Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Class
POWER
AND
POWER TRANSMISSION.
BY
E.
W.
KERR,
M.E.,
NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
1908.
BY
E.
W. KERR.
be
Nna fork
PREFACE.
matter contained in the following pages is largely the subject-matter of lectures delivered by the author to students
of the elementary principles of engineering.
THE
sented
The author does not and could not presume to have premuch that is new, but rather a collection of such
and information as would direct the beginner along
principles
the proper course of study. In preparing the work free recourse has been had to various
works upon the subjects named, from which much subjectmatter has been used.
not intended that the subjects treated should be regarded by the student as exhausted, but rather as containing
It
is
guiding principles for more thorough investigation, either in the classroom or in practice.
end of the different chapters are given of more for the purpose fixing in the mind of the student the more important principles contained, than as examples of
at the
practice,
The problems
though
in fact
many
of
them are
such.
R. H. Whitlock, whose assistance and encouragement are largely responsible for the undertaking of the preparaProf.
To
and under
whom
he has studied
for
for several
years, the author wishes to render thanks. To Prof. Chas. Puryear thanks are due
assistance in
is
who have
loaned electrotypes."
196445
IV
PREFACE.
Figures 34, 35, 36, 37, 41, 42, 73, 74, 76, 78, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, from Robinson's "Principles of Mechanism,"
"Steam Engines and Boilers," Figures 158, 179, 180, 181, from Whitham's "Constructive Steam Engineering," and Figures 121, 132,
Figures 123, 138, 139, 150, from Kinealy's
173, 175, 182, 183, 191, 192, 197, 198, from Mutton's " Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants," and the electros for the same, were used by the permission of the authors of those works, for which the writer is indebted.
171,
E.
COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS,
Nov.
29, 1901.
W. KERR,
book has been improved by rewriting the chapters on Steam Turbines and Valve Diagrams, also by the addition of
several pages of matter
of the
of heat
steam
upon steam
boilers.
The steam
by another one, more complete and better adapted to the solution of problems.
large
number
added and a
made throughout
the book.
The
contains
175
W. K.
BATAN ROUGE,
LA.,
December
29,
1907.
CONTENTS.
PART
I.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
Mechanics, Force, Analysis of a MaSimple Machines, Classification of Levers, 3. Law of chine, 2. Machines, Inclined Plane, 4. Wedge, 6. Screw, Cam, Pulley or Wheel and Axle, Energy, Work, Power, etc., 10. Block, 7. Conservation of Energy, n. Sources of Energy, 12. Work, EfDefinition of terms,
i.
ficiency,
13.
Power,
14.
Problems,
14.
CHAPTER
SHAFTING
II.
16
Description of different kinds of Shafting, 16. Materials and manner of making, 17. Strains of Shafting, Collars, 18. Speed, Formulas for Diameter of Shafting, 20. Couplings, 21. 19.
Friction-clutch, 22.
Work
transmitted by a
Shaft, 23.
Prony
Brakes, 24.
CHAPTER
BEARINGS
Classification, 26.
III.
26
30.
of Bearings,
Bearings, 30.
Problems,
CHAPTER
IV.
'.
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION OF BEARINGS Friction, Coefficient of Friction, 34. Angle of Repose, Morin's Laws of Friction, 35. Laws of Friction (Goodman), 36. Friction
of different Metals upon each other, 37. Cast-iron as Bearing Metal, Babbitt, 38. Qualities of good Lubricants, 39. Lubricants for different conditions of practice, Graphite, 40.
vii
34
viii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
FRICTION
V.
PAGE
WHEELS
41
Materials used in making, Advantages and Disadvantages of, For Shafts not Parallel, 43. Graphi41. For Parallel Shafts, 42.
cal
Methods,
44.
Equation
of, 45.
Problems,
45.
CHAPTER
PULLEYS
VI.
47
Manner
Shaft, 47.
Pulleys, 52.
Problems,
52.
CHAPTER
BELT GEARING
VII.
54
Leather and Rubber Belts, 54. Best working of Belts, 55. Formulas for H.P., 56. Rubber Belts, 57. Strength of Belting, 58. H.P. of RopeLacing, 59. Rope-driving, Advantages of, 61.
drive, 63.
Problems,
64.
CHAPTER
TOOTHED WHEELS
VIII.
66
Certain transmission of Toothed Wheels, Advantages and Disadvantages of, as compared with Belt transmission, Similarity to
Friction
Wheels,
66.
Proportion of parts
of
Gear-wheel,
of
67.
Spur-wheels,
chines Gears, 68. Teeth, manner of representing Teeth, Clearance, Back-lash, 69. Dimension of a Gear-wheel, 70. Annular Gear, Pinion, Rack, 71. Equations of Speed, System of Gear-wheels, Train of Gear-wheels,
72.
Form
Teeth,
MaWooden
H.P. of Gear-teeth,
73.
Problems,
74.
CHAPTER
THE SCREW
IX.
75
Endless
77. 78.
Screw, 76. Equation of Endless Screw, Angular Velocity, Screw-threads, U. S. Standard Thread, Flat of, Table of,
Whitworth Thread, Square Thread, Male, Female, 79. Manner of making Screw-threads, Bolts, Machine-bolts, Carriage-bolt, Stovebolt, 80.
screw, 81.
CONTENTS.
ix
CHAPTER
CAMS
Use of Cams,
Friction and
X.
PAGE
84
of Cams, 85. Path of Follower, Swinging Follower, Flat-foot Follower, Curve of Cam in which Velocity Ratio of Rod and Axis are constant, 86. Spiral of Archi-
Wear
medes,
87.
Cam
Cams
88.
for
Valve Moments, Shear operated by Cam, Inverse Cam, tion of Applied Force to Resistance, 89.
Rela-
CHAPTER
THE
LEVER AND SOME OF
ITS
XI.
MODIFICATIONS
90
Examples of Levers, Law of the Lever, 90. Rack and Pinion, Moving Strut, Toggle-joint, 91. Wheel-work, Cranes, etc., PrinBlock or Pulley, ciple of Wheel-work, -Law of Wheel-work, 92.
Differential
Windlass,
93.
Equation of
Work
for
Differential
96.
Windlass,
94.
Problems,
CHAPTER
LINK WORK
r
XII.
98
Applications of Link-work, Advantages of Link-work, 98. Paths of various Points of Link-w ork, 100. Equivalents for Link-
of
providing
Hooke's Uni-
CHAPTER
PIPE FITTINGS
Valves,
Different
106.
XIII.
105
Classes
of,
Globe-valve,
108.
105.
Check-valve,
109.
Throttle-valve,
Valve-regrinder,
Gate-valve, Slide107.
Regulating-valve,
Piping, no.
Fittings,
in.
PART
II.
STEAM-POWER.
XIV.
112
CHAPTER
HEAT AND STEAM
Heat, Temperature, Absolute Temperature, Pressure, Absolute Steam, Effects produced by applying Heat to Pressure, 112. Water and Steam, different kinds of Steam, Calculation of Heat
CONTENTS.
p
Plant for producing Steam, Manner of producing Steam, Furnace, Chimney, Boiler, 116. Classes of Boilers, Firetube Boilers, Water-space, Steam-space, Manner of providing for Dry Steam, Heating-surface, 117. Formula for Heating-surface, Tubes, Flues, Internally-fired Boilers, 120. Cornish Boiler, Locomotive Boiler, Water-tube Boilers, 121. Scotch Boiler, 122.
in Steam, 114.
Header, Babcock and Wilcox Boiler, 124. Heine Boiler, Stirling Water-tube Boilers, Safety Boilers, Heating-surface Boiler, 125. of Water-tube Boilers, Boiler-setting, 126. Setting for Return Tubular Boiler, Double Wa'ls, Grate-surface, 128. Bridge-wall,
Ash-pit, FJame-bed, 129.
