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Fig. 3.2. Bulk generation of solid waste materials in 1992 (white columns) and 2000 (gray columns) for a range of countries with
different levels of industrial development and standard of living
Some of the primary reasons for the large differences in the observed rates of waste
generation are that in low-income areas less recyclable materials are let go to waste and
greater amounts materials are recycled directly. In poor areas for instance residential food
waste are often used for feeding pigs and chicken kept on the premises. Another reason is
that in low-income areas the waste collection system is often not fully developed or
nonexistent due to poor infra structure such as lack of roads, poor technology and lack of
economic funds. Therefore less waste materials are collected and accounted for, these
materials are instead disposed of by other means for instance by recycling, burning, home
composting, or illegal dumping. This also means that the potential amount of solid waste
materials generated in developing countries can be significantly higher than what is shown
in Fig.3.2. The implementation of a better waste collection system will therefore result in
increased waste generation rates. In developed countries with a well-structured waste
collection system the observed waste generation rates more closely resembles the true
amounts of materials generated.
3.5. Wastewater Constituents
The physical, chemical and biological constituents found in wastewater and the
constituents of concern in wastewater are introduced briefly in the following discussion.
3.5.1. Constituents Found in Wastewater
Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological
composition. The principal physical properties and the chemical and biological constituents
of wastewater, and their sources, are reported in Table 3.3. It should be noted that many of
the physical properties and chemical and biological characteristics listed in Table 3.1 are
interrelated. For example, temperature, a physical property, affects both the amounts of gases
dissolved in the wastewater and the biological activity in the wastewater.
3.5.2.Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment
The important constituents of concern in wastewater treatment are listed in Table 3.4.
Secondary treatment standards for wastewater are concerned with the removal of
biodegradable organics, total suspended solids, and pathogens. Many of the more stringent
standards that have been developed recently deal with the removal of nutrients, heavy metals,
and priority pollutants. When wastewater is to be reused, standards normally include
additional requirements for the removal of refractory organics, heavy metals and in some
cases, dissolved inorganic solids.
3.6. Sampling And Analytical Procedures
Proper sampling and analytical techniques are of fundamental importance in the
characterization of wastewater. Sampling techniques, the methods of analysis, the units of
measurement for chemical constituents, and some useful concepts from chemistry are
considered below.7
3.6.1. Sampling
Sampling programs are undertaken for a variety if reasons such as to obtain (1) routine
operating data on overall plant performance, (2) data that can be used to document the
performance of a given treatment operation or process, (3) data that can be used to implement
proposed new programs, and (4) data needed for reporting regulatory compliance. To meet
the goals of the sampling program, the data collected must be:
1. Representative. The data must represent the wastewater or environment being
sampled.
2. Reproducible. The data obtained must be reproducible by others following the same
sampling and analytical protocols.
3. Defensible. Documentation must be available to validate the sampling procedures.
The data must have a known degree of accuracy and precision
4. Useful. The data can be used to meet the objectives of the monitoring plan (Pepper et
al., 1996.)
Because the data from the analysis of the samples will ultimately serve as a basis for
wastewater sampling program must be such that representative samples are obtained.
Table 3.3. Common analyses used to assess the constituents found in wastewatera
Testb Abbreviation/ Use or significance of test results
definition
Physical characteristics
Total solids TS
Total volatile solids TVS
Total fixed solids TFS
Total suspended solids TSS
Volatile suspended solids VSS
Fixed suspended solids FSS To assess the reuse potential of a waste
Total dissolved solids TDS (TS – TSS)
water and to determine the most suitable
Volatile dissolved solids VDS
Total fixed dissolved solids FDS type of operations and Processes for its
treatment
Settleable solids To determine those solids that will settle by
gravity in a specified time period
Particle size distribution PSD To assess the performance of treatment
processes
c
Turbidity NTU Used to assess the quality of treated
wastewater
Color Light brown, To assess the condition of wastewater (fresh
gray, black or septic)
Transmittance %T Used to assess the suitability of treated
effluent for UV disinfection
Odor TONd To determine if odors will be a problem
0
Temperature C or 0F Important in the design and operation of
biological processes in treatment facilities
Density ρ
Conductivity EC Used to assess the suitability effluent for
agricultural applications
Inorganic chemical characteristics
Free ammonia NH+4
Organic nitrogen Org N
Total kjeldahl nitrogen TKN(OrgN+ NH+4)
Nitrites NO-2
Nitrates NO-3
Total nitrogen TN Used as a measure of nutrients present and
Inorganic phosphorus Inorg P
the degree of decomposition in the
Total phosphorus TP
Organic phosphorus Org P wastewater; the oxidized forms can be taken
as a measure of the degree of oxidation
a
Adapted, in part, from Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998).
