8.

Z-TRANSFORM
99
8. Z-TRANSFORM

Historically, Laplace transforms were used to study signals defined by the solutions to
linear ordinary differential equations. Beginning in the 1950s, discrete time signals began to
appear. Unfortunately, the Laplace transform is not well suited for the study of discrete time
signals and systems. Instead, another transform, called the Z-transform, is used.

8.1 Direct Z-transform

It is know that discrete-time signal can be obtained by multiplying continuous time
signal x(t) by impulse-train

=
o =
n
) nT t ( ) t ( p

=
o =
n
) nT t ( ) nT ( x ) t ( x (8.1)

Using the Laplace transforms shifting property:

} {
ksT
e ) kT t ( L

= o
and a short hand notation z e
sT
= , we get

| |

= =

= k
k
x(kT)z X(z) x(t) Z
if T=1 we get

=
k
k
z ) k ( x ) z ( X
(8.2)
Equation (8.2) is called bilateral or two sided Z-transform. For causal signals the one sided Z-
transform uses
(8.3)


Example 8.1
Find the Z-transform of the DTS shown in Figure 8.2

=
0 k
k
z ) k ( x ) z ( X
-3T -2T -T 0 T 2T 3T
t
x(t)
Figure8.1
x[2T]
x[T]
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2
2
-2
1
3
1
k
x[k]
X(z) = -2z
-3
+2z
-2
+z
-1
+3+-2z
1
+z
2

Figure 8.2
8. Z-TRANSFORM
100
Example 8.2
Find the Z-transform of a causal step function show in Figure 8.3









........ z z z 1 ) z ( X
3 2 1
0 k
+ + + + = =

=


This infinitely long series can also be represented in closed form using :


x 1
1
..... x x x 1 x
3 2

= + + + + =

if x <1

1
z 1 ) z ( X

+ =
2
z

+ ......... z
3
+ +

has a closed form

1 z
z
z 1
1
) z ( X
1

=

if
1
z

< 1 or z >1
Example 8.3
Find the Z-transform of the causal exponential function

t
e ) t ( x
o
= or | |
k
e k x
o
=

| |
k
e k x
o
=
k
a = where a=
o
e


1
k
0 k
1
0 k
k k
az 1
1
) az ( z a ) z ( X

= = = =
a z
z

if a
1
z

<1 or z>a
o
o
>

= e z ;
e z
z
) z ( X

Example 8.4
Find the Z-transform of an anticausal sequences shown in Figure 8.4



-1 k-1
| | = k x
0 k 0



0 T 2T 3T
t
x
s
(t)
Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
-1
x[k]
k
8. Z-TRANSFORM
101
| |
1 z if ;
z 1
z
z 1
z 1 1
1
z 1
1
1 z 1 z z z k x ) z ( X
1
0 k
k
0 k
k
1
k
k k
1
z
<

+
= +

=
|
.
|

\
|
= |
.
|

\
|
= = =

=



Computer Study:
M - file ztrans.mis used to find Z-transform of the time domain function.
Consider the following two examples.

Example 8.5 x(t)=
t 2
e

2
t 2
e z
z
e

=


Example 8.6 X(t)=t






8.2 Region of Convergence of Z-Transform

The domain of values of z guaranteeing that a Z-transform of | | k x exists is called the
region of convergence, or simply ROC. The ROC constrain of an annular ring in the Z-plane
that is centered around the origin. The ROC is an important concept for a variety of reasons.
As shown in the Examples 8.2 and 8.4. There is no unique relationship between the sequences
and their Z-transforms.
The Z-transform for both functions is
1 z
z
) z ( X

= , but ROC are different. Hence, the

Z-transform must always be specified with its ROC. The regions of convergence for the
Examples 8.2 and 8.4 are given in figures 8.5 (a) and (b) respectively.













syms t
x=exp(-2*t);
ztrans(x)

ans =

z/(z-exp(-2))

syms t
x=t; ztrans(x)
ans =
z/(z-1)^2
a)
Figure 8.5
pole

,z,=1
ROC: ,z,>1
zero

ROC: ,z,<1
b)
X(z)=z/(z-1)
,z,=1
2
) 1 (

z
z
for causal
for anticausal
8. Z-TRANSFORM
102
We can readily verify that when 1 > z causal step sequences X(z) convergence where as when
1 < z X(z) diverges. For example, if we let z=2 we find that the series on the RHS of
equation 4.8 adds up to 2:

X(z)=1+1/0,5+( )
2
5 , 0 / 1 +( )
3
5 , 0 / 1 +3... =1+2+4+8+...