Two
Methods
Force of Draft, Measuring the Draft, Formulas for Height of Chimney, 132. Chimneys, Position of Stack for different Boilers, Brick Chimney, Steel or Wrought Iron Chimneys, 131. Breeching. Forced Draft, Manner of Producing, Blower, 133. Chimney for Forced Draft, 134. Combustion, Rate of Combustion, Maximum and Minimum Rate, Principal Elements
of, 130.
Heat-units in a pound of Fuel, Total Heat required Air required for Combustion, Fuels, Wood, Coal, Petroleum, Table of Fuels with their Heating-power, 137. Coke, Roney Stoker, Petroleum Fuel, Manner of Firing Petroleum, 139. Plant for Burning Petroleum Fuel, 141. BoiLr Accesin Fuels, 135. to be generated, 136.
sories,
Steam-gauge,
Safety-valve,
Water-gauge,
142.
Gauge-cocks,
143.
Water-
column,
Formula
for
water, 144.
Feed-pipe,
146.
Dampers, Problems,
CHAPTER
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE Reciprocating and Rotary
Engine,
XV.
154
Steam-engines,
154.
Compound
Engine,
Piston, Piston-rings, Cylinder, Valve, 155. Eccentric, 156. Expansion of Steam according to Marriotte's Law, Points of Cut-off, Release, Admission, Compression, Formula for Thickness of Cylinder-walls, 158.
Single-acting,
Double-acting,
Steam-chest,
Cylinder-head, Piston, Built-up Piston, Piston-rod, Formula for Cross-head, 160. Cross-head Pin, Dimensions of, 159. for Area of Slides, Connecting Rod, Formula 161. Guides, of,
Diameter
162.
of, 164.
Diameter
of,
Dynamo, Fly-wheel, Diameter of, 166. Eccentric, Eccentricity, Eccentric-strap, Eccentric- rod, Valve- rod, Diameter of Valve-rod,
CONTENTS.
Steam-chest, Form of Steam-chest, Openings in Steam-chest, 167. Steam-ports, Area of, Bridge, Exhaust-port, Exhaust-pipe, Bed of Engine, Regulation of Speed of Engine, 168. Throttling Governor, Clearance, Back-pressure, Stroke, Velocity of Piston, 170.
xi
PAGE
Problems,
171.
CHAPTER
AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINES.
XVI.
173
HIGH-SPEED ENGINES
Long-stroke and Short-stroke Engines, Regulation by changing Travel of Valve, High Rotative Speed of, Greatest Source of trouble with, 173. Clearance, Balanced and Multiple-ported
Valves,
Corliss Engine, Valves, Clearance, Speed, Perfect Control of, 179. Back-pressure, Economical in the use of Steam, High First Cost, Arrangement of Valves, 180.
Piston-valve,
Governor,
175.
177.
CHAPTER
INDICATORS
XVII.
181
Use of, Indicator-card, Mechanism of Indicator, Operation, 181. Atmosphere Line, 182. Springs, Conditions required in a good Indicator, Method of taking Cards from both ends of Cylinder at one, Reducing Motions, 183. Length of Card, Pendulum Reducing Motion, Pantograph, 185. Taking the Card, Data for Card,
Typical
Card, 186. Finding Average Height, Mean Effective Pressure, H.P. from Indicator Card, 187. Weight of Steam per Hr. per H.P. calculated from Card, 188. Construction of Theo-
Vacuum-line, 190. Cards showing improper working of Valves, 191. Thermal EfficiCommercial Efficiency, Performance of Engines in ency, 192. Practice, Problems, 193.
CHAPTER
'COMPOUND ENGINES
XVIII.
196
Compounding, High- and Low-pressure Cylinders, 196. Stages of Expansion, Tandem and Cross-compound, 1973. Cross-compound, advantages of, 198. Simple and Compound Engines compared,
Losses
in
Engines,
Advantages
of
Range of Temperature
199.
in Cylinder, Objections to
Ratio of Cylinders, Receiver, Receiver-space, 200. IndicaProblem, Combining Indicator-cards of a Compound Engine, 202. Theoretical and Actual Work from Card, 205.
tor-card, 201.
xii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
CONDENSERS
Principle of, 206.
Jet-
XIX.
PAGE
206
and Surface-condensers, 207. Wheeler Condenser, 208. Worthington Condenser, 209. Jet- and Surfacecondensers compared, 210. Manner of cooling Condenser water, 2H. Condenser-plant, 212. Condenser Tube-joints, 213. Airpump, Belt-driven and Independent Condensers, 214. Vacuumgauge, 215.
217.
CHAPTER
VALVES AND VALVE-GEARING
XX.
218
Slide-valve, Steam-lap, Exhaust-lap, 218. Effect of Steam- and changing Lead, 219.
Lead,
Manner
of
Exhaust-lap, 220. Setting an Eccentric, Locating the Engine on the Center, ReversStephenson Link, 222. Gooch Link, Allen Valve, ing-gears, 221.
Double-ported Slide-valve, 224. Gridiron Valve, Valves of Automatic Cut-off Engines, Meyer Valve, 225. Buckeye Valve, Ideal Engine Valve, Valves for Slow-speed Automatic Cut-off Engines, Valves taking Steam Internally, 227. ReCorliss Valves, 226.
leasing Gear of Corliss Valve, 228.
Engine, 229.
High-speed Engine-governors,
CHAPTER
VALVE DIAGRAMS Use of, Zeuner Diagram,
232.
XXI.
232
gram, 233. Geometric properties of, 234. Examples of, 236, running over and under, direct valve, indirect valve, 237. Form of diagram for different conditions, 238. Problems, 239.
CHAPTER
XXII.
ROTARY ENGINES AND STEAM-TURBINES 241 Piston and Abutment of Rotary Engines, Classes of Rotary Packing for Piston and AbutEngines, 241. Gearing of, 242. ment, Clearance Space, Advantages of Rotary Engine, 243. ObHero's Engine, Branca's Steam-turbines, 244. Engine, Speed of Turbines, Efficiency, 245. De Laval Steam-turbine, 246. Parsons Steam-turbine, 248. Curtis Steam-turbine, 250.
jections to, 244.
Kerr Steam-turbine,
252.
APPENDIX TO PART
APPENDAGES TO ENGINES
Lubricator, 254.
II.
254
Oil-ceparator, 256.
CONTENTS.
xiii
PART
HI.
COMPRESSED
AIR, ETC.
XXIII.
PAGE
CHAPTER
PUMPING MACHINERY
Suctions and Force-pumps, 257.
acting
257
Pump,
Classification, 260.
and Hydraulic Pumps, 261. Plunger and Piston, 262. Low-pressure Pump, High-pressure Pump, 263. AccumuAccumulator and Pump, Pumps for Deep Wells, 269. lator, 266. WaterAir-lift, Speed of Pumps, Area of Water-valves, 271. Measurpiston, Cylinders, Government, Mason Governor, 272.
Gas-engine,
ing
Water-pressures,
Capacity,
273.
Meter,
274.
Duty,
276.
from Pump,
277.
CHAPTER XXIV.
GAS-ENGINES
280
as a
Temperatures of Exploding Gas, 280. Classification, 281. Fourcycle and Two-cycle Types, Compression of Gas necessary, Otto
Engine, 282. Heavy Construction, Day Engine, 284. Manner of averting the noise of the Exhaust, Indicator-cards from GasLosses in a Gas-engine, Working Fluid, 287. Gasengine, 286.
producer Plant, Valves and Valve Mechanisms, 288. Regulation, Varying the number of Impulses and varying the strength of the Impulse, 289. Centrifugal and Inertia Governors, 290. Igniters, 291. Gasoline-engines, Difference between Gas- and GasolineOilengines, Arrangement of Engine and Gasoline Tank, 292.
engines, Atomizing and Vaporizing of the Oil, 294. of Oil-engine, 295. Jacket-water, 296.
Economy
CHAPTER XXV.