b
Details on the various test may be found in the Standard Methods (1998)
c
NTU = nephelometric turbidity unit
d
TON = threshold odor number
e
MBAS= methylene blue active substances
i
CTAS = cobalt thiocyanate active substances
There are no universal procedures for sampling; sampling programs must be tailored
individually to fit each situation (see Fig. 3.3). Special procedures are necessary to handle
sampling problems that arise when wastes vary considerably in composition.
Fig 3.3. Collection of samples for analysis: (a) collection of an effluent sample from a
pilot plant treatment unit and (b) view of an uncapped monitoring well equipped with
sampling outlets for four different well depths
Before a sampling program is undertaken, a detailed sampling protocol must be
developed along with a quality assurance project plan (QAPP) (known previously as quality
assurance/quality control, QA/AC). As a minimum, the following items must be specified in
the QAPP (Pepper et al., 1996). Additional details on the subject of sampling may be found in
Standard Methods (1998).
1. Sampling plan. Number of sampling locations, number (see homework problem 2-5 ) and
type of samples, time intervals (e.g., real-time and/or time- delayed samples).
2. Sample types and size. Catch or grab samples, composite samples, or integrated samples,
separate samples for different analyses (e.g.., for metals). Sample size (i.e..,volume) required.
3. Sample labeling and chain of custody. Sample labels, sample seals, field log book, chain of
custody record, sample analysis request sheets, sample delivery to the laboratory, receipt and
logging of sample, and assignment of sample for analysis.
4. Sampling methods.specific techniques and equipments to be used eg manual, automatic,
or sorbent sampling}.
5. Sampling storage and preservation.Type of containers (e,g, glass or plastic}preservation
methods, maximum allowable holding times.
6. Sample constituents. A list of the parameters to be measured.
7. Analytical methods.A list of the field and laboratory test methods and procedures to be
used, and the detection limits for the individual methods.
If the physical, chemical and / or biological integrity of the samples is not maintained
during interim periods sample collection and sample analysis, a carefully performed
sampling program will become worthless. Considerable research on the problem of sample
preservation has failed to perfect a universal treatment method, or to formulate a set of fixed
rules applicable to samples of all types. Prompt analysis is undoubtedly the most positive
assurance against error due to sample deterioration. When analytical and testing conditions
dictate a lag between collection and analysis, such as when a 24- h composite sample is
collected, provisions must be made for preserving samples. Current methods of sample
preservation for the analysis of properties subject to deterioration must be used.( Standard
methods, 1998) Probable errors due to deterioration of the sample should be noted in
reporting analytical data.
Lecture No: 4
Properties- factors affecting - quantity and composition of solid wastes
Fig 4.1. Left: Annual variation in total waste quantities and composition over a one-year period at two sites in the United States, Right:
Composition of solid wastes received at a New York Landfill in the 1940’s
The figure shows that total waste quantities can be more than 40% higher in the
summer and that the fraction of food waste may vary from less than 5% to more than 45% of
the total amount of wastes generated (wet weight). Again these variations depend upon the
type of society, level of development and standard of living. The actual seasonal variation in
waste materials composition and quantity generated at a specific location depends strongly on
the human activities taking place in that location, the climate, the infrastructure, the culture
etc. It is therefore very difficult to generalize the trends in the rates of generation of solid
wastes from one location to another unless the locations are very similar with respect to these
influencing factors. In most cases it is usually necessary to conduct separate investigations at
the location in order to adequately determine the seasonal effects on the composition and
quantity of waste materials generated. The generation of solid wastes especially those
generated in residential areas in residential areas in many cases also follows weekly and
daily cycles. These cycles are usually caused by recurring patterns in the behavior of people
living in the area such as cooking and cleaning. Often the largest amounts of wastes are
generated during preparations of the main meals and during the periods where people are off
work. An example is illustrated in Fig. 4.2 that shows the daily and weekly variations in total
waste generation in a US high-rise apartment complex. It is seen that the largest amounts of
wastes are generated during the evening hours and on weekends (in terms of mass) when
most people are at home and have time for cooking and cleaning.