Example
Find thez-transform and the region for convergence for each of the discrete-time sequences
given in figure 4.1.
(1) The sequence of figure 4.1(a) is noncausal, since x(n) is not zero for n<0, but it is
of a finite duration. The sequence has values x(-6)=0, x(-5)=1, x(-4)=3, x(-3)=5, x(-2)=3, x(-
1)=1 and x(0)=0. from equation 4.6, the z-transform is given by


( ) ( )

=
n
n
z n x z X
1
= 2 3 5 3
2 3 4 5
+ + + + z z z z

It is readily verified that the value of X (z) becomes infinite when = z . Trus the ROC is
everywhere in the z-plane except at z=.











a) b) c)

(2) Again, the sequence in figure 4.1(b) is not causal. It is of a finite duration, and
double sided. The values of the sequence are x(3)=0, x(-2)=1, x(-1)=3, x(0)=5, x(1)=3,
x(2)=1 and x(3)=0. from equation 4.6, the z-transform is given by


( ) ( )

=
n
n
z n x z X
2
=
2 1 2
3 5 3

+ + + + z z z z

It is evident that the value of X(z) is infinite if z=0 or if z=. Therefore the region of
convergence is everywhere expect at z=0 and z=.






1
3
5
3
1
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
x(n)
n
1
3
5
3
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x(n)
n
1
3
5
3
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x(n)
n
8. Z-TRANSFORM
103
(3) figure 4.1(c) represents a causal, finite duration sequence with values x(0)=0,
x(1)=1, x(2)=3, x(3)=5, x(4)=3, x(5)=1 and x(6)=0. the z-transform is given by


( ) ( )

=
n
n
z n x z X
3
=
5 4 3 2 1
3 5 3

+ + + + z z z z z

In this case , X(z)= for z=0. Trus the region of convergence is everywhere except at z=0.



Example 8.7
| | | | | | k u ) 4 / 1 ( ) 3 / 1 ( k x
s
k k
+ =

Now the procedure continues as:
= ) z ( X
1 1
z
4
1
1
1
z
3
1
1
1

+
+

)
4
1
z )(
3
1
z (
)
12
1
z 2 ( z
+

=

For convergence, the individual terms must converge. This means that:


1
z
3
1
1
1

1
z
3
1

< 1

1
z
4
1
1
1

+

1
z
4
1

< 1





The overlap of two ROCs corresponds to the region of converges of X(z), that is ,z,>1/3.

Example 8.8
Consider the two-sided sequence defined by:
| |
n
n u o =
where o can be a real or complex number, does not have a Z-transform, regardless of the
absolute value o. This followed by noting that the Z-transform expression can be rewritten as:
| |
n
1
n
n n
0 n
n
z z z U

=

o + o =
The first term on the right-hand side of the equation converges for z > o ,whereas the
second term converges for z < o ,and hence, there is no overlap of two ROCs.

Example 8.10
Determine the ROC of the Z-transform H(z) of the sequence | | | | n Us ) 6 . 0 ( n h
n
= .
ROC: ,z,>1/3
Figure 8.6
X(z)=z/(z-1)
1/3
1/4
8. Z-TRANSFORM
104



=

=
= =
0 n
n 1 n n
0 n
) z 6 . 0 ( z ) 6 . 0 ( ) z ( H
which simplifies to
6 . 0 z
z
z 6 . 0 1
1
) z ( H
1
+
=
+
=


provided z>0.6. This implies that the ROC is just outside the
circle going through the point z= -0.6 and extending all the
way to z=, as show in figure. Notice that H(Z) has a zero at z=0
and a pole at z= -0.6.

Method of Residue

This method of residue is used if original function is represented by s-
variable:
i
i s
s
1 T
z e 1
) ( F
residues ) z ( F
= v
v

v
=
The residue ror simple poles
1 T s
i
i
i
z e 1
1
) s ( ' D
) s ( N
i

= I
For multiple poles
( )
( )
i
s
1 T
n
i
1 n
1 n
i
z e 1
1
) ( F s
d
d
! 1 n
1
= v
v

)
`

v v
v
= I
Example 8.16
( ) 1 s s
1
) s ( F
2
+
=
Using the residues:

=
=
= v
v (

+ v v
=
0 s
1 s
s ; s
1 T 2
2
1
2 1
) z e 1 )( 1 (
1
residues ) z ( F
For simple pole s
1
=-1:

( )
T 1 T
1
T 2
1
1 T
1
e z
z
z e 1
1
e 1
1
1 2
1
z e 1
1
) ( ' D
1

v
v
= v
v

=
(

=
(

v + + v v
=
(

v
= I

For double pole s
1
=0:

( )
( ) ( )
2 2 1
1 1
0
2 1 T 2
1 T 1 T
0
T 2
2
2
) 1 z (
Tz
1 z
z
) z 1 (
Tz ) z 1 (
) z e 1 ( ) 1 (
z Te 1 z e 1
e 1
1
1
1
d
d

+
=
(

+ v
+ v +
=
(

+ v v
v
v
= I

= v
v
v v
= v
v


T 2 2
e z
z
) 1 z (
Tz
1 z
z
) 1 s ( s
1
z

=
(

+


z=-0.6
Figure 8.7
8. Z-TRANSFORM
105
Comparison between F(z) and F(s)