WATER-POWER
H.P. of Water-wheels, 299. Water-turbines, 300. Efficiency of Water-turbines, Runner, 303. Manner of applying Water to wheels, 303. 303. Rating of Turbines, 306. Speed of Turbines, 307. Regulation, Draft-tubes, 309. Impulse or Jet Wheels, Setting, 307. 307.
stream, 299.
309.
297
Velocity Head,
etc.,
299.
Clas-
Head,
Pelton Water-wheel, 309. Hydraulic Pump, 311. Loss of Flow of Water from Orifice, 314. Measuring the 312.
xiv
CONTENTS.
PAGE
315.
Weir-dam Measure-
Problems, 317.
CHAPTER XXVI.
COMPRESSED AIR Use of Compressed Air,
compressor, 320.
chest,
319
319.
Manner
Temperature due
325.
wheel,
Air-receiver,
Regulation,
Air-motors,
327.
Air-pressure, Relations of Volume, Pressure, and Temperature of Air, 329. Diagram of AirVolume and Weight of pressures, Temperatures, etc., 329.
Rock-drill, Air-brake, 328.
Laws of
Exhaust
337-
Motors, 336.
Problems,
CHAPTER
HOT-AIR ENGINES
XXVII.
339
Operation
of, 341.
Problems, 343.
TABLES.
Table
"
I.
Properties of Steam
II.
Weirs
"
III.
"
IV.
349
PART
I.
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION.
Engineering is the art of constructing and using machinery; or the art of executing civil or military works which require a special knowledge of machinery or of the principles of
mechanics.
Mechanical Engineering is that branch of engineering which has to do with machinery such as machine-tools,
engines, etc. Civil Engineering
relates to the
is
that
harbors, etc.
the term applied to the person who is skilled in the principles and practice of any branch of engineer-
Engineer.
ing.
tions, as
Engineers may be classed according to their occupaMechanical, Civil, Military, Naval, Electrical, Mining
This
name
is
given to one
who
is
familiar
able to operate machine-tools. Before a piece of machinery can be in readiness for use
it
must be worked upon by the designer, the draughtsman, the The pattern-maker, the moulder, and finally the machinist.
engineer should understand the principles involved in the work
men and
forces
on bodies.
is
A Force
in a
body.
in
anything that tends to produce or change motion A body at rest is put in motion by a force a
;
body
force.
motion
Or,
if
that change is produced by a force. The unit of force used by engineers in English-speaking For some scientific purcountries is the pound avoirdupois.
absolute unit. poses physicists have adopted a so-called This unit is that force which, acting on a unit mass during a In the English unit of time, will produce a unit of velocity.
'
' ' '
system
it is
whose weight
an ounce.
the force which, acting for one second on a mass is one pound at London, will produce a velocity
It is
equal to JL_
it is
Ibs., or
roughly half
useless to engineers. Machine is a combination of fixed and movable parts so disposed and connected as to transmit force and motion,
As
a unit offeree
in
The
stitute the
frame or support
for the
moving
parts.
The moving
All moving
parts constitute a train or trains of mechanism. parts of machines may be classified as follows
:
1.
2.
shafts. Examples: Line-shafts, spindles, etc. Revolving wheels or cams, with or without teeth.
Revolving
Examples: Spur-gears,
3.
Rods
both.
pulleys, etc. or bars with reciprocating or vibratory motions or Examples: The piston-rod of an engine; the connect-
Examples:
Exam-
ple: Link-belt.
6.
column of
fluid
in a pipe.
pressed
air.
INTRODUCTION.
Simple Machines. The simple machines* are: (i) the The first Lever, (2) the Cord, and (3) the Inclined Plane. includes every body that may be revolved on an axis the
;
second includes
all
machines
;
in
means of
in
flexible connectors
which force
intro-
duced.
lever
fulcrum.
a rigid bar, movable about a fixed point called a The bar may be straight, bent, or curved. Levers
is
are divided into three classes, according to the relative position of the applied force, the weight, and the fulcrum.
In a lever of the
first
is
between the
applied force
in Fig. I.
1
P
FIG.
i.
t
Lever of the First Class.
is
In a lever of the second class the weight applied force and the fulcrum, as in Fig. 2.
between the
w
FIG.
2.
In a lever of the third class, the applied force is between the weight and the fulcrum, as in Fig. 3. The law of the lever is the same in all three cases, viz.: The applied force multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum
* These simple machines are also called by earlier writers on MeThis term is now becoming obsolete. chanics the "Mechanical Powers." " The use of the word " power is not in accordance with modern usage, in " rate of which power is given the meaning doing work,"
't
W
FIG.
3.
If the direction of the applied force or of the resistance is " not perpendicular to the line of the lever, the " lever-arm is the perpendicular distance from the fulcrum to the line of action
of the applied force or of the load. If the applied force P, acting through a distance D,
the
moves
This
load
W through
distance d, then
PD
Wd.
equation
viz.
:
may
moved
through which
acts.
is
The weight
it
may
usually supposed in calculations of machines to be a perfectly hard and smooth surface. In some
The weight of however, friction is taken into account. on an inclined is body plane partly supported by the reaction of the plane. But as this reaction is normal or perpendicular
cases,
to the plane, a
body on
it
will slide
FIG.
4.
Inclined Plane.
be applied in a direction parallel to the plane, the force P, Fig. 4, will be to the weight as the height of the plane is to the length of the
force.
If this force
*
Known
as the
"
Law
of Machines."
INTRODUCTION.
plane measured on the incline.
Expressed as an equation,
P=
AB*
AC
If the force is applied in a direction parallel to the base of the plane, then will the applied force be to the weight as the height is to the base; or
Wx
AB
These equations are in accordance with the general law For if the weight was moved the entire height of the plane the weight would be moved through the height AB. To move the. weight through this height the force would be required to act through the whole distance AC or BC, according to the direction in which the force is applied.
stated above.
If the force
in
than the two just stated, the relation of the force to the weight will be as follows: Let a (Fig. 5) be the angle the plane
FIG.
5.
Inclined Plane.
makes with the horizontal, and 6 the angle the applied force makes with the surface of the plane. Then the force will be to the weight as the sine of a is to the cosine of 6\ or
P=
*
WX
cos
sin
The equations on
this
to a
body
in equilibrium.
To
may
be made
Thus
in Fig. 6, let
^represent the
FIG.
6.
Inclined Plane.
weight of the body at rest on the inclined plane, c being the centre of gravity of the body. From c draw a line ce perpendicular to the surface of the plane. From d draw a line ed Then in parallel to the surface AC, until it intersects ec in e.
the triangle ced the force due to gravity, acting on the body, is represented by cd, the reaction of the plane by ec, and the force which holds the body at rest on the plane, by de. If no
external force is being applied to hold the body at rest, de represents the friction force acting between the plane and body. Since the triangle ABC, representing the plane, is similar to the triangle of forces ced, the sides of the plane may be used
to determine the relative
body.
Thus
P: W\\
ed\ cd::
AB
AC.
A Wedge
bases.
formed by two inclined planes united at their Force is applied to a wedge at its head, the end
is
The work of a directly opposite the point. inclined plane differ in that an inclined plane
to assist in raising a weight, while a
to penetrate a resisting body.
to split a block of
wedge and
is is
of an
If friction be neglected, the force wood. a to resisting body will be to the resistance penetrate required as the thickness of the wedge is to the length of the wedge.
INTRODUCTION.
Thus, letting t = thickness, /= length, and R the resistance, P R ::/:/,
\
P e
A
Screw
is
Rt
-
= 'RK
Pl
a cylinder, so that the height of the plane is parallel to the nut is formed by wrapping an inclined axis of the cylinder.