Daily and weekly variations likely have the greatest importance for internal (within
the apartment complex or building) waste collection and management, but may or may not
have importance on general waste collection and management depending on when and how
often waste are collected (usually 0.5-2 times a week depending on climate). Variations in
especially quantity and also in composition of waste materials with population density and
family size can also in many cases be quite pronounced. Low waste production rates per
capita are often seen in densely populated areas whereas waste generation is often
significantly higher in rural areas. Waste generation rates per capita are also typically higher
in household with few persons compared to households with many persons.
Fig. 4.2 Typical waste discharge rates in apartment complexes with waste chutes. Top: daily variation as a function of the time of the
day, Bottom: weekly variations as a function of the day of the week.
Table 4.1 shows weekly waste generation rates per capita for urban, semi-urban, and
rural areas in Denmark as a function of the number of persons living in each household.
Table 4.1. Total solid waste generation rates per capita in urban, semi-urban and rural
areas in Denmark as a function of the number of persons living together in one
household. Adopted from Christensen et al. (1998).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Household size (persons) Kg/(person week)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Urban Semi-urban Rural
1 6.6 7.1 7.8
2 4.5 5.0 5.3
3 3.4 3.8 4.5
4 2.6 3.3 3.6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Waste generation rates per capita are significantly lower in household with more
persons per household. Households with 4 persons generate approximately 50-60% less waste
per person than does households with only one person. Also households in urban areas
generate 15-30% less waste per inhabitant than does households in rural areas. The reason for
the lower waste generation rates in urban areas is likely that recycling systems are better
developed here and therefore less recyclable materials will enter the general waste stream.
This is especially true for general solid waste but may be less so for biodegradable wastes, as
these require further treatment and therefore in general have to enter the waste management
system in order to be treated and recycled properly. Also if more persons are living in the
same household less waste will be generated per person because the amount of materials
consumed as a whole in the household usually is not directly proportional to the number of
persons living there. Again here the biodegradable wastes may show a less pronounced trend
as a person’s food consumption likely is independent of how many others he or she is living
together with. There may, however be some effects of being able to buy foods in larger
quantities or that households with many persons often include small children that eat less thus
reducing the amount of food waste
generated. However as no data is available for directly relating the amount of biodegradable
wastes generated with the size of the household there is a need for investigating this issue
further.
The quantities of solid waste that enters the waste management system are as
mentioned earlier also strongly dependent upon how user-friendly the waste collection system
is, i.e., the ease of bringing the materials to the collection points. The easier and simpler it is
to use the collection system the larger the fraction of materials will enter the system and can
be treated centrally. This means that infra structure and collection practice both have a major
influence upon both composition and especially quantity of the solid wastes that will be
collected in areas with poor infra structure and infrequent or nonexistent collection service is
especially important if source separation programs are to be introduced, it is important that
the system is easy to use otherwise only a small fraction of the materials potentially available
will be collected and recycled. So if the objective is to promote central treatment and
recycling of the materials it is very important to make the collection system as transparent
and simple to use as possible. The impact of collection system structure upon the quantity of
materials collected is illustrated for source-separated fractions of recyclable glass and paper
in Fig. 4.3 the figure shows the quantities of glass and paper collected per capita in the
northern part of Copenhagen as a function of the numbers of collection containers per capita.
Of course the collected quantities cannot increase indefinitely as more collection containers
are made available. The collected quantities of recyclable materials will asymptotically reach
the maximum potential generation rate. At that point the collection rates will become
independent on the number of collection containers per capita in case the population density
and collection container distribution if uniform within the collection area the collection rate
will increase linearly with the number of collection containers for small numbers of
containers, and be almost constant with a value approximately equal to the potential material
generation rate for a large number of containers. The actual slope of the collection rate curve
as it approaches the potential generation rate depends among other factors upon the behavior
of the population living in the area. At present the knowledge in the relation between
collection system configuration and collected quantity is rather limited.
