Waste Minimization in the Chemical Industry: From Theory to Practice

Vernica Garca, Eva Pongrcz and Riitta Keiski University of Oulu, Mass and Heat Transfer Process Laboratory FIN-90014 University of Oulu, P.O. Box 4300

1 Introduction Waste represents a loss of valuable resources both in the form of materials and energy, many of which are scarce. Approximately 16 million tonnes of industrial waste were produced annually in Finland in the late 1990s. This amount was one fourth of the gross national waste generation. Almost two thirds of the industrial waste was recovered (Kautto & Melanen, 2004.). Industrial activities and society awareness have caused environmental issues to be one of the most important and polemic current affairs. It is now apparent that ever-growing waste amounts, waste diversity, and associated risks, are heightening for need for governments and industry to vigorously pursue waste prevention as an essential component of strategy for a sustainable future (Vancini, 2000). The chemical industry has been recognized as a very polluting sector and has gained the distrust of society. The general public associates chemical industry with waste disposal, pollution, disease, and danger, depletion of natural resources, cancer, landfill, accidents and toxic emission (Clarck, 2003). The main problem lays in the fact that the cost of raw materials and disposal of wastes are underestimated. In consequence, there are usually no economic incentives to develop waste-free processes. The true cost of waste includes disposal costs, purchase cost of materials, handling/processing costs, management time and monitoring costs, lost revenue, any potential liabilities and post-disposal segregation (Phillips, 2000). In general, chemical industry is still not eager to alter chemical products and processes and prefers to deal with waste end-of-pipe. Waste prevention coupled with recycling is a very effective strategy to solve the environmental problem in the chemical sector. Waste prevention means the reduction of quantity and quality of waste at source, reduction in the use of raw materials and energy and the promotion of the re-use. It is very important to gain industrys acceptance toward waste minimization. Industry seems to assume that waste minimization means only the reduction of the amount of waste sent to landfill, thus any kind of activity, especially off-site utilization and incineration, is seen as waste minimization. An environmental manager, who would like to implement a waste minimization program, has to understand the concepts of waste minimization, green chemistry and Industrial Ecology and their use. The drivers to adopt a waste minimization initiative may be different; public pressure and legislation are the main reasons. The increasing cost of end of pipe treatment and potential for reducing cost are also significant motivations. 2 Chemical Industry In general, chemical industry is assumed to be well-known. However when faced the commitment to define chemical industry, the uncertainty of the concept became apparent. The question What chemical industry really is and what is included in it? emerged. Once the concept of chemical industry is understood, it is easier to define the research tasks, set the scopes, and have a better idea about how to proceed to perform the tasks.

Corresponding author, E-mail address: Veronica.Garcia@oulu.fi

2.1 Defining chemical industry It is almost impossible to give a clear and universal definition of Chemical Industry that would satisfy everyone. Different sources have different opinions mainly in determining which sectors should be included. As a general definition, whatever activity where chemical reactions take place in a production unit is part of the chemical industry. However, for practical purposes, this definition is too wide. In 1963 The Association of British Chemical Manufacturers classified the chemical industries in three groups: Inorganic Chemicals, Organic Chemicals and Specialised Products (Brown & Campbell, 1969.). Since then, new classifications have been presented. Nowadays, the definition and the structure of the chemical industry are still unclear but the breakdown into sectors is more restricted. The Chemical Industry Federation of Finland divides the chemical industry in eight different categories (Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, 2004.): 1) Petroleum products 2) Basic chemicals 3) Plastic products 4) Pharmaceuticals 5) Paints and inks 6) Rubber products 7) Detergents and toiletries 8) Others As the research is focused on Finnish chemical industry and almost all the Finnish chemical companies belong to the Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, the division of the chemical industry presented by this association will be applied in the research.