If it is plane on the internal surface of a hollow cylinder. a screw and means of a desired to raise nut, force weight by
is
usually applied to the end of a wrench attached to the screw, or to the circumference of a wheel whose axis is that of the
screw.
may remain
being rotated in order to raise the weight. If r be taken as the lever-arm, or as the radius of the wheel
is applied, / the pitch, or distance between to which the force threads, or height of the inclined plane for one revolution of the screw, and Wthe weight to be raised, and neglecting fric-
tion,
\\
2nr\
-_
6.2832;-'
In practical work, however, friction cannot be neglected, as a large part of the applied force is used up by it, making the screw a very inefficient machine.
tions of the screw will be treated
The
practical applica-
more
fully in
Chapter IX.
The Cam
wrapped
a revolving inclined plane, which may be around a cylinder or it may be curved edgewise and
is
;
made
Its
mathe-
matical treatment
various forms of
the
same
The
cams
as well as
some
Chapter X. The Pulley or Block consists of a wheel which is able to rotate freely about an axis, together with a flexible cord
be discussed
in
its
circumference.
The
axis of
may
or
may
fixed pulley is shown in If at the be rest the tension on the two cords system Fig. 7. 5 equal and the applied force equals the weight P.
classified as fixed or
be
movable.
may
FIG.
7.
Fixed Pulley.
shown in Fig. 8. Here one end of a fixed support at A. The weight the cord is attached to The sum of the is suspended from the axis C of the pulley.
movable pulley
is
tensions at
and
at
is
weight W.
tension at P,
As
% W. Movable and fixed pulleys may be combined as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The Fig. 9 shows one movable and one fixed pulley.
P=
fixed pulley revolving about C merely serves to change the The relation of to is the same direction of the force P.
movable
pulley, viz.,
/>= \WIn Fig. 10 there are three fixed and three movable pulleys. of the movable The weight is suspended from the axis
pulleys.
plies
of the
rope
INTRODUCTION.
engaging
it,
or
six
in
all.
These
six
plies
will
each be
relation
is lifted,
and the
In general the of the applied force to the weight is | W. of that to the number IV is of to ratio engage the plies equal lower block, and also to the number of plies that are shortened
P=
by the
seldom arranged as shown in the figure. They are usually If the upper block be side by side and of the same diameter.
FIG.
8.
Movable Pulley.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
provided with three sheaves or pulleys and the lower one with two, the end of the rope will be fastened to a hook at the top In this case five plies will be shortened of the lower block.
instead of six and
force
is
may
\W. If the end of the rope to which a sheave in a fixed block, the force over pass applied be applied in any direction whatever. If, however, the
in the
P=
will
it
be
necessary to apply force in a direction parallel to a line joining the centres of the pulleys. If the force be applied in any other
direction, the pulley will
the
pulley,
not
The
o
will
the vertical.
is
The
or
may
and the
Or a simple arm
wrench may be fastened to the end of the axle instead of the wheel, and the length of the arm
be taken as the length of one arm of the lever. Another form
of the wheel and axle
in
is
shown
or
Fig.
ii.
Two
cylinders
pulleys fastened rigidly together, revolving on the same axis, are used
to
FIG. ii.
of
different
diameters
wound around
Wheel and Axle.
The weight to be raised is attached to a rope fastened to it. On unwinding the rope from the larger the smaller cylinder. the attached to the weight will be wound on cylinder A, rope
If the smaller cylinder B. represents the diameter of the larger cylinder plus the diameter of the rope, dihe diameter of
the
and
Wthe
:
weight,
W\\ d\ D,
p=
Wd
'
All moving parts of machines can be resolved into these simple " Elements of Machines." Applications of them will be discussed in later chapters.
Motor
is
Energy
is
of two kinds,
Potential
known
INTRODUCTION.
energy
to
its
is
position.
stored in a reservoir, both possess potential energy. energy is the energy possessed by a moving body.
Thus
if
the raised weight be allowed to fall, or the stored water be allowed to flow, both the weight and the water while in motion
possess kinetic energy. Energy manifests itself in various forms, as heat, electricity,
mechanical energy, chemical energy, etc. These different forms of energy may be converted one to Thus heat energy is converted into mechanical the other.
energy
Chemical energy is converted steam-engine. into electric energy in the primary battery, and mechanical
in the
energy is converted into electricity in the dynamo. Conservation of Energy. The facts stated in the preceding paragraph are comprised in the law known as the law of This law states that " No form of Conservation of Energy.
energy can ever be produced except by the expenditure of some other form, nor annihilated except by being reproduced
in another form.
universe,
like
(S.
the
sum
total
total of
same."
Newcomb.)
heat energy exists
coal
Potential
and
other
fuels.
Potential electric energy exists in a charged storage battery. Potential chemical energy exists in various forms as in gunof these potential energies is the that they are able to perform. The actual is the a amount of of work it will do moving body energy before that resistance resistance brings it to rest. against a
powder,
etc.
The measure
amount of work
This energy
to bring
it
is
to
its
equal to the work done on the body in order actual velocity from a state of rest.
is
Kinetic energy
mathematically equal to
\mi>*,
where m,
is
weight
weight
,
and v
the ve-
It is also
equal to the
12
weight of the body multiplied by the height from which the body must fall in order to acquire its given velocity. Thus
E=
The
Imv
wJi
WV*
.
muscular energy of
three principal sources of energy on the earth are the men and animals, the energy of wind or of
flowing water, and the energy of fuels. energy are due to~the heat of the sun.
The
first-named group
is
amount
of energy available in either men or animals is limited by the Furthermore there is no capacity and endurance of the units.
in
them.
is
more
important and has wider application than the first; but still it is not absolutely under the control of man. Energy may be derived from flowing water only in certain locations, as where
there
is a waterfall or rapidly flowing stream. Then, too, this energy can only be transported to limited distances, as by
The longest transmission line for a heavy electricity. current of electricity generated by a waterfall exists at present The line is about 150 miles long. The energy in California.
means of
due to winds
is
Thus
it
may
is
the
most
Fuels are not subject to the important source of energy. limitations of water, wind, and man power. An enormous capacity for doing work is stored up in very little bulk; it maybe liberated from the fuel as gradually as
may be
is
not limited.
It
may
be
obtained in nearly all regions and if not found in certain localiThe most -extensive ties it may be transported there.
application of this
mode of producing energy is that of the and Boiler. Steam-engine Motive power has different characteristics according to the It may be constant as with a head of nature of the source.
INTRODUCTION.
13
water kept at a certain level by a never-failing stream, or it may vary according to fixed laws, like the action of steam in
an engine-cylinder
it
may
These
get
it.
it
as
we we can
make
these different
sources of power
available, some arrangement must be made for controlling them and making them serve our purposes. This is done by means of machinery.
the overcoming of resistance through space. The unit of work is the foot-pound, which is the work done in lifting one pound a distance of one foot. Work is done when a body
is is
ii? This is the opposition to the force of gravity. is meant by work. what idea of In general, we say simplest that work is done in moving a body against a resistance and
Work
raised
the resistance
is overcome by the action of force upon the body moved. From this it is seen that in order that work shall be done, motion must be produced. Mathematically speaking, work is the product of force in pounds multiplied by the distance through which the force acts in feet, and this product is generally designated as so
many
lifted
through a
50 foot-
pounds.
Efficiency.
may
be divided into two parts, namely: useful work and lost work. The former is that which produces desired results and the
latter is that
which
is is
due to
friction
Of
For
course,
the latter
in the
much
in
smaller
instance,
arrangement shown
at
Fig.
7,
a force of
20
Ibs.
applied
lift
the direction
Ibs.
should
an equal weight of 20
lifted;
suppose
to
14
D
18
is,
in this case,
20
X D
8
2oD.
07}
The
useful
work
is 1
D.
The
efficiency
then
is
20
90 per cent.
are now prepared to define efficiency. Efficiency is the ratio of the energy utilized by a machine to the energy Or it may be expressed as a fracsupplied to the machine.
tion, viz.
:
We
Efficiency
v-
-.
Power is the rate of doing work. Thus the power of a machine may be spoken of as so many foot-pounds, per second, per minute, or per hour as the case may be. The unit of power is the Horse-power, which is equivalent to 33,000
foot-pounds per minute or 550 foot-pounds per second.