Fig 4.3. Quantities of glass and paper collected per capita in the northern part of Copenhagen as a function of the numbers of collection
containers
Fig 4.4. Types of biodegradable waste produced in Denmark. Percentages indicate relative quantity based on the wet weight of the
materials
Fig 4.6. Schematic of the components of organic matter with respect to water, air and
solids
When dealing with solid waste materials under normal circumstances the voids will
normally be filled with either water or air and, thus, the volume of voids is the sum of the
volume of (Vair) and the volume of water (Vwater ) contained in the sample. This three-phase
concept that is similar to that found in other porous media such as for instance soils is shown
in Fig.4.6.
The volumetric water content (0, cm3 water/cm3 wastes) is the relative volumetric volume
of water, i.e., volume of water per volume of total waste that is contained in the sample of
wastes. The volumetric water content is calculated as
where Vwater = total volume of water (cm3), Vtotal = total volume of wet waste in the sample
(cm3), Mwater = total mass of water in waste(g), Mtotal = total wet weight (g), and Msolids = total
dry weight of residual. The dry weight (Msolids ) is normally measured by drying the sample at
105°C until no more weight loss is found (usually 24 -28 hours). It is noted here that drying a
105°C does not remove all of the water as a small fraction of the water is very strongly
bound to the solids and cannot be removed unless the temperature is raised to 600°C at which
temperature organic wastes will have been combusted. Normally this fraction of strongly
bound water is very small and may for practical purposes be neglected.
The water content can also be expressed on a gravimetric (often expressed as mass of water
per mass of total) rather than a volumetric basis.
The gravimetric water content (w,g, water/g wet waste )is found as
w = M water = Mtotal -Msolids ----------- (4.2)
Mtotal Mtotal
where Mtotal = total mass of the wet sample.
The volumetric air content or air-filled porosity (ε, cm3 air/cm wastes) is the relative
volumetric amount of air contained in the sample of wastes. The volumetric air content can
be found as
ε =Vair = 1 – Vwater - Vsolids ----------- (4.3)
Vtotal Vtotal
The porosity (Ф, cm3void space/cm3 wastes) is the relative volumetric amount of total void
space (space not occupied by solids) in the sample of wastes. The porosity is determined as
follows
Ф = Vsolids = Vwater + Vair = ε+ θ ----------- (4.4)
Vtotal Vtotal
The porosity can be estimated by measuring the weight loss by drying of a sample of
waste with all void spaces completely filled with water(this situation is not as easy to obtain
as it sounds). Water content, air content and porosity are especially important when aerobic
composting is considered as a treatment method because these parameters often control the
rate of the biological processes occurring during composting (more about this later). The
parameters are also important during general handling, transport, deposition and compaction
in landfills. The water content is important when determining the energy content of organic
materials as water consume a significant amount of energy for evaporation during
combustion of the organic materials.
An alternative method for determining total or air-filled porosity is the pychnometer
method. This method uses two air-filled containers(containers 1 and 2) with known volumes
(V1 and V2) at different known air pressures (P1 and P2). Container 2 contains the waste
sample with volume Vtotal . The two containers are then brought in contact allowing air to flow
freely between them equilibrating the pressure difference and yielding and overall final
pressure (Pfinal). The air-filled porosity of the sample can then be determined from the initial
and final pressures and the known volumes of the two containers using the ideal gas equation.
ε= Vtotal –( Pfinal – P1 V1 +V2
(Pfinal) – P2 ----------- (4.5)
______________________
Vtotal
The total porosity can then be determined if the water content is known.
The bulk density (ρb , g of waste/cm3 waste) of the wastes is normally calculated both on a
wet and a dry weight basis. The wet bulk density(ρb wet, g of wet waste/cm3 waste) is given as
ρb wet = Mtotal = Mwater + Msolids ----------- (4.6)
Vtotal Vtotal
Typical wet bulk densities for municipal mixed waste is approximately 200 kg/m3 for loose
waste dumped in to waste bins, 500 kg/m3 in compactor trucks and about 700 kg/m3
when compacted into landfills.