1 s
1
) s (
1
1 s
1
) 1 s ( s
1
) p ( F
2 2
+
+ +

=
(

+
=

T 2 2
e z
z
) 1 z (
Tz
1 z
z
) 1 s ( s
1
z ) z ( F

=
(

+
=


Example 8.17

Find the Z-transform of | | t 2 sin t x =

| |
2 2
2 s
2
t 2 sin L
+
= ; j 2 s =

1 T 2 cos z 2 z
T 2 sin z
1 ) e e ( z
2
2
z
) e e ( z
j 2
1
1 ze ze z
ze z ze z
j 2
1
) e z )( e z (
) e z ( z ) e z ( z
j 2
1
e z
z
e z
z
j 2
1
z e 1
1
z e 1
1
j 2
1
z e 1
1
2
2
z e 1
1
2
2
) z ( X
2
jT 2 jT 2 2
jT 2 jT 2
jT 2 jT 2 2
jT 2 2 jT 2 2
jT 2 jT 2
jT 2 jT 2
jT 2 jT 2
1 jT 2 1 jT 2
j 2
1 T
j 2
1 T
+
=
(
(
(

+ +

=
(

+
+
=
(

=
(

=
(

v
+

v
=

= v
v
= v
v


| |
1 T 2 cos z 2 z
T 2 sin z
t 2 cos Z
2
+
=
Computer Study

MATLAB can be used to determine the ROCs of a rational Z-transform. The M-file
|z, p, k| = tf2zp(num, den) determines the zeros, poles and the gain constant of a rational Z-
transform expressed as a ratio of polynomials in descending powers of z. The output files are
the column vectors z and p containing the zeros and poles of the rational Z-transform, and the
gain constant k. The statement | num, den | = tf2zp (z, p, k) is used in implement the reverse
process. From the zero-pole description, the factored form of the transfer function can
be obtained using the function sos = tf2sos(z, p, k). The statement computes the coefficients
of each second order factor given as an 6 L matrix sos, where



01
b
11
b
21
b
01
a
11
a
21
a

02
b
12
b
22
b
02
a
12
a
22
a
sos = . . . . . .

oL
b
L 1
b
L 2
b
L 0
a
L 1
a
L 2
a
8. Z-TRANSFORM
106
where the k-th row contains the coefficients of the numerator and the denominator of the
k-th second order factor of the Z-transform G(z):


[
=


+ +
+ +
=
L
1 k
2
k 2
1
k 1 k 0
2
k 2
1
k 1 k 0
z a z a a
z b z b b
) z ( G


The pole-zero plot of the rational Z-transform can also be plotted by using the M-files

zplane (zeros,poles), zplane (num,den)

It should be noted that the argument zeros and poles must be entered as column vectors,
whereas, the argument num and den needed to be entered as row vectors.
The following example illustrates the application of the above functions.

Example 8.11 Express the following Z-transform in factored form, plot its poles and zeros,
and the n determine its ROCs.
4 2 3
2
z 5 z 8 z
6 z 5 z 2
) z ( G

+ +
+
=

The factored form of the Z-transform is given by:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3 2 1
2 1 3
z 5531 . 0 z 7678 . 0 0000 . 1 z 2322 . 7 0000 . 1
z 9627 . 0 z 8023 . 0 3209 . 0 z 232 . 6
) z ( G


+ +
+ +
=


























syms z
G=(2*z^2+5*z-6)/(z^3+8*z^2+5*z-4);
num=[2 5 -6];
den=[1 8 5 -4];[z,p,k]=tf2zp(num,den)
z =
-3.3860
0.8860
p =
-7.2322
-1.2209
0.4530
k =
2
sos=zp2sos(z,p,k)
sos =
6.2322 0 0 1.0000 7.2322 0
0.3209 0.8023 -0.9627 1.0000 0.7678 -
0.5531
z=[ -3.3860;0.8860];
p=[ -7.2322; -1.2209; 0.4530];
k=2;
[num,den]=zp2tf(z,p,k)
num =
0 2.00000000000000
5.00000000000000 -5.99999200000000
den =
1.00000000000000 8.00010000000000
5.00053868000000 -3.99989621994000
printsys(num,den)
num/den =
2 z^2 + 5 z - 6
------------------------------------
z^3 + 8.0001 z^2 + 5.0005 z - 3.9999


The pole-zero configuration
developed by the program is
shown in Figure 8.9. From the
equation the ROC are:


1
R : >|z |>7.2323

2
R : -7.23s|z |<1.2209
3
R : 1>|z |>0.453


Figure 8.9
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-2
-1
0
1
2
8. Z-TRANSFORM
107

8.2 The properties of the Z-transform

The z-transforms can be represented by following shorthand notations:

X(z); ( ) | | t x z ; ( ) | | s x z ; | | | | k x z

1. Linearity:
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ) z ( bx z ax t bx t ax z
2 1 2 1
+ = +

2. Time shifting:
( ) | | ( ) z X z kT t x z
k
= +
( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) | | T 1 k zX T X z ) T 0 ( X z z X z kT t x Z
1 k k k
= +



3. Frequency shifting:
( ) | | ( )
a
ze X a s x Z

=

4. Multiplication by t
n
:
( ) | | ( ) | | z X
dz
d
TZ t x t Z
1
n
=
( ) ( ) | | t x t z z X
1 n
1

=
( ) | | ( ) ( ) z X
dz
d
z z X
dz
d
Tz t tx Z
1 T
= =
=

Example 8.12
Find the Z-transform of x(t) = t
x(t)|
k t =
= | | k k x =

= =
0 k
k
1
1 z
z
z ) z ( X
( )