An
engine of one horse-power will raise one pound 33,000 feet in one minute or 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute.
PROBLEMS.
1.
Ibs.
Ibs.
What horse-power will be required to lift a weight of 40,000 through a height of 100 feet in one minute? 2. What horse-power will be required to lift a weight of 30,000 through a height of 1000 feet in ten minutes ?
3.
A pump
running
into a stand-pipe 50 feet high in one hour. does the pump produce, exclusive of friction?
How many
4. A trip-hammer weighing 2000 Ibs., operated by steam, makes What is the horse80 drops per minute, the drop being one foot. power of the engine that runs it, supposing that the efficiency is 100
per cent
5.
An
elevator rises
200
a building in four
electric
minutes.
What horse-power
required of an
motor in
INTRODUCTION.
raising
it,
15
if
be 80 per cent
6.
lift
What
is
the efficiency of an
Ibs.
a weight of 10,000
1 8 -horse-power engine which will through a height of loo feel iff 7 minutes,
when running
at its full
capacity?
CHAPTER
II.
SHAFTING.
SHAFTING is employed in shops for transmitting rotary motion from the motors to the operative machinery.
line-shaft
is
made up
of a or
by couplings, and
may
line-shaft is the line of shafting to which the is attached, and which imparts motion to all motor or engine machines. and shafts other the
The main
Counter-shafts are separate sections, usually short ones, placed between the main shaft and a machine, used to increase
or diminish belt-speed, to alter the direction of belt-motion, to carry a loose and a fast pulley (so that by shifting the belt to
it
may
machine), or for
spindle machines.
all
is
and
is
usually found on
Hollow shafting is used to a large extent where large quantities of power are to be transmitted an example of which
;
the propeller-shafts of large steamships. It may has been found that hollow shafting is stronger than solid
be seen
in
Flexible shafting
is
used to transmit rotary motion to any power source through any number
of curves, thus allowing the power to be carried to the work It is used extensively for instead of the work to the power. An example of its use may be seen in the portable work.
drilling of holes for the rivets in locomotive-boilers
where the
16
SHAFTING.
17
magnitude of the work prevents taking it to a drill-press of the A more common example is the instrument ordinary type. used by dentists, the power being transmitted from the foot of
The conthe operator by means of a small flexible shaft. struction of this kind of shaft varies with different makes, but it
FIG. 12.
is
Flexible Shaft.
generally made of a series of steel wires wound upon each At other, the alternate layers running in opposite directions. the ends fittings are attached, one to receive the tools which
are to be operated and the other to receive the transmitted.
power
to
be
Shafting
is
generally
made
of
wrought
iron or steel
and
is
made
by
i8
in
known
is
it is
propeller-shafts,
Very large shafting, as in the case of now commonly made up of an ingot forged
and then turned
in
to approximate shape
cylinder.
of an
Commercial
made from J
T
5
,
inch upwards.
inch,
etc.
The
The
given
in
odd sixteenths
I I
Thus
T\,
i-^
inches,
the dimension given, and then the pulley or bearing to a nice fit.
bored
The
stresses to
which a
line of shaftirg
is
due
to the twisting
ef,~o:t
due to the weight of the shaft and pulleys and to the pull of
the belt tending to bend the shaft. In order to keep a shaft from moving out of its place in the direction of its length, it is necessary to use a collar or to turn a shoulder on the shaft
itself.
shoulder
is
FIG. 13.
Collars.
A,
is generally used for this purpose. of wrought iron or steel, and may be fastened to the shaft either by shrinking it on, or by means of
The
collar
is
made
set-screws.
The
If
collar
is
placed on
shaft
the
length.
from moving in the direction the set-screw is used to fasten the collar to
SHAFTING.
19
the shaft, the head of the screw should be sunk into the collar
keep it from catching on belts or clothing. Shafting which operates wood- working machinery must be run at a higher speed than that used for most metal-working machinery, and taking this as an example it is seen that the
enough
to
speed of shafting,
it is
in general,
employed
to drive.
The speed
For machine-shops 120 to 200 revolutions follows per minute; for wood-working 250 to 300 revolutions per minute; and {or cotton-mills 300 to 400 revolutions per minute. The cost of a plant may be lessened by running the linein practice:
it
The diameter
be
made
Larger
bearings, couplings, etc., thus increasing the cause a greater amount of friction.
but also
portion as
speed
is
increased; that
revolutions per minute. In very large factories long lines of shafting are often used, In such cases the sometimes as much as 1000 feet in length.
FIG. 14.
shaft
is
much
engine than
it is
larger where it receives the power irom the farther away, the size of the shaft gradually
diminishing as the distance from the motor becomes greater. This consideration suggests another practical rule which should be followed when it is possible namely, that in arranging a
;
machine-plant, those machines requiring the greatest amount of power should be placed as near as possible to the motor, in order that the diameter and the weight of the shafting, and the
friction
For the above be reduced as much as possible. large saws absorbing most power
20
should be driven as directly as possible by the motor, TV Vile the spaces farther from the motor should be used for setting up the
and circular saws. Economy in the quantity of as the twisting effort to be thus be practised, shafting may resisted by the shaft becomes less and less as the end most
lighter frame-
motor
is
approached,
until
it
becomes almost
The following rule adopted by William Sellers & Co. determines the size of the shaft to be used when the horsepower is given. RULE. Divide
the horse-power by
tJie
ute ; multiply the quotient by 125 and extract the cube root The result is the diameter of shaft required; of the product.
that
is,
According to Dr. R. H. Thurston, this coefficient (125) work done by the shaft, and also with
The coefficient here given is for well an iron head-shaft, supported, and having bearings placed For a cold-rolled shaft the formula close to the pulleys.
would read, d
If the shaft
/ \
line-shaft, with
hangers well spaced, say seven or eight feet apart, the formula
would read
for iron,
"FT
\^^ A
the sna fting
;
',
=v
3
c c
'
D~
is
used only to
it,
transmit
the
formula reads
.
y
shafting.
r for iron
A /
for cold-rolled
Here
it
is
noticeable
that the
size
of the
shaft
decreases as the
it is
more
number
high speeds.
SHAFTING.
Couplings.
united,
tion,
21
line of shafting
is
usually of considerable
because the
difficulties of construction,
its
of transporta-
The ends
lings.
may
is
revolving, and those which require that the rotation of the shaft
The
is
Fig. 1 5 shows a ^<?jr-coupling, in which the holding power due to a key. It consists of a box bored out to fit the ends
e^^^
22
cut the
as
when
the key
is
in
one piece.
Fig.
The
cast-iron
FIG. 17.
Cresson Coupling.
shafts,
flanges are
together.
FIG. 18.
Friction-clutch.
and
are
made
to
SHIFTING.
23
means of the taper-screws, and the holding effect made still greater by use of the key. An example of the Clutch is shown in Fig. 1 8. It is called
a solid piece of iron of conical shape, which admits of lateral motion on the shaft from left to right
a friction-clutch.
AB is
CD is a corresponding piece into by means of a sliding key. which AB may fit and which is fastened to the shaft Q by means of a key. As soon as the one slides into contact with the other, the friction becomes sufficient to engage the two
lines of shafting.
PROBLEMS.
cubic foot of wrought iron weighs 480 Ibs. weight of a wrought-iron shaft 20 feet in length and diameter.
1.
Find the
2
inches in
2. According to the rule adopted by William Sellers Co., what the required diameter of a line-shaft which makes 200 revolutions per minute and transmits 125 horse-power?
is
&
3.
What diameter
will
if it is
making
What horse-power
2
eter of
Finding the
The power
FIG. 19.
Prony Brake.
Dynamometers, of which there are two classes: Absorption Dynamometers and Transmission Dynamometers.
24
in the Prony brake, measured is clamped by a and b, two blocks of hard wood. At c the block a presses down upon platform-scales, which scales measure the pressure. The load which the shaft may be made to carry is increased by tightening the hand-screw Ji. Let work of shaft in foot-pounds per minute. " P = pressure in pounds registered by the scales on
is
shown
to be
Fig. 19.
