation and Spiral of Silence Case of Smoking. Mass Communication & Society, 7(4), 413-428. Taylor, D. (1982). Pluralistic Ignorance and the Spiral of Silence: A Formal Analysis. Public Quarterly, 46(3), 311-335. Opinion Effects: The Journal Of Quarterly,