Thermodynamics

Review
Chapters 1-6

What is Thermodynamics?
Science of Energy!

Why do we care about Thermodynamics?

It tells us the energy balance of a system
Eciency of an engine How well insulaEon in a house works How many calories you need to burn to lose a pound

Laws of Thermodynamics
Zero-th the original two bodies are also in equilibrium First
If two bodies are in equilibrium with a third body, Energy cannot be created or destroyed during a process, it can only change forms The entropy of an isolated system never decreases AND Heat always moves from an area of higher temperature to an area of lower temperature
Kelvin-Plank statement, Clausius statement, Carnot principles

Second

Third

The entropy of a system of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero

Energy, energy, energy . . . (chapter 2)

Total energy of a system is dened as: And conservaEon of energy tells us: Therefore the change in total energy of a system has to equal the change in internal, kineEc, and potenEal energy

! = U + KE + PE!

Transfer of Energy
In order for energy of a system to change, energy must be transferred across the boundaries of the system 3 forms:

Heat, Work, and Mass Flow

Open and Closed Systems

Only Open Systems

! = Q + W + !!"## !

Work and Heat

(-) Win (+) Wout System Qin (+) Qout (-)

Standard Sign ConvenEon (+) Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system (-) Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system Work done by a system this energy must come out of the system Work done on a system the energy is transferred to the system

Easier ConvenEon Use in and out Assume a direcEon and if the sign is negaEve, ip it!

What have we learned so far?

The change in the total energy of a system during a process is the sum of the changes in its internal, kineEc, and potenEal energies

The energy transfer of a system during a process is equal to the sum of the heat, work, and mass ow that crosses the boundaries of a system during a process

This means the change in energy of a system must also equal the energy transferred across its boundaries!

Example
An escalator in a shopping center is designed to move 30 people, 75 kg each, at a constant speed of 0.8 m/s at a slope of 45. Determine the minimum power input needed to drive the escalator. 12.5 kW

Mechanical Energy
The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device (i.e. an ideal pump or turbine) Related to uid ow

The pressure changes from the machines being used to move the uid through the system
PotenEal Energy KineEc Energy

Flow Energy

Mechanical Energy
Rate of Mechanical Energy Rate of Work (Power) work done per unit Bme (J/s)
*The amount of work it takes to move the uid must be equal to the change in the mechanical energy of the uid. If the uid isnt moving, then there is no work from the pump and also no energy change.

Example
A fan is to accelerate quiescent air to a velocity of 8 m/s at a rate of 9 m3/s. Determine the minimum power that must be supplied to the fan if the density of air is 1.18 kg/m3. 340 W

Pure Substances (chapter 3)

What happens to substances as energy is transferred?
They can change phases!

Solid

Liquid

Vapor

Lets look at the process of boiling water . . .

Water at room temperature is known as a:
Compressed Liquid - A liquid that is not about to vaporize

Water at 1 atm and 100C is known as:

Saturated Liquid - A liquid that is about to vaporize

AcEvely boiling water is known as:

Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture - A substance where liquid and vapor coexist

Lets look at the process of boiling water . . .

Steam at the moment when the last drop of liquid is vaporized is known as:
Saturated Vapor - A vapor that is about to condense

Steam well above the transiEon temperature (at 1 atm this is 100C) is known as:
Superheated Vapor - A vapor that is not about to condense

SaturaEon Temperature and Pressure

True or False: Water boils at 100 C?
Incomplete Statement

The temperature at which water boils is dependent on the pressure. If the pressure is xed than the water will always boil at a certain temperature. True or False: Water boils at 100 C and 1 atm? TRUE

SaturaEon Temperature and Pressure

At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phases is known as the saturaEon temperature And at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phases is called the saturaEon pressure

Who doesnt love property tables??? Example: You have a water at a temperature of 80C and a pressure of 60 kPa. What phase is the water in?
Compressed Liquid

Who doesnt love property tables??? Example: You have saturated vapor water at a temperature of 115C. What is the specic volume?
1.0360 m3/kg

Who doesnt love property tables??? Example: You have superheated water at pressure of 0.3 MPa and temperature of 225C. What is the internal energy of the water?
2689.95 kJ/kg
Remember interpolaEon!!!

x x0 y = y0 + ( y1 y0 ) x1 x0

Who doesnt love property tables??? Example: You have water at 250 kPa and an entropy of 6.8 kJ/kg*K. What is the quality of the water?
x = 0.954
Remember that for saturated mixes:

yavg = y f + xy fg

Closed Systems (chapter 4)

What is the biggest dierence between a closed and open system? Mass cant move across boundaries in a closed system What can change in a closed system? Almost everything else: T, P, V, Q, W, etc.

Moving Boundary Work

Most common example of a closed system is a piston
2

Wb =

P dV
1

Moving Boundary Work Process

A piston with a repeaEng path will have a cycle. The area within the cycle shows the net work.

The area under the process path represents the boundary work.