The
shaft
whose power
is
"
"
V=
feet,
L.
if it
velocity in feet per minute of the point c allowed to rotate with the shaft.
were
Then
......
Combining
(i)
(2)
and
(2),
W=
2nLNP.
H.P.
H.P.
W -,
hence
LNP --27i
33,000'
33.000
be the crank-shaft of a steam-engine, gasengine, water-motor, or any other shaft. Dynamometers are used principally in testing motors of
shaft
The
may
is
shown
rope
is
pulley rope known weights are attached; the other end of the rope is fastened to the spring-balance which is securely attached to the floor.
at
wound about a
one end of
The
length
is
in the
formula
is
factor IV
and the weight registered on the spring-balance. A Prony brake or any other absorption dynamometer absorbs all the work that may be done by the engine or shaft on which
it is
used.
SHIFTING.
transmission
that
is
being transmitted through a shaft, without absorbing any of it. There are a number of forms of transmission dynamometers,
FIG. 20.
of
but they are but-very little used at present. For descriptions them see Flather's book on " Dynamometers " and the
CHAPTER
III.
BEARINGS.
BEARING
is
support in
which a
shaft
revolves.
Generally speaking, the bearing is fixed and the shaft revolves within it; but sometimes the shaft is rigid and the bearing
revolves around
it;
may
be
movable as
or cross-head pins of an engine. On account of the great length of line-shafts they must be supported by a greater number of bearings than is necessary
for ordinary axles
and
shafts, for
are sufficient.
The
to
which
FIG. 21.
Journal-bearing.
If the pressure on the bearing the Collar- or Thrust-bearing. is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, we have the Journal-
bearing. If the pressure on the bearing is parallel to the axis of the shaft, and the end of the shaft rests on the bearing, it is called
26
BEARINGS.
27
a Pivot-bearing.
If the pressure on the bearing is parallel to the axis of the shaft and the shaft passes through the bearing
we have The
the Collar-bearing.
journal-bearings for a line-shaft each support their proportional part of the weight of the shaft, and also the pres-
FIG. 22.
Pivot-bearing.
FIG. 23.
Collar-bearing.
sure caused
pull of the different belts leading off to the In the case of the pivot-bearing the weight of the whole shaft is supported by the one bearing, the shaft being
by the
machines.
kept in
its
FIG. 24.
Ball-bearing.
The journal-bearing is the class most vertical. is found in all kinds of machinery. and used generally A notable example of the use of pivot-bearings is found in
axes are
water-turbines.
28
collar-bearing has the advantage that it will not gradually wear and let the shaft drop down, as is the case with
the pivot-bearing, because any number of collars may be used on the same shaft, thus increasing the bearing surface and
lessening the vertical wear
The
FIG. 25.
Ball-bearing.
is that by allowing the shaft to pass on through the bearing, pulleys may be placed beneath it and machinery connected also the bearing, in this manner, may be kept out of the water, which would be desirable in the case
;
Another advantage
of a water-turbine.
BEARINGS.
29
a contrivance for lessening the fricby doing away with sliding- friction and subIt may be used with either therefor. friction stituting rollingof the three classes named above.
is
The "ball-bearing
"
tional resistance
The "
"
is
is
used for purposes similar to those used, with the difference that the
roller-bearing
line-shaft.
is
used for heavier work, as the bearing for a machine fitted with ball- or roller-bearings will
run with a saving of from 25 to 75 per cent of the power required with ordinary bearings, depending upon the nature of
the machine.
is
The best form of bearing for any particular use the necessary strength and at the same time which has that
least possible friction.
makes the
"
"
will
fit
the shaft.
It
is
not used
much except
and generally consists of four pieces, viz.: the bottom, the The two side pieces top or cap, and the two side pieces. are so constructed and arranged that they may be pushed
closer to the shaft, after they are worn,
by means of wedges
is
as
shown
in
Fig. 26.
bearing which
suspended from a
FIG. 26.
Built-up Bearing.
'
beam
is
called a
' '
'
hanger.
Likewise a
' '
bracket
"
is
The bearing is bearing which supports a shaft along a wall. made an easy sliding fit on the shaft in order that the shaft
it. The length of a bearing depends upon the and speed of the shaft which it supports. pressure Suppose the pressure upon a certain bearing, caused by the pull on the
may
shaft, to
is
be 50 Ibs. per square inch of bearing surface then it not likely to heat because there is not enough friction. If,
;
FIG. 27.
however, the pressure is increased to 100 Ibs. per square inch there may be a heating of the bearing in which case the bear;
ing should be
twice as long, thus doubling the bearing surface -and making the pressure 50 Ibs. per square inch again. Thus it will be seen that the length of the bearing is
increased in order to lessen the pressure per square inch of
made
BEARINGS.
31
If bearing surface by increasing the number of square inches. a and the total there are 10 square inches in bearing surface
pressure
is
1000
Ibs.
Ibs.,
is
100
made
twice as long, then there will be 10 X 2 square inches of bearing surface, and the pressure per square inch will be
1000
20
50.
is
By
of
its
projection
It on a plane perpendicular to the direction of the pressure. is sometimes called the projected area or bearing surface. For a journal of diameter D and length Z, the bearing
surface
would be DL.
For a pivot-bearing, the bearing surface would be the area of the cross-section of the shaft, .7854!)*.
of the collar,
-D
Then /
r>
-=^.\
inches.
Likewise
for
a pivot-bearing
allowable pressure per square inch / speeds, becoming less with increasing speeds; but for ordinary for railway-axles journal-bearings is not more than 200 Ibs.
;
60 to 300 and
for collar-bearings
50 to 70
Ibs.
Methods
bearing
cated.
may
In order that a of applying Oil to Bearings. not heat, it is important to keep it well lubriit
Generally
is
the use of
ally,
and
at regular intervals.
shows what is called a Sight-feed oiler. This is an arrangement by which the oil is fed to the bearing drop by
Fig. 28
32
made
may be
adjustable so that the oil may be fed as fast desired. By this means a thin oil may be
used on large bearings where heavy oil or grease would otherwise have to be used, it being so arranged that the oil is resupplied to the bearing as fast as it is forced out by the heavy
pressure.
Fig. 29
which
is
shows what is called the Compression grease-cup, used to feed tallow or other heavy greases to bearings.
FIG. 28.
FIG. 29.
Compression Grease-cup.
tension in the spring keeps the grease pressed down into the hole in the cap of the bearing. Nearly all bearings have grooves cut in them to serve as reservoirs for surplus oil which
The
is
put
in,
if
PROBLEMS.
1. What is the bearing surface in square inches of a journal-bearing the length of which is 6 inches and diameter 4 inches ? 2. What is the bearing surface of a pivot-bearing, the diameter of
the shaft being 6 inches? four 3. What is the bearing surface of a collar-bearing having collars, the diameter of the shaft being 6 inches and the diameter of the collars being 12 inches? 4. What is the pressure per square inch upon the bearing surface of a journal, the total load being 2400 pounds, the diameter of the
BE/tRINGS.
33
2
5.
What
load
may be
carried by a journal-bearing
inches in diam-
eter
and 8 inches
it runs at a high A speed What can run safely with a load of 400 pounds per square inch. should be the length of the bearing if the total load is 6000 pounds ? is 3200 7. Suppose that the tension on the tight side of a belt
pounds and the tension on the slack side 1600 pounds; what will be the total transverse force exerted upon the shaft to which it transmits motion ?
CHAPTER
IV,
surface of contact so as to resist their sliding on each other, and which depends on the force with which they are pressed
together (Rankine).
rolling friction,
Friction
is
solids,
and
fluid
friction,
and which
exists microscopic irregularities, to the a resistance which offer passage of one surface over lubricant introduced between the two surfaces another.
tends to
fill
the irregular spaces, and causes the surfaces to The nearer to being perfectly smooth.
a surface approaches to being smooth, the less frictional resistance will it offer to the passage of a body over it.