=

=

= =
0 k
k
0 k
1 1 k 1
kz
dz
) z ( dX
z z k
dz
z dX

( )
2 2
1
) 1 z (
z
) 1 z (
z 1 z
z
dz
) z ( dX
z ) z ( X

= =
( )
2
0 k
k
) 1 z (
z
kz z X

= =

Example 8.13 Find the Z-transform of | | | | k u k k x
2
= .
( )
2
1
) 1 z (
z
z X

=
Using the table
( )

=
0 k
k
kz z X
8. Z-TRANSFORM
108
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
3 4
2
4
2
1
1 z
1 z z
1 z
1 z
z
1 z
z 2 z 2 1 z 2 2 z
z z X
dz
d
z z X

+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +
= =

An extension to this result is given by | |
k
ka k x = for |a |<1. Letting | | k k x
1
= and
| | | | k x a k x
1
k
= , and given knowledge of ( ) z X
1
, it fallows that:
( )
2
1
a z
az
) a / z ( X ) z ( X

= =
5. The initial value theorem:
Lim
0 k
) kT ( x =Lim
z
X(z)
6. The fnal value theorem:
Lim
k
) kT ( x =Lim
1 z
(z-1)X(z)


7. Differentiation:
( ) ) , z ( F
d
d
, kT x
d
d
z o
o
=
(

o
o

8. I ntegration:
} }
o
o
o
o
o o = o o
1
0
1
0
d ) , z ( x d ) , kT ( x z
Example 8.14
Given
at
e z
z
a s
1
z

=
(

+
; Find
(

+
2
) a s (
1
z
( )
( )
2 t
T
T 2
) e z (
Te
e z
z
d
d
a s
1
z
d
d
a s
1
z
d
d
a s
1
d
d
z
a s
1
z
o
o
o

=
o
=
(

o
=
(

o
=
(

+ o
=
(

+

9. Convolution:
| | | | ( ) ( ) z x z x n x n x
2 1 2 1
= - ; ROC:
2 1
R R
where: | | ( ) z x n x
1 1
ROC:
1
R
| | ( ) z x n x
2 2
ROC:
2
R

Example 8.15
Find the output signal of the system shown in the Figure 8.10


U(z)=z| |
t 2
e

=
2
e z
z

; H(z)=
1 z
z

Y(z)=
) e z )( 1 z (
z
e z
z
1 z
z
2
2
2

=

1.4 Mapping the s-plane into z-plane

The connection between s-plane and z-plane is interpreted in the figure 8.11. A mapping
rule is based on z=coset + jsinet. Some important mapping are listed below:
1. The points s= j2tk (k=0, 1, 2. . .) is mapped to z=exp(j2tk) cos2tk =1.
2. The point s=jt(2k+1) is mapped to z=expj(t(2k+1) cost(2k+1) =-1.
H(z)
U(t)=e
-2t

Y(z)
Figure 8.10
8. Z-TRANSFORM
109
3. The je axis (locus p6) maps onto z6 - the unit circle with the radius z =1. For the values
s=je, (0e2t) , if e=0, z=exp(0)=1; if e=t/2sin t/2=1.
4. The left half of s-plane, for values s=-oje, such that ,e, t) maps to the interior of the
unit circle.
5. The right half of s-plane, for values s=oje, such that ,e, t) maps to the exterior of the
unit circle.
6. The locus p1, for values s=-o+jt/2, (0o-) maps onto z1. If o=0,
z1=exp(jt/2)sin(t/2)=1, if o=-, z1=exp(-)=0.
7. The locus p2, for values s=-o, (0o-) maps onto z2. If o=0, z2=exp(jt/4)
sin(t/4)=0.707, if o=-, z2=exp(-)=0.
8. The locus p3, for values s=-o-jt/4, (0o) maps onto z3. If o=0, z3=exp(jt/4)
jsin(t/4)=0.707, if o=-, z3=exp(-)=0.
9. The locus of p4, for values s=-o-jo, (0o-) maps onto z4. If o=0, z4=1, if o=-,
z4=exp(-)=0.
10. The locus p5, for values as s=-o+jt, such that 0o-; maps onto z5. If o=0,
z=-1; If o=, z=0.
11. The locus p7=o
1
- je), maps onto circle with radius ,z6,=e
o1
. In Figure 8.11 o
1
=-0.5.
























Computer study

M-file zplane(p
c
,T) convert the points (x
c
- in column vectors) in the s-plane into their
locations in the z-plain with sampling period (T) the unit circle for reference. Each point is
represented with a 'o' in the z-plane. The results of computer mapping ofr the values of xc =
o e, for the interval |0:2*pi| are represented below.
z-plane
Im
s-plane
Figure 8.11

t/2
-t/4
P1
P2
P3
P6
P4
Re
1;0
jt
P5
-jt
z1
z2
z3
-1;0
0
z5
z6
-0.5
P7
z4
z7
Im
Re