Figure 1 Overview of the chemicals and related industries (EEA 1995 and Swift 1999, modified by the OECD)

2.1 Chemical Products Chemical industry is very diverse and has a number of important products on the market. As illustrated in Figure 1., starting with raw materials such as oil, coal, gas, air, water and minerals, the chemicals industry converts these materials into a vast array of substances comprising basic or commodity chemicals; speciality chemicals derived from basic chemicals (adhesives and sealants, catalysts, coatings, electronic chemicals, plastic adhesives, etc); products derived from life sciences (pharmaceuticals, pesticides and products of modern biotechnology) and consumer care products (soap, detergents, bleaches, hair and skincare products, fragrances, etc). It is important to note that most of the output from chemical companies is used by other chemical companies or other industries (e.g. metal, glass, electronics), and are present in countless products used by consumers (e.g. automobiles, toys, paper, clothing) (OECD, 2001.).

2.3 Chemical Industry in Finland The chemical industry is the third largest branch of industry in Finland after the forest industry and the metal-, engineering- and electronics industry in terms of both gross output and value added. In 2003, more than 1000 chemical companies were registered in Finland. In 2002, chemical industry represented 11 % of the gross value of production in the manufacturing industry, following the mechanical engineering and metals industrys 25 % and electronics industrys 25 %. In 2003, there have been signs of accelerated growth. Besides the great fluctuation, the production volume of the Finnish chemical industry was about 2 % larger in 2003 than in 2002. As indicated in Figure 2, production of basic chemicals accounts for about one third of the gross value and has had a rising trend (Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, 2004.). The strength and importance of Finlands pulp and paper industry has resulted in many Finnish chemical companies focusing on manufacturing paper industry chemicals (UK Trade & Investments, 2004). Petroleum products and plastic products also form significant parts of the output. The production of the latter increased rapidly during the first 7 months of 2003 followed by a rapid decline. For the Finnish pharmaceutical industry the last quarter of 2003 was quite inactive and production has declined in volume terms.

Figure 2 Gross value of the chemical products production.

Important customer sectors in the chemical industry include pulp and paper industry and the electrical and electronics industry. Paints, plastic pipes and insulation are produced for construction. Water treatment chemicals and the handling of hazardous waste are provided for managing the environment. About 40% of the output is exported, the main market being the EU region. The biggest export countries are Sweden, Germany, Russia and Great Britain (Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, 2004.). 3 Environmental Problems From the use of non-renewable resources for fuel and feedstocks (e.g. gas and soil), through the release of pollutants from factories during production, to the disposal of final products that contain hazardous waste, each stage of the lifecycle of a product produced by the chemicals industry (cradle to grave) can have negative impacts on man and his environment (OECD, 2001). As everyone's attention is directed towards the chemical industry, nowadays, a way of monitoring the environmental impact of its processes and products is needed. Chemical industry has the challenge of monitoring and reducing its emission to air, water and soil. Until recently, environmental solutions were in the form of end-of-pipe pollution control strategies, i.e., chemical, biological and physical treatment of terminal streams. The result has been waste treatment solutions that reduced the toxicity and volume of undesirable pollutants in industrial discharges. Although these pollution control strategies have resulted in reducing negative environmental consequences of chemical processes, they focused on the symptoms and not on the root of the environmental problems. Therefore, at the end, they lacked costeffectiveness and sustainability (Kan F I, Natrajan B R & Revathi, 2001.). Increased scientific and public awareness over the effects of industrial activities on the environment and health has led chemical industries to start implementing waste minimization programs, the Industrial Ecology concept, cleaner technologies and using tools such as green chemistry principles in order to reduce the environmental impact of their operations. Efforts concerning improving the environment of the Finnish chemical industry continued to produce positive results in 2002. Considerable progress was achieved in community dialogue and implementation of management systems. Both investments and operating costs increased. Majority of Finnish chemical companies run an environmental management system, in most cases ISO 14001. Emission levels tended to fluctuate in 2002, but when measured in proportion to production volume most emissions were down from the previous year. On the other hand, energy consumption increased (Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, 2004.).