The
Coefficient of Friction of a
body
is
FIG. 30.
face, to the
It is
usually designated by
34
the letter/.
FRICTION
AND LUBRICATION OF
BEARINGS.
35
The Angle
tion to
Repose of a body is the angle of inclinathe horizontal of a plane, on which the body will just
of
its
The angle of repose is tendency to slide. 0. The coefficient of letter usually denoted by the Greek that is friction is equal to the tangent of the angle of repose
overcome
;
/=
tan
6'.
Morin's
Laws
of Friction.
In 1831
a series of experiments which extended over about three years. His results were embodied in the following laws:
1.
The
friction
;
to the pressure
that
The The
the same,
3.
is
friction, pressure being of areas the in contact. independent coefficient of friction is independent of velocity.
fifty
coefficient
and amount of
years these laws were accepted without Since about 1880, however, experiquestion by engineers. ments by Thurston, Tower, and others have shown that they
For about
not even approximately true. The later found that with experimenters ordinary machinery, friction is not directly proportional to the pressure, is not
are in error
;
in fact,
have
velocity; and that the coefficients determined by Morin were about ten times too high for modern
independent of
machinery.
Prof. J. E. Denton, in defence of the laws, claims that Morin made no such special preparations for his tests as are made to-day; that he did not have his running surfaces so
thoroughly lubricated as
in
modern
tests,
He states that the ing in oil, or by means of an oil-pad. conditions under which Morin worked were about the same as
exist in a journal lubricated with an ordinary restricted-feed He also states that there is an additional resistance oil-cup.
in bearings,
oil;
apply to very light pressures. General Morin himself states that the laws did not pretend to be mathematically exact, but only close approximations
will not
the
truth.
It
is
used
for
work
in
probable that the laws may be safely connection with ordinary journals, not
pressure.
The experiments
of Prof. Thurston
coeffi-
He
has determined the coefficients for a number of different lubrifollowing table of Prof. Thurston gives the coefficients of friction for different oils, under varying pressures, at a constant velocity of
iron
The
720 feet per minute, the journal being of and the bearing of bronze
:
cast
Pressures,
Ibs.
FRICTION
AND LUBRICATION OF
BEARINGS.
37
when that speed is exceeded, varying approximately as the square root of the speed.
coefficient of friction varies approximately, inthe as temperatitre within certain limits viz. just before versely abrasion takes place.
4.
; ,
The
It
kind running upon each other sometimes cause more friction than do metals of different kinds; the probable reason being
a difference in microscopic surface structure the minute friction points do not so accurately correspond and
that there
is
;
engage each
other.
This
is
hard-steel shaft,
running
in
properly
polished, has very low friction. The two following tables, the
first
comparative value
bearing
FRICTION OF MOTION.
No.
Material.
FRICTION
liable to
AND LUBRICATION OF
BEARINGS.
39
bearing of Babbitt will also permit of abrasion or crushing without excessive increase of friction. The various kinds of Babbitt
friction.
If the
good order, the friction will depend not so metal as on the lubricant.
In order to use Babbitt metal the
be made considerably larger than the shaft, and then a bearing which fits the shaft perfectly is made by pouring the melted
Babbitt around the shaft while
it is
in the
Good
qualities
Sufficient
body
(viscosity) to
free from contact under the greatest pressure. greatest fluidity consistent with the foregoing condition, 3. Power to resist oxidation or the action of the atmosphere. 4. Freedom from corrosive action upon the metals with which
The
they come in contact. Thus it will be seen that several conditions must be considered in the selection of the proper kind of lubricant for a The main consideration is the amount of pressure. bearing.
oil,
and
for
light
pressure a more fluid oil should be used. Oil which is suitable for heavy shafting is not suitable for small spindles such as are used in clocks, watches, etc.
equally unsuited for heavy pressures For very heavy bearings such as like that in a car-journal. those of rolling-mills for rolling iron and steel, tallow and
light sperm-oil
is
Also
It is said that in
oil
the
Waltham
Watch Company
varied
is
are used, so
their
oils,
viz.
mineral,
vegetable, and anima/ oils] and besides these, combinations of two or more of them. Soap is a constituent of railway-grease graphite and steatite, or soapstone, are sometimes used for
;
heavy machinery.
40
The
following
list
various lubricants
may
For steam-cylinders Heavy mineral oils. For ordinary machinery: Lard-oil, tallow-oil, and heavy
mineral or vegetable
stone, etc.
oils.
heavy
pressures
with
low
speed:
Tallow,
lard,
grease, etc.
mineral
oils.
light pressures with high speed: leum, cottonseed, rape, and olive oils.
For
For watches,
Sperm,
minerals
clocks,
etc. Light mineral oils, clarified and porpoise. and cottonseed oils may be mixed with
:
Sperm makes
is
The
value of
in the
order given.
all
in
cases,
where
possible,
mineral
of suitable
body should be selected. If fatty used in connection with high temperatures, are
oil will be which in the presence of the decomposed, forming metal will form metallic soaps, and may cause great damage
it
is
most used
in the
form
It will work well either used alone or in conof a powder. It is principally used in connection nection with various oils. Thurston but states that it may be used with heavy pressures,
to advantage either for light or heavy pressures, especially when mixed with certain oils. It is rather difficult to intro-
duce into bearings, being a solid. will facilitate its use, however.
Mixing
it.with
water or
oil
CHAPTER
V.
FRICTION-WHEELS.
use of friction-wheels gives the simplest method of transmitting motion from one shaft to another by means of wheels, the belt or chain being made unnecessary in this case. The transmission of power is often effected by pressing the two wheels together at their circumferences, but sometimes
the circumference of one wheel presses on the disk of the other. The transmitting power is due to the friction of the wheels
THE
The materials used in their construction upon each other. must be such that the coefficients of friction will be as great as possible, so that the pressure between the two wheels will not For the above reasons wood is have to be abnormally great. often made to work with wood, cr wood with cast iron.
Sometimes the perimeters of the wheels are covered with Small friction-wheels are sometimes made of solid disks of leather, and sometimes of similar disks made of coarse paper and compressed into the proper form and stability by the
leather.
use of hydraulic pressure. In other cases grooves are cut in the circumference of the
projections on one wheel are forced into the grooves in the other. In this manner a greater bearing-surface is obtained than ordinarily. pair of such wheels is shown
wheels.
The
in Fig. 31.
The
is
that in
order to produce an adequate transmitting friction at the surface of the wheels an excessive quantity of friction and wear is
Another objection to the use of the bearings. the is that friction-wheels bearings of the two wheels cannot
produced
in
41
is
closer
FIG. 31.
Friction-wheels.
can only be done by moving the bearings nearer to On this account the friction-wheels are used each other.
and
this
comparatively
It is
little.
thought best, however, to discuss them here for the reason that the principles of mechanism which are shown in
FIG. 32.
In Fig. 32
we have two
friction-
FRICTION-WHEELS.
wheels
in
43
which the contact is between the axes, and in Fig. of the 33 two friction-wheels in which the contact is outside Again in Fig. 34 axes, the axes being parallel in each case.
FIG. 34.
FIG. 35-
we have
in the
acute angle. Fig. 35 shows intersecting axes with the contact in the obtuse angle.
44
The
in
wheels
_Jr
^x v/
Ss
/
FIG. 36.
the radius of the small wheel, V the velocity of the large wheel,
wheel.
The
velocities of the
and v the velocity of the small two wheels geared with each
V
v
r
-=-.
Suppose
it is
and
be con-
nected by wheels of such radii that their velocities, or number of revolutions, shall be to each other as 2 to 5. As the sum
of the radii equals the distance between the axes, by addition,
we have
5 -f-
7.
Draw any
line
AB, seven
than
the
units
in
length, which length should be greater between the axes. Take the distance
distance
five units
AC equal -to
CD
and
CB
equal to
two
units.