The dry bulk density (ρb dry, g of dry waste/cm3 wastes ) is determined as
ρb dry = Msolids = Mtotal - Mwater= ρb wet – θ
Vtotal Vtotal ----------- (4.7)
Bulk density especially wet bulk density is important when designing storage, collection
source/central separation and transport equipment as the equipment often is designed to hold
certain volumes of waste and therefore also must be able to withstand the weight of the
materials. The dry solids density (ρs) (that is the density of the dry matter particles
themselves) of most organic materials equals approximately 0.8g/cm3.
The solids content or dry matter content (g of dry waste/g wet wastes) is calculated as
Dry matter content = Mdry = ρb dry = 1- Mwater = 1 – w----------- (4.8)
Mtotal ρb wet Mtotal
The compressibility ratio (P,%) of the wastes for a given applied pressure is determined by
applying the desired pressure to a column of uncompressed waste of know height (h1) as
illustrated in Fig 4.7. The height (h2) after compaction is measured and the compressibility or
compaction ratio can be calculated as
P = h2 = V2 ----------- (4.10)
h1 = V1
Compressibility ratio may be measured as a function of pressure over a range of
different pressures as illustrated in Fig 4.8 for two different types of waste (paper and mixed
refuse). The compressibility of refuse materials is important in many instances for instance
when determining the transport capacity of compactor trucks or when designing landfills
where the deposited materials are typically compacted when deposited in the landfill.
Fig 4.7 and Fig 4.8
Fig 4.7 Illustration of the determination of the compressibility ratio (P) fro the solid
wastes
Fig 4.8. Compressibility ratio (P) as function of pressure for paper (white symbols) and
mixed residential refuse (black symbols)
The particle size distribution is determined by sieving the wastes through sieves with
different decreasing known mesh sizes and subsequently measuring the mass of materials
retained in each sieve. The effective particle diameter (Sp, cm) is normally determined as the
smallest mesh size through which the material can pass. In special cases for instance
when dealing with very large or bulky items such as for instance furniture or tree branches
that cannot easily be analyzed by sieving the effective particle diameter can alternatively be
calculated using one of the expressions in Eq. (4.11) below.
Sp= L, Sp = L +W Sp = (L W )0.5
2 --------- (4.11)
where L = length and W= width of the particles. Typical ranges of Sp values for different
components in organic waste are shown in Table 4.5. The particle size distribution is
important with respect to for instance mechanical separation of the materials based on sieving
that separates the materials based on their size. Size is also important with respect to
biological treatment methods where smaller particle sizes usually are required. In these cases
it is often necessary to reduce the particle size by means of shredding or other mechanical
action in order to increase the rate of biological transformation and degradation of the
materials. Knowing the particle size therefore determines if a material is directly suitable for
biological treatment or if some size reduction is necessary.
Table 4.5. Typical ranges and average values of Sp for different organic material. Source
: Tchovanglous et al. (1993)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Component Range(cm) Average(cm)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Food 2-18 8
Paper 15-45 30
Cardboard 20-60 45
Yard 2-30 8
Wood 2-25 12
---------------------------------------------------------------------
The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the waste (Kw, cm/d) is the capacity of the wastes
to conduct water under a given pressure gradient or hydraulic head at fully water saturated
conditions, i.e., with the air-filled porosity ε=0. Fully saturated conditions can often be
difficult to achieve due to entrapment of air and measured values of saturated hydraulic
conductivity will therefore generally be somewhat lower than the true value. Hydraulic
conductivity is usually measured by placing the ends of a water saturated sample of waste
with cross sectional area A (cm2) length Δx (cm) in contact with two water reservoirs with a
height difference of Δh (cm) and then measuring the volumetric water flow Q (cm 3/d) through
the sample. The saturated hydraulic conductivity can then be calculated using Darcy’s law as
Kw = Q Δh
A Δx (4.12)
Other methods of determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity based on infiltration rate
are available, but they are in general more applicable to soils and similar more fine-textured
porous media than to the coarser textured refuse materials. The saturated hydraulic
conductivity is especially important in connection with outdoor storage of waste or in
connection.