4 Responsible Care Programme The chemical industry must demonstrate that the benefits derived from chemicals do not involve adverse effects on human health and the environment. In recent decades the environmental performance of chemical industry has substantially improved and cleaner technologies have been adopted. However, chemical industry continues to contribute to most of the major environmental problems. Responsible Care is the platform through which ICCA (International Council of Chemical Associations) encourages the worlds chemical manufactures to embrace the environmental

principles of sustainable development. Responsible Care (ICCA, 2002.) is a global voluntary initiative from the chemical industry itself to address public concerns about the manufacture, distribution and use of chemicals. It was conceived in Canada in 1985 and nowadays has been adopted in 47 countries. In this initiative, the companies, through their national associations, commit themselves to work together to continuously improve the health, safety and environmental performance of their products and processes, to openness in communication about its activities and achievements and so contribute to the sustainable development of local communities and of society as a whole. Membership is voluntary, but the signature of the management is a binding undertaking on behalf of the company to implement the initiative's guiding principles and codes of practice, and to co-operate with other companies. Each industry association is responsible for the detailed implementation of the initiative in their countries. Individual countries Responsible Care programmes are at different stages of development and have different emphasis but are monitored and helped by the ICCA through its Responsible Care Leadership Groups (RCLG), which assists in the cross-fertilisation of ideas and best practice. Responsible Care programme emphasizes the importance of adopting waste minimization strategies and the need for training the personnel and consumers. Momentarily, the program is not well-known by the public. The Responsible Care programme should be closer to the society and progress should be communicated not only between the chemical sectors but to the public in general, so that the chemical industry will be more trustful. Nevertheless Responsible Care is a fresh alternative that can help in the reduction of generation of waste by the chemical industry and boost its public image. 4.1. Responsible Care Programme in Finland Finland joined the Responsible Care programme in May 1992, the Chemical Industry Federation of Finland acting as coordinator. The programme is implemented in companies refining oil, manufacturing basic chemicals and chemical products as well as those manufacturing plastic products. Since 1998, chemical distributors are also allowed to commit to the Responsible Care initiative. By March 2003, there were 116 companies (small, medium and large size) committed to Responsible Care. This number represents, in terms of total production volumes, over 80 per cent of the Finnish chemical industry. The Finnish Responsible Care guiding principles emphasize the importance of the environmental, health and safety (EHS) issues in a business activity, the risk and impact assessment and the reduction of emission levels as well as EHS risks. They encourage the eco-efficiency of raw materials and energy, the communication with the public and authorities and the training of personnel and customers. Progress is monitored on the basis of the environment, health and safety measures adopted by individual companies, i.e., self-monitoring, and also against more than 40 national indicators. These indicators are reviewed regularly to ensure that they remain suitable for the purpose and new ones are added when required. Concerning the environment, the indicators are water emission (phosphorus and nitrogen compounds, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and heavy metals), air emissions (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOC)), waste disposal to land (hazardous and non-hazardous) and carbon dioxide emissions, production, fuel and energy (Chemical Industry Federation of Finland, 2004.).

5 Waste policy in Finland The Finnish Waste Act (1072/1993) specifies waste as "any substance or object which the holder discards or intends, or is required, to discard". In practice, this broad definition has proven to be problematic and it may cover substances and materials that could be defined as by-products. According to the Finnish Waste Act, the ultimate goal of waste management is to support sustainable development by enhancing the rational use of natural resources, and to prevent and control hazards and harm to human health and the environment arising from wastes. The Finnish Waste Act also incorporates the waste management hierarchy of the European Community, which gives preference to waste prevention, then to waste recovery (with priority being given to material recovery, i.e., recycling), and lastly to waste disposal (landfilling and incineration without energy recovery) (Kautto & Melanen, 2004.). Compared with the earlier Waste Management Act (673/1978), the current Waste Act emphasizes preventive measures for minimising the waste generated and decreasing the harmful properties of waste. Table 1 Green Chemistry Principles (Anastas & Warner 1998).
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created. Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. Chemical products should be designed to effect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity. The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used. Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable. Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.

