Pre-Colonial Influences

in the Asia Pacific

Professor Carl Thayer

Presentation to
Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies
Australian Defence College
March 10, 2009
 Lesson Objectives

Understand the key impacts of Sinic,

India, Hindu and Muslim influences on
shaping the fundamental social order in
Asia prior to the entry of colonial
powers.
Consider how those influences are still
fundamental drivers in Asia today.
 Outline of Lecture
Background
Rise of pre-colonial empires in India
Indianization of Southeast Asia
Formation of Imperial China
The Chinese Tribute System
The Spread of Islam and Islamic Political Power
The Age of Commerce, 1450-1680
Pre-colonial forces as fundamental drivers in the
contemporary period
 Background

Empires first arose in India (321-184 BCE)

and China ( 221 BCE-220 CE)
Two waves of western colonisation
„ Iberian Wave (1511-19th Century
„ Forward Movement (1870-)
Broad brush overview
South Pacific not included
Pre-Colonial Security Perspectives
The ‘state’ (dynasty) was the main actor
Security was identified as the security of
the dynasty in power
Inter-state relations highly personalized
Norms (not law) guided state behavior
State power rested on population under
control
War and conquest used as an instrument
of state power
1. Pre-colonial Empires in India

Modern India and Mauyra Dynasty (321 BCE –183 CE)

 Hinduism
World’s oldest religious tradition
Indus River civilisation
No one founder or single religious text
Many sacred texts
Many religious schools of belief and gods
„ Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and reincarnations
such as Rama and Krishna
Importance of religious rituals
Reinforced caste structure
Buddhism (6th Century BCE)
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama
„ On enlightenment he became the Buddha
One of the world’s oldest religions that
spread to embrace most of Asia
Reaction to caste structure and Hinduism
Scriptures are recollections of Buddha
compiled after his death by disciples such
as Ananda
Theravada and Mahayana two main sects
Gupta Dynasty (250-550 CE)

The Golden Age of

India
Dynasty based on
Hinduism
Tolerance towards
Buddhism
Sub-continental focus
Chola Dynasty 9th-13th Century CE
Northern India
subjected to repeated
invasions by
Persians, Greeks,
Arabs and Central
Asians
Moghul Empire
(1526-1858 CE)
Islam and Hinduism
co-existed
Note territory to west
of Indus River
2. Indianization of Southeast Asia
Prolonged process
„ Merchants and trading communities,
missionaries, pilgrims
Impacted on mainland and island
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asian courts imported
specialists to shore up their legitimacy
Buddhism-Hinduism co-mingled and
mixed with local beliefs
Prambanan Temple, Java
Srivijaya Empire 10th-11th Century
Majapahit Empire 1293-1527
Khmer Empire 9th-15h Century

Angkor Wat
complex
3. Formation of Imperial China
Yellow River civilisation
Central theme has been
unification of Han
heartland between
Yellow and Yangtze
Rivers
Invasions by Mongols
(1271-1368 CE) and
Manchus
Gradual expansion over
land mass
Warring States Incorporation of Tibet
and other territories
221-206 B.C.
 Confucianism
Confucius (551-479 BCE)
Teaching consolidated by his followers,
Mencius’ Analects of Confucius
Centrality of Emperor
Hierarchical personal obligations
Examination system - meritocracy
Ideological foundation for Imperial China
(221 BCE-199 CE)
Qin Dynasty 221-207 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE
Sinification
Ming Dynasty 1368-1644
Strong central
government
Outward looking
Encouraged
international trade
Voyages of
exploration by
Admiral Zheng He
Revival of tribute
system
Ching Dynasty 1644-1911
4. The Chinese Tribute System
Admiral Cheng Ho, 1405-33
 Sinitic (Chinese) System
World viewed as a No inter-government
single unit relations per se
China was the Middle No role for
Kingdom international law or
Emperor had cooperation
authority over all Force used to:
people under heaven „ Secure recognition
„ Chastise a state that had
‘Conquest’ through strayed from proper rules
culture and virtue of conduct
 Sinitic System – The Ideal
Inequality of nations a Strong dynasties
fundamental feature were expansive
Insistence on China did not interfere
hierarchy in relations in internal affairs
Tributary relations Compliant behavior
based on personal rewarded
obligations “Rogue” states
China recognized as chastised or punished
superior
 Sinitic System – The Reality
Principle of ‘righteous Korea and Vietnam
war’ subjected to periodic
„ China unified by invasion
war Korea seen as a
War and organizing model tributary state
for war mainstays of Vietnam seen as a
government noncompliant and
Two strategic cultures rebellious
„ Idealized

„ Operational
 Indic and Sinitic Systems
Non-universal ruler Universal Emperor
Hereditary non- Non-hereditary
centralized centralized
administration administration
Aggressive interstate
behavior, need to Relatively benign,
prove superiority superiority manifest in
through manifestation cultural terms,
of superior power superiority not
amenable to proof by
force of arms
 Indic and Sinitic Systems
Vague definition of Clear notion of own
borders borders but not of
Distribution of barbarian kingdoms
international political Concentric circles
power in form of representing
concentric circles; decreasing cultural
enemies and friends influence, hostility
alternate, closest greatest from center,
neighbor primary neighbors like
enemy younger brothers
 5. The Spread of Islam
and Islamic Political Power
 Islamic Sultanates
Collision of Christianity and Islam set
off violent confrontation
Portugal attacked and destroyed
Muslim trade in Indian Ocean from
late 15th Century
Direct contact with Mecca
and Ottoman Caliphate
Portugal attacked and seized
Malacca Sultanate 1511
Span fought the ‘Moors’ in the
Philippines
Christian-Muslim conflict -
discourse of jihad
Aid received from Ottoman
Empire
Indonesian volunteers fought
in India
6. The Age of Commerce
1450-1680
Two Trade Networks Combined
Iberian Trade Routes
Pre-colonial Forces as Fundamental
Drivers in the Contemporary Period
India – role in Non-Aligned Movement
„ 5 Principles of Peaceful Co-existence
„ Member of ARF and EAS
Buddhism plays an important domestic
political role in Sri Lanka and Myanmar
„ Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
Hinduism a domestic political issue in
India
„ briefly emerged in Malaysia in 2007
Pre-colonial Forces as Fundamental
Drivers in the Contemporary Period

Islamic influences from Middle East

„ date to pre-colonial era
Islam plays political role
„ ethno-nationalist conflicts in Kashmir,
southern Thailand, southern Philippines,
Xinjiang (China)
„ in domestic politics in Indonesia & Malaysia
Introduction of shari’a law
re-establishment of Caliphate
Pre-colonial Forces as Fundamental
Drivers in the Contemporary Period
Expansion of China’s economic and
political influence in Southeast Asia
„ Revival of ‘tribute system’
„ Ming Dynasty stimulated production for China
market
Confucianism
„ Role in Asian values debate
„ Hu Jin-tao ‘harmony’ and ‘harmonious world’
Pre-colonial Forces as Fundamental
Drivers in the Contemporary Period
Territorial disputes – pre-colonial origins
„ South China Sea
„ Cambodia and Preah Vihear Temple dispute
International trade passes through
strategic straits and choke points of
Southeast Asia (piracy)
„ Reassertion of role of China and India
Global trade and identity politics remain
potent drivers of change
Pre-Colonial Influences in
the Asia Pacific
Questions

Professor Carl Thayer

c.thayer@adfa.edu.au