,z7, =e
-o

,z,=1
coset
sinet
8. Z-TRANSFORM
110

sigma=0:pi/2:2*pi;
p1=- sigma+sqrt(-1)*pi/2;
z1=(exp(p1))'

z1 =

0.0000 - 1.0000i
0.0000 - 0.2079i
0.0000 - 0.0432i
0.0000 - 0.0090i
0.0 - 0.0019i



zplane(z1,1)
p2=-sigma;
z2=(exp(p1))'
z2 =
1.0000
0.2079
0.0432
0.0090
0.0019
zplane(z2,1)

p3=- sigma-sqrt(-1)*pi/4;
z3=(exp(p3))'
z3 =
0.7071 + 0.7071i
0.1470 + 0.1470i
0.0306 + 0.0306i
0.0064 + 0.0064i
0.0013 + 0.0013i
zplane(z3,1)

p4=- sigma-sqrt(-1)*sigma;
z4=(exp(p4))'
z4 =
1.0000
0.0000 + 0.2079i
-0.0432 + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 0.0090i
0.0019 - 0.0000i
zplane(z4,1)

p5=- sigma+sqrt(-1)*pi;
z5=(exp(p5))
z5=(exp(p5))'
z5 =
8. Z-TRANSFORM
111
-1.0000 - 0.0000i
-0.2079 - 0.0000i
-0.0432 - 0.0000i
-0.0090 - 0.0000i
-0.0019 - 0.0000i
zplane(z1,1)

p6=sqrt(-1)*sigma;
z6=(exp(p6))'






z6 =

1.0000
0.0000 - 1.0000i
-1.0000 - 0.0000i
0.0000 + 1.0000i
1.0000 + 0.0000i
zplane(z6,1)

p7=-0.5-sqrt(-1)*sigma;
z7=(exp(p7))'

z7 =

0.6065
0.0000 + 0.6065i
-0.6065 + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 0.6065i
0.6065 - 0.0000i
zplane(z7,1)


8.5 Partial Fraction Expansion.

8. INVERSE Z-TRANSFORM

The inverse z-transform(IZT) allows us to recover the discrete-time sequence x(n), given its
z-transform. The IZT is particularly useful in DSP work, for example in finding the impluse
response of digital filters. Symbolically, the inverse z-transform may be defined as

| | ) ( ) (
1
z X Z n x

= (4.9)

whre X(z) is the z-transform of x(n) and
1
Z is the symbol for the inverse z-transform.

8. Z-TRANSFORM
112

Assuming a causal sequence, the z-transform, X(z), in equation 4.7 can be expanded
into a power series as


... ) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
0
1
+ + + + = =

z x z x z x x z n x z X
n
(4.10)

It is seen that the values of x(n) are the cofficients of ,...) 1 , 0 ( =

n z
n
and so can be obtained
directly by inspection. In practice, X(z) is often expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in
1
z
or equivalently in z:

M
M
N
N
z a z a z a a
z b z b z b b
z X


+ + + +
+ + + +
=
...
...
) (
2
2
1
1 0
2
2
1
1 0
=
i
M
i
i
i
N
i
i
Z a
Z b

0
0
(4.11)

In this form, the inverse z-transform, x(n), may be obtained using one of several methods
including the following three:

(1) power series expansion method;
(2) partial fraction expansion method;
(3) residue methode.

Each method has its own merits and demerits. In terms of mathematical rigor, the residue
method is perhaps the most elegant. The power series method, however, lends it self most
easily to computer implementation.

Computer study

M-file iztrans.m is used to find inverse Z-transform.
Example 8.1
6 z 5 z
z
) z ( X
2
+ +
=

| | ( ) | | ( ) | | k U 3 k U 2 k x
s
k
s
k
+ =






8.1 Inverse Z-transforms via long division

For causal sequences, the z-transform X(z) can be expended into a power serises in
1
z

.
For a rational X(z), a convenient way to determine the power serise is an expansion by long
division.
syms z k
x=z/(z^2+5*z+6);
iztrans(x)

ans =

(-2)^k-(-3)^k
8. Z-TRANSFORM
113
....... z c z c c
a z a ....... z a z
b z b ....... z b z b
) z ( X
2
2
1
1 0
0 1
1 n
1 n
n
0 1
1 n
1 n
n
n
+ + + =
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

where ..... c , c , c
2 1 0
are power serise coefficients.
Example 8.2
1 z 414 . 1 z
z
) z ( X
1 2
+
=



Computer study

The inverse of a rational z-transform can also be readly calculated using MATLAB. The
function impz can be utilized for this purpose. Three versions of this function are as follows:
- [h,t]=impz(num,den)
- [h,t]=impz(num,den, L)
- [h,t]=impz(num,den, L,
FT)

Where the input data consists of the vector num and den
containing the coefficients of the numerator and the
denominator polynomials of the z-transform given in the
descending powers of z, the output impulse response vector h,
and the time index vector t. The first form, the length L of h is
determined automatically by the computer with t=0:L-1,
whereas in the remaining two forms it is supplied by the user
through the input data L. In the last form, the sampling interval
is
FT
1
. The default value of FT is 1. The following two
examples show application | | | | den num impz t h , , = file to and
plot power.