Example
A fricEonless piston-cylinder device iniEally c o n t a i n s 5 0 L o f s a t u r a t e d l i q u i d refrigerant-134a. The piston is free to move, and its mass is such that it maintains a pressure of 500 kPa on the refrigerant. The refrigerant is now heated unEl its temperature rises to 70 C. Calculate the work done during this process. Wb = 1600 kJ

Energy Balance of a Closed System

Remember from chapter 2: Ein Eout = Etotal For closed systems we have no mass ow therefore:

Q W = Esystem

where

Q = Qnet,in = Qin Qout W = Wnet,out = Wout Win

Example
A mass of 15 kg of air in a piston-cylinder device is heated from 25 to 77C by passing current through a resistance heater inside the cylinder. The pressure inside the cylinder is held constant at 300 kPa during the process, and a heat loss of 60 kJ occurs. Determine the electric energy supplied in kJ. We = 845 kJ

Enthalpy (h or H)
Is a combinaEon property of internal energy and pressure x volume

This combinaEon of properEes was used so oren it became a property of its own The enthalpy of vaporizaEon is the amount of energy need to vaporize a unit of mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure
Denoted by hfg

h = u + Pv H = U + PV

Open Systems (chapter 5)

What do we have to be concerned about in an open system that we dont consider in a closed system?
Mass transfer across the boundaries
Where our rate of energy transport ow is:

! V2 $ mass = m = m #h + E + gz & 2 " %

Energy Analysis Steady Flow

Heat, work and mass ow must all balance
" V2 % " V2 % $h + $h + Qin + Win + m + gz ' = Qout + Wout + m + gz ' 2 2 # & # & in out

Hot water heater

Steady Flow Devices

Nozzles Diusers Turbines Compressors Throsling Valves Mixing Chambers Heat Exchangers

Example
Steam enters a nozzle at 400C and 800 kPa with a velocity of 10 m/s, and leaves at 300C and 200 kPa while losing heat at a rate of 25 kW. For an inlet area of 800 cm2, determine the velocity and the volume ow rate of the steam at the nozzle exit.
606 m/s and 2.74 m3/s

Example
An adiabaEc gas turbine expands air at 1300 kPa and 500C to 100 kPa and 127C. Air enters the turbine through a 0.2 m2 opening with an average velocity of 40 m/s, and exhausts through a 1 m2 opening. Determine the mass ow rate of air through the turbine and the power produced by the turbine.
46.9 kg/s and 18.3 MW

Specic Heats
If we have a staEonary, closed system:

E = U

So the change in temperature and U are related, through specic heat: h " u "

Cv =

$ T #v

Cp =

$ T # p

*note that these hold for any process, even if they are not constant volume or pressure, that was just how they were originally calculated

nd 2 Law of Thermo (chapter 6)

The deniEon of the 2nd law is not limited to a single statement, and many deniEons are presented based on the case they are describing In general the 2nd law describes whether or not a thermodynamic process is possible
Quality of a process Uses entropy (s) Looks at eciencies of a system

nd 2 Law of Thermo

QuanEes the level of perfecEon in a system, allowing for the discovery of ineciencies We can look at the eciencies or performance of devices
Heat engines Refrigerators Heat pumps

Thermal Eciency
What is thermal eciency?
How eciently is heat transferred to work - usually in regard to a heat engine Thermal Eciency = Net Work Output/Total Heat Input

Wnet. out th = Qin

or

Qout th = 1 Qin

Thermal Eciency
Oren the heat transfer of a cyclic device is heat in from a high-temp medium and heat out to a low- temp medium. When this is the case Q can be described as: QH = magnitude of heat transfer between cyclic device and the high-temp medium at TH (source) QL = magnitude of heat transfer between cyclic device and the low-temp medium at TL (sink)

Wnet. out th = QH

or

QL th = 1 QH

Example
A steam power plant with a power output of 150 MW consumes coal at a rate of 60 kg/h. If the heaEng value of the coal is 30,000 kJ/kg, determine the overall eciency of this plant.
30.0%

Refrigerators
Eciency of refrigerators is called coecient of performance (COPR) This is measured by the amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space over the amount of work required to do so

QL COPR = Wnet,in

or

1 COPR = QH / QL 1

Heat Pumps
Eciency of a heat pump is also dened through the coecient of performance (COPHP)

QH COPHP = Wnet,in

or

1 COPHP = QL / QH 1

*NOTE

COPHP = COPR + 1

Example
A household refrigerator with a COP of 1.2 removes heat from the refrigerated space at a rate of 60 kJ/min. Determine the electric power consumed by the refrigerator, and the rate of heat transferred to the kitchen air.
0.83 kW and 110 kJ/min

The Carnot Cycle

A very well known reversible cycle for heat engines Describes the ideal process that is based on four separate reversible processes

The Carnot Heat Engine

A hypotheEcal heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine For a Carnot heat engine the raEo of the heat transferred to and from the engine is equal to the raEo of the temperatures of the high- temp source and low-temp sink TL QL th = 1 th = 1 TH QH
NOTE: Temperature must be in K!

Carnot Eciency
The Carnot eciency is the highest eciency a heat engine operaEng between the two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures TL and TH
TL th = 1 TH
Lets say you have engine X: If x = th the engine is reversible If x < th the engine is irreversible If x > th the engine is impossible

The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

A Carnot refrigerator or heat pump operates on a reverse Carnot cycle The same heat transfer and temperature raEos hold for the COPs
1 COPR = QH / QL 1
1 COPHP = 1 QL / QH

1 COPR = TH / TL 1
1 1 TL / TH

COPHP =

The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

The Carnot COP represents the highest level of performance by a refrigerator or a heat pump 1 COPR = TH / TL 1 Lets say you have refrigerator X: If COPx = COPR,rev the fridge is reversible If COPx < COPR,rev the fridge is irreversible If COPx > COPR,rev h the fridge is impossible