The European Union and Finland both apply the principle of extended producer responsibility to minimise the generation and enhance the recovery of certain types of waste. As required by the EU, Finland has a National Waste Plan in which goals to be achieved by 2005 have been specified, especially for the recovery of wastes. Targets have also been set for waste reduction: in most sectors, the amount of waste in 2005 should be 15% less than it would be on the basis of economic growth (de-coupling of waste from economic activity) (Kautto & Melanen, 2004.).

Benign Disposal Recycle/Re-use Reduce Replace Chemical usage Energy usage

Hazardous materials, processes Inefficient processes Non-sustainable components

Figure 3 Green Chemistry Priorities (Smith, 2003).

6 Tools of waste minimization in chemical industry 6.1 Green chemistry Green chemistry advocates the utilization of a set of chemical principles and methodologies, listed in Table 1, that can reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances in the manufacture and application of chemical products. Green chemistry incorporates pollution prevention practices in the manufacture of chemicals and promotes pollution prevention and industrial ecology. By modifying the synthesis (feedstocks and reaction conditions) we can arrive at the same final product, yet reduce or eliminate toxic starting materials, by-products, and wastes. The priorities of green chemistry priorities are illustrated in Figure 3. As it can be seen from Figure 3, the principles of green chemistry adopt the waste management hierarchy. Table 2 shows the relation between waste minimization activities and green chemistry principles. Table 2 Waste minimization measures vs. green chemistry principles. Waste minimization measures Strict avoidance of waste creation/prevention at source Reduction of waste by application of more efficient production technologies Source-oriented improvement of waste quality Green chemistry principles Prevention, Design for Energy Efficiency Atom Economy, Reduce Derivatives, Catalysis Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses , Designing Safer Chemical, Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries

Green chemistry tools include choosing alternative feedstocks/starting materials (biomass), alternative reagents, alternative solvents (solventless chemistry, ionic liquids, supercritical fluids, alternative products (designing safer chemicals), process analytical chemistry, and alternative catalysts. Figure 4 shows an example of the use of waste minimization and green chemistry in the chemical industry through the life cycle of a chemical product. Tthe applicability of green chemistry principles is emphasized with the grey background.

Premanufacturing

Manufacturing

Product delivery

Product use

End of Life

Alternative feedstocks/ renewable resources Avoid auxiliaries Minimise solvents Minimise transportation Utilise waste

Atom efficiency Catalysts Zero waste Solvent substitution Safer chemistry Simpler chemistry Minimum energy Avoid additives

Minimal transportation Minimal packaging/ eco-friendly packaging

Minimal consumption/ maximum efficiency Minimal auxiliary needs Minimal energy usage

Biodegradable Recyclable Environmental ly compatible

Figure 4 Waste minimization through the life-cycle of a chemical product (Clarck, 2003).

It is clear that green chemistry promotes waste minimization and plays a significant role in achieving Industrial Ecology (IE) goals as well. IE has similar goals and principles to both green chemistry and waste minimization (Pongrcz). 6.2 Waste minimization, green chemistry and Industrial Ecology connections Waste minimization sets the goal of reducing the quantity and quality of the waste added to the reductions in raw material and energy consumption. Waste minimization also defines which strategies are to be considered, however, no tools are provided to achieve the scope. Green Chemistry is a possible tool that can be used by the chemical industry to reduce the pollution from chemical production and end use and reduction of energy used in production, i.e, chemical waste minimization. The twelve principles are focused on the chemical synthesis; however the design for degradation principle, in spite of being applied to the synthesis of the product, takes into account the end of life stage. Green chemistry includes the waste minimization principle of strict avoidance of waste creation/prevention at source, reduction of waste and source-oriented improvement of waste quality. By the application of the twelve principles, chemical industry can change its processes and products to have less impact on humans and environment. Green chemistry is mainly applied to the manufacturing process. Nevertheless any improvement in the process, indirectly benefit the life cycle as a whole. It is clear that green chemistry promotes waste minimization and plays a significant role in achieving industrial ecology goals. IE has similar goals and principles both to green chemistry and waste minimization. The main difference comes from the larger scale of IE: it reaches far beyond the walls of an industrial facility, and encourages responsible co-existence with the surrounding environment and creating interlocking eco-systems with other companies to achieve an efficient circulation of materials. It is, however, important that industrial facilities learn to internalize global objectives into their local solutions (Pongrcz.).