Example 8.3

1 414 . 1
) (
2
+
=
z z
z
z X





z
z
2
-1.414z+1
z-1.414+z
-1
z
-1
+1.414z
-2
+z
-3
-z
-5
. . .
1.414-z
-1

1.414-2z
-1
+1.414z
-2

z
-1
-1.414z
-2

z
-1
-1.414z
-2
+z
-3

-z
-3

-z
-3
+1.414z
-4
-z
-5
X[k]=o[k-1]+1.414o[k-2]+ o [k-3]+0-o[k-5]. . .
num=[1 0];
den=[1 -1.414 +1];
L=8;
[x,k]=impz(num,den,L)
x =
1.0000
1.4140
0.9994
-0.0009
-1.0006
-1.4140
-0.9988
0.0017
k =
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
stem(k,x,fill,k)


Power series coefficiens for
1 414 . 1
) (
2
+
=
z z
z
z X
8. Z-TRANSFORM
114
























1 3 2
1
) (
2
2
+ +
+
=
z z
z z
z X

Example 8.4
Power series coefficients for
1 3 2
1
) (
2
2
+ +
+
=
z z
z z
z X



















0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5

k

num=[1 1 -1];
den= [2 3 1];
L=10;
[x,t]=impz(num,den,L)
x =
0.5000
-0.2500
-0.3750
0.6875
-0.8438
0.9219
-0.9609
0.9805
-0.9902
0.9951
stem(k,x,fill,k)


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
8. Z-TRANSFORM
115

8.2 The Inverse Z-Transform Using Partial Fractions

We now derive the expression for the inverse z-transform and outline the two
methods for its computation.
Recall that, for
e
=
j
re z , the z-transform G(z) given by the equation is merely the Fourier
transform of the modified sequence | |
k
r k g

. Accordingly, by the inverse Fourier transform,
we have:
| |
}
t
t
e e
e
t
= d e ) re ( G
2
1
r k g
k j j k

(8.2)

By making the change of variable
e
=
j
re z , the above equation can be converted into a
contour integral given by :
| | | |

= C inside poles the at z ) z ( G of residues k g
1 k

(8.3)
Note that theequation mentioned above needs to be equated at all values of k which can be
quite complicated in most cases.
A rational G(z) can be expressed as:
) z ( D
) z ( P
) z ( G =
where P(z) and D(z) are the polynomials in
1
z

. If the degree M of the numerator

polynomial P(z) is grester than or equal to the degree N of the denominator polynomial D(z),
we can divide P(z) by D(z) and re-express G(z) as:
) (
) (
) (
1
0
z D
z P
z a z G
N M
i
k
i
+ =

where the degree of the polynomial ) z ( P
1
is less that that of D(z). The rational function
) z ( D
) z ( 1 P
is called a proper fraction.
The expression of Eq (8.2) can be computed in a number of ways. Consider the following
cases:
Case 1: G(z) is a proper fraction with simple poles. Let the poles of G(z) be at
k
p z = ,
k=1,2,3,,N, where p
k
are distinct. A partial-fraction expansion of G(z) then is of the form
:

=

=
N
1 k i
i
p z
z a
) z ( G
(8.4)
where the constants
l
in the above expression, called the residues, are given by:
i
p z
i i
z
) z ( G
) p z ( a
=
= (8.5)
Each term of the sum on the right-hand side of Eq.(8.4) has an ROC given by z > ,p
k
,,
therefore, the inverse transform g[k] of G(z) is given by
| | | | k U p a k g
s
k
i
N
1 k
i
=
=
8. Z-TRANSFORM
116
Note that the above approach with slight modifications can also be used to determine the
inverse z-transform of a noncausal sequence with a rational z-transform.
Example 8.5
Let the z-transform of a causal sequence g[k] be given by :

) 6 . 0 z )( 2 . 0 z (
) 0 . 2 z ( z
) z ( G
+
+
=
6 . 0 z
a
2 . 0 z
z a
) z ( G
z 2 1
+
+

=
2 . 0 z
1
) 6 . 0 z )( 2 . 0 z (
0 . 2 z
) 2 . 0 z ( a
=
+
+
= 75 . 2
8 . 0
2 . 2
= =
75 . 1
8 . 0
4 . 1
) 6 . 0 z )( 2 . 0 z (
) 0 . 2 z (
) 6 . 0 z ( a
6 . 0 z 2
=

=
+
+
+ =
=

| | | | | | k U ) 6 . 0 ( 75 . 1 ) 2 . 0 ( 75 . 2 k g
s
k k
=
Example 8.6
Using MATLAB determine the partial fraction expansion of X(z):

5 . 1 z 5 . 3 z 2
12 z 3
) z ( X
2 3
3

+
=













5 . 0 z
625 . 2
1 z
6 . 3
5 . 1 z
47 . 2
) z ( X
+
+
+

=

75 . 0 z 75 . 1 z
z 6 z 5 . 1
) z ( X
2 3
2 3

+
=







Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by 2.

num=[3 0 0 12];den=[2 -3.5 0 -1.5];
[r,p,k]=residuez(num,den)
r =
1.9219
3.7891 - 0.3013i
3.7891 + 0.3013i
p =
1.9477
-0.0989 - 0.6126i
-0.0989 + 0.6126i
k =
-8
r=[ 1.9219 3.7891 - 0.3013i 3.7891 + 0.3013i];
p=[ 1.9477 -0.0989 - 0.6126i -0.0989 +
0.6126i];
[num,den]=residuez(r,p,k)
num =
1.5001 -0.0000 0.0008 5.9999
den =
1.0000 -1.7499 -0.0000 -0.7500
8. Z-TRANSFORM
117
5 . 1 z 5 . 3 z 2
12 z 3
) z ( G
2 3
3

+
=

Case 2. G(z) has multiple poles, for example, if the pole at v = z is of multiplicity r and the
remaining N-r poles are simple and at , r N ,..... 3 , 2 , 1 k , p z
k
= = then the general partial-
fraction expansion of G(z) takes the form


=

v
+

+ =
r
1 i
i 1
ri
r N
i k k
k
N M
0 k
k
k
) z 1 (
z
a
p z
z a
z a ) z ( G

where the constant a
ri
(no longer called the residues for i=1) are computed using the formula:
v =

=
z
r
i r
i r
ri
z
) z ( G
) z (
) z ( d
d
)! i r (
1
a , i=1,2,3,..,r
Example 8.7
2
2
) 1 z (
z
) z ( X

= ;
2
22 21
) 1 z (
z a
) 1 z (
z a
) z ( X

=
2
22 21
) 1 z (
a
) 1 z (
a
z
) z ( X

= ; 0
z
) z ( zX
a
0
= = ; 1
z
) z ( X ) 1 z (
a
1 z
2
21
=

=
=

( )
1 z
dz
d
z
) z ( X 1 z
dz
d
a
1 z
1 z
2
22
= =

=
=
=


Which results in the following time-series
| | ( ) | | k u k 1 k x
s
+ =
Example 8.8
2
) 1 z )( 5 . 0 z (
z
) z ( G

=
4
z
) z ( G
) 5 . 0 z ( a
5 . 0 z
1
= =
=
; 2
z
) z ( G
) 1 z ( a
1 z
2
22
= =
=
;
4
z
) z ( G
) 1 z (
dz
d
a
1 z
2
21
=
(

=
=

2
) 1 z (
z
2
1 z
z
4
5 . 0 z
z
4 ) z ( G

=
Consider the following three cases:
1) |z|>1
g[k] | | | | | | k kU 2 k U 4 k U ) 5 . 0 ( 4
k
+ =
2) |z|<
2
1

| | | | 1 k U k U
s s

g[k] | | | | | | 1 k kU 2 1 k U 4 1 k U ) 5 . 0 ( 4
s s s
k
+ =
3)
2
1
<z<1
g[k] | | | | | | 1 k kU 2 1 k U 4 k U ) 5 . 0 ( 4
s s s
k
+ =

|z|>1
|z|<
2
1

2
1
<z<1
0.5 1.0
0.5 1.0
0.5 1.0
8. Z-TRANSFORM
118
Example 8.9
) 5 . 0 z ( ) 1 z (
z 3 z 5 z 3
) z ( X
2
2 3

+
=
2
22 21 11
) 1 z (
z a
1 z
z a
5 . 0 z
z a
) z ( X

=

where ) 5 . 0 z /( z a
11
an exponential, ) 1 z /( z a
21
a step function, and
2
22
) 1 z /( z a a ramp
function. What is desired, however, is the partial fraction expansion of X(z)/z, where:

2
22 21 11
) 1 z (
a
1 z
a
5 . 0 z
a
z
) z ( X

=
where
5
) 1 z ( z
z 3 z 5 z 3
z
) z ( X ) 5 . 0 z (
a
5 . 0 z
2
2 3
5 . 0 z
1
=

+
=

=
=
=

2
) 2 / 1 z ( z
z 3 z 5 z 3
z
) z ( X ) 1 z (
a
1 z
2 3
1 z
2
22
=

+
=

=
= =

2
)) 2 / 1 z ( z (
) 4 / 1 z )( 3 z 5 z 3 ( 2
) 2 / 1 z ( z
3 10 z 9
z
) z ( X ) 1 z (
dz
d
a
1 z
2
2 3
1 z
2
21
=
(

+
=

=
= =

which results in

| | | | | | k u k 2 2 ) 5 . 0 ( 5 k x
s
k
+ =
Example 8.10
Solve using Matlab:
1 z 4 z 3 z 18
z 18
) z ( H
2 3
3
+
=
5 . 0 z
36 . 0
) z 33 . 0 1 (
4 . 0
z 33 . 0 1
24 . 0
) z ( H
2 1 1

+
+
+
+
=





















num=[18]; den=[18 3 -4 -1];
[r,p,k]=residuez(num,den)
r =
0.2400
0.4000
0.3600
p =

-0.3333
-0.3333
0.5000
k =[]
[num,den]=residuez(r,p,k)
num =
1.0000 0.0000 0.0000
den =
1.0000 0.1667 -0.2222 -0.0556
8. Z-TRANSFORM
119
Using the numerator and the denominator coefficients we have:

0556 . 0 z 2222 . 0 z 1667 . 0 z
z
) z ( X
2 3
3
+
=

It can be seen that the coefficients will be same as in the equation of the question if we
multiply each coefficient by 18.