7 Waste mapping in chemical industry The main purpose of this research is to study chemical waste minimisation by the implementation of clean technologies. As well, recovery of valuable components from chemical waste and local utilisation of recycled chemical waste will also be analysed and put forward. As a first step, contacts to chemical industry in Northern Ostrobothnia will be established and their wastes and waste management practices will be mapped. Mapping waste in a chemical industry is a challenging process. Barriers, such as confidentiality, will have to be overcome in order to evaluate and, ultimately, solve environmental problems. Waste minimization knowledge will have to be shared. Essential to an efficient communication is that terms such as waste prevention, waste minimization, re-use and recycling, are well understood. Within industry, adoption of a waste minimization strategy will require awareness of resources use. Continuous monitoring of water and energy consumption as well as mapping the sources of solid waste and emissions to water and air has to be implemented. Waste minimization potential, as well as external utilization of wastes with regard to Industrial Ecology will be investigated. To this end, the experiences of waste minimization clubs in the UK, and the application of Envirowise guides in Finland are being studied. 7.1 The Envirowise Programme The Environmental Technology Best Practice Programme (Envirowise 2004) is a governmentfunded programme in the UK that helps companies to become more competitive through improving their environmental performance by reducing waste at source. Environmental Performance Guides provide companies with the tools that allow them to measure and improve their performance. Good Practice Guides describe how practical, cost-saving measures to reduce waste can be put into action. The ENVIROWISE is a Best Practice programme that provides support on waste minimization and clean technology by producing a wide array of tools and free support for audits. Numerous case studies illustrate how companies are making environmentally beneficial changes and save money in the same time. There are two permanent themes: waste minimization and cleaner technologies. Cleaner technologies include designing cleaner products, optimising processes, using new technology and recovering and re-using materials. Envirowise provides a number of guides and case studies for chemical industry. They demonstrate that the most common and effective waste minimization approach is achieved by reducing water consumption. Special attention is paid to eco-efficient solvent use. Cleaner design, membrane technologies and waste-mapping guides are specially recommended. The use of Envirowise tools developed in the UK were tested in Finnish industry and found to be useful at pointing out waste minimization potential (Kvist et al. 2004, Pivrinta et al. 2004). Their application in chemical industry is to be further investigated.

8 Conclusions Waste minimization activities achieved by green chemistry principles are at the root of the solution to chemical waste minimization. Despite its enormous potential, the green chemistry approach is still underestimated. Green chemistry is mainly applied to the manufacturing process. Nevertheless any improvement in the process would indirectly benefit the life cycle as a whole. It is clear that green chemistry promotes waste minimization and plays a significant role in achieving industrial ecology goals as well. IE has similar goals and principles both to green chemistry and waste minimization. The main difference comes from the larger scale of IE, as it reaches beyond the walls of an industrial facility.

Mapping resources use and waste generation, as well as sharing the knowledge of the concepts of waste minimization with chemical industry are the next challenges to be faced. It is hoped that this research will contribute to the establishment of a culture of waste minimization in chemical industry. Acknowledgements The work reported in this paper is a part of the RESOPT project run under the Eco-Efficient Society Program financed by the Ministry of Environment.

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Article reference: Garca V, Pongrcz E & Keiski R (2004) Waste Minimization in the Chemical Industry: From Theory to Practice. In: Pongrcz E (ed.) Proceedings of the Waste Minimization and Resources Use Optimization Conference, June 10th 2004, University of Oulu, Finland. Oulu University Press: Oulu. p.93.- 106.