Example 8.11. Find the inverse Z-transform of


2
3
) 5 . 0 z )( 5 . 0 z (
) 1 z (
) z ( X
+
+
=

2
22 21 1 0
) 5 . 0 z (
a
) 5 . 0 z (
a
) 5 . 0 z (
a
z
a
z
) z ( X

+
+
+ =

8
z
) z ( zX
a
0 z 0
= =
=


4
27
) 5 . 0 z (
) 1 z (
dz
d
z
) z ( X ) 5 . 0 z (
dz
d
a
4
27
) 5 . 0 z (
) 1 z (
z
) z ( X ) 5 . 0 z (
a
4
1
) 5 . 0 z (
) 1 z )( 5 . 0 z (
z
) z ( X ) 5 . 0 z (
a
5 . 0 z
3
5 . 0 z
2
21
5 . 0 z
3
5 . 0 z
2
22
5 . 0 z
2
3
5 . 0 z 1
=
+
+
=

=
=
+
+
=

=
=

+ +
=
+
=
= =
= =
= =

2
) 5 . 0 z (
z
4
27
) 5 . 0 z (
z
4
27
) 5 . 0 z (
z
4
1
8
z
) z ( X

+
=
| | | | | | k U ) 5 . 0 ( k
4
27
) 5 . 0 (
4
27
) 5 . 0 (
4
1
k 8 k x
s
k k k
(

+ o =














num=[1 3 3 1]; den=poly([0 -0.5 0.5 0.5])
den =
1.0000 -0.5000 -0.2500 0.1250 0
[r,p,k]=residue(num,den)
r =
-0.2500
-6.7500
6.7500
8.0000
p =
-0.5000
0.5000
0.5000
0
k = []



8. Z-TRANSFORM
120




Case 3. X(z) has a complex pole
Example 8.12. The second-order ) 4 / 1 z )
6
cos( z /( ) z 5 . 1 z 3 ( ) z ( X
2 2
+
t
= has non
repeated complex roots. The partial expansion of X(z) is defined by:

) z (
z
a
) z (
z
a ) z ( X
*
2 1
o
+
o
=
) z (
a
) z (
a
z
) z ( X
*
2 1
o
+
o
=
where o=0.433 j0.25 and
o =
o =
o

=
o
=
z
*
2
z
1
) z ( z
) z 5 . 1 z 3 (
z
) z ( X ) z (
a


*
1
* z * z
*
2
a
) z ( z
) z 5 . 1 z 3 (
z
) z ( X ) z (
a =
o

=
o
=
o = o =

Also note that
| | | | k u
z
1
Z k x
k 1
1
o =
(

o
=


and | | | | k u ) (
z
1
Z k x
k *
*
1
2
o =
(

o
=



Where o=0.433013-j0.25=0.5exp(-jt/6). Therefore,
) 6 / j exp( 5 . 0 z
z
a
) 6 / j exp( 5 . 0 z
z
a ) z ( X
*
1 1
t
+
t
=

which corresponds to a time-series, for k>0

| |
) 12 / 6 / k cos(
2
1
1 . 3
)) 12 / 6 / k j exp( ) 12 / j 6 / k j (exp(
2
1
55 . 1
) 6 / k j exp(
2
1
) 12 / j exp( 55 . 1 ) 6 / k j exp(
2
1
) 12 / j exp( 55 . 1 k x
k
k
k k
t + t
|
.
|

\
|
=
t t + t t
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
|
.
|

\
|
t + t
|
.
|

\
|
t =


which is seen to be a causal phase-shifted cosine wave with an exponentially descending
envelope. Also observe that | | 3 ) 12 / cos( 1 . 3 0 x = t = , which can be verified using the initial
value theorem.

8. Z-TRANSFORM
121

8.3 Difference Equations

Long division can be intensive and tedious computational process. If a computer-based signal
processing is desired, the use of difference equation is generally more efficient. Assume that
the Z-transform of a time series is | | k x is X(z), where

=
=

N
0 i
i
i
M
0 i
i
i
z a
z b
) z ( X


Recall that the | | | | 1 k Z = o and | | | |
n
z n k Z

= o . Therefore, it follows that:

| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | N k b ) 1 N ( k b .... 1 k b k b
M k x a ) 1 M ( k x a .... 1 k x a k x a
N 1 N 1 0
M 1 M 1 0
o + o + + o + o
= + + + +

The response | | k x can be simulated by implementing the difference equation.



Example 8.13
Consider causal
) 5 . 0 z )( 1 z (
z 3 z 5 z 3
) z ( X
2 3

+
=

from example 11.

3 2 1
2 1
1 2 1
2 1
2 3
2 3
z 5 . 0 z 2 z 5 . 2 1
z 3 z 5 3
) z 5 . 0 1 ( ) z 1 (
z 3 z 5 3
5 . 0 z 2 z 5 . 2 z
z 3 z 5 z 3
) z ( X




+
+
=

+
=
+
+
=

Which produces a time-serises

| | | | k u ) k 2 2 ) 5 . 0 ( 5 ( k x
s
k
+ =

Then | | k x , for 0 k > , can be simulated using

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 k 3 1 k 5 k 3 3 k x 5 . 0 2 k x 2 1 k x 5 . 2 k x o + o o + + =