Through C draw
parallel to
the axes.
and r from any point of the axes Perpendiculars to the line of contact CD will be the required radii.
In this case the distance Contact outside of t/te Axes. between the two axes must be equal to A r of the two radii. the difference R In Fig. 37 take A and B again for the
axes.
It is
D
FIG. 37-
same velocity
to
52 =
5,
we have
in
3.
Draw
r),
a line
AB,
differ-
ence (R Produce
this
and greater than the distance between the axes. line to C, making BC equal to two units.
Through
from
C,
draw
CD
Perpendiculars
if
CD
the dis-
son's
FRICTION-WHEELS.
tance between the axes
is
45
dimension
by
be.
the
or difference of the velocity ratio as the case may If the distance is so divisible, the divisions may be made
sum
on the perpendiculars to the axes themselves. Axes Meeting Contact between Axes. In Fig. 34 take A O and BO, intersecting at O as the axes, which are to be
connected by friction-wheels so that their velocities of rotation shall be as 2 to 5, as in the previous examples. Lay off on
OA from 0, the distance Oa = 2, the relative velocity of A, and on OB the relative velocity of B, which is Ob = 5.
Complete the parallelogram Oacb, thus finding the point c. Through O and c draw the line cO. This line will be the line of contact of the two wheels. Any number of wheels, varying in size but with the same velocity ratio, may be constructed upon it as a line of contact. Thus the diameter FBm may be drawn and its mate will be mRE, r and R being the radii. The same construction may be applied to a case in which
the axes meet, but with contact outside of them.
struction
for the
It
is
The con-
shown
preceding case.
is
No further explanation is necessary. noticeable that friction wheels, as well as all other
The one which imparts gear-wheels, always work in pairs. motion is called the Driver, and the one which receives motion
is
stated,
gear
Let A7 number inversely as the ratio of their radii. revolutions of driven, of revolutions of the driver, ;/
is
R=
r =
radius of driven
NX R = n X
1.
r,
shows the
relation of velocity
and
radii.
PROBLEMS.
Two
parallel shafts are
18
inches
between centres.
Find
graphically the radii of the two friction-wheels such that one shaft will make 4 revolutions to 5 of the other, the contact coming between
the axes.
2.
Two
parallel
shafts
are
inches
between centres.
Find
46
graphically the radii of two friction-wheels such that one may make 5 revolutions to 6 of the other, the contact coming outside the axes.
3.
The
axes of two shafts meet each other at an angle of 45 size of the conical friction- wheels such
2 revolutions to 3
may make
In Fig. 32
let
12 inches
and the
radius of
makes 100 revolutions per minute, how will revolutions .Z?make per minute? many In of the wheel A = 16 inches and the let the radius Fig. 33 5. 2 inches. If B makes 400 revolutions per minute, how radius of B
3 inches.
B=
many
6.
will
A make ?
A make A
is
In Fig. 32 2?and
respectively, and
18 inches in diameter.
diameter of
7.
B?
In Fig. 33
ute respectively,
B and A make 900 and 100 revolutions per minand B is 2 inches in diameter. Find the diameter
make an angle of 120 with each other. revolutions to one of the follower, and the
Find, graphically, the two wheels.
is
8.
The
is
The
driver
to
make two
problem
contact
9.
Same
to
make
three
CHAPTER
PULLEYS.
VI.
PULLEYS
into
two
pulley may be cast solid, a rim of wrought iron or steel riveted on.
power by belts are divided and the split pulley. The solid or the hub and arms may be cast and
The
latter
makes
The split pulley may be made of iron or wood. In either case the two halves are bolted together tight enough to clamp When the wood pulley is used a bushing, made of the shaft.
two or more pieces of wood, is put around the shaft and into the eye or hub of the pulley in order to make a tight fit.
Pulleys are sometimes
with a solid
web
instead.
Owing
age liable, than 6 feet
unequally, and consequently cause shrinkage, rendering breakis customary to cast pulleys of larger diameter two or more parts. This lessens the liability to damage by shrinkage, and at the same time makes the pulley
it
in
easier to handle.
Pulleys of small diameter, that is, up to 3 feet, are usually fastened on the shaft by means of set-screws. Pulleys of are diameters than feet fastened 3 usually by keys, and larger
sometimes by both keys and set-screws. In either of these cases, if the bore in the hub of the pulley is larger than the shaft, which is generally the case, in order that the pulley may
be slipped on with ease, the pulley
will
the pressure of the set-screw is placed against it. Especially in the case of pulleys running at high speeds
47
it
4
is
by some means,
This
in
order
may
be done
by attaching a small iron weight to the inner side of the rim When the pulley is opposite the heavy side, as in Fig. 38.
unbalanced
it
when
rapidly revolv-
FIG. 38.
Split Pulley.
ing,
and this causes unequal strains in the belt at different parts of the revolution, not only injuring the shaft and bearing, but stretching and wearing the belt.
A
driver.
pulley which transmits motion to a belt is called a pulley which receives motion from a belt is called
a driven pulley. pulley is said to be crewnfrfv/hen the face of the rim is curved, the largest diameter being at the middle. This is done in order that the belt may be kept from running
off,
it
is
kept tightest.
The amount
of convexity, in practice, varies from -^ to T36 inch per foot of width of pulley-face. Fast pidley is one which is fastened to the shaft and
means of
belts
and ropes.
in
PULLEYS.
belt,
49
and at the same time transmit no motion to the shaft to which it is attached. It is generally used on countershafts for throwing machines in or out of gear, and has no convexity, or crown, on the face, in order that the belt may be moved
aside easily.
Cone or Stepped pulley has a number effaces or grooves whereby the speed of a machine may be cone pulleys may be seen on wood- or of changed examples
of different diameters
;
FIG. 39.
Cone Pulley.
These cone pulleys always work in pairs, one engine-lathes. on the machine which is operated by the belt and one on the
countershaft.
is
given at
a variable speed, or for changing a speed changed variable speed to a uniform speed. They work in pairs like
to
be
the cone or stepped pulleys. An example may be found in cotton-factories where it is necessary to give the bobbins a
gradually increasing speed on account of the unwinding of the thread from the bobbin.
A
by a
is
shown
in Fig.
40, which operates upon the principle of friction-gearing. Motion being desired, the ring of leather is moved endwise
and by reason of the ring filling up the space between the pulleys, motion is imparted from
suitable shifting device,
pulley
to
the
driven
pulley,
and
so
to
the
machinery.
all
cam-shaped pulleys
FIG. 40.
are
used
it
which
is
occasionally for producing special movements in required that the velocity of the driven should be
DRIVER
FIG. 41.
An
example of a pulley
which the axis of the pulley does not coincide with the axis
is
of rotation
found
in the foot-
power
tory.
lathe-treadle,
is
shown
in
self-explana-
The
and pulley
of a belt does not depend upon the fric tion between the belt
and the pulley-face but upon the adhesive force between the
PULLEYS.
two.
51
as smoothness of the
ment is true. A very smooth contact also produces a partial vacuum between the belt and the pulley which increases the
tractive force of the belt.
FIG. 43.
Countershaft.
If
there
is
no
two connected pulleys will vary inversely as their diameters, and the relation of velocities to the diameters of the driver and driven is the same as that for friction-wheels.
Let
D= d=
n
N= revolutions of driver;
=
revolutions of driven.
the following equations express the relations of the two pulleys with regard to the number of revolutions and
Then
diameters
'
Where a system
of
:
pulleys
is
used,
the following
rule
52
The revolutions of the first driver multiplied by the continued product of the diameters of the drivers is equal to the
revolutions of
tJie
The
from
EF,
method of designing cone pulleys is taken "Mechanical Engineers' Pocketbook. " Let distance between the centres of the Fig. 44, be the
following
Kent's
FIG. 44.
pulleys.
Draw
the circles
pair of pulleys.
and d^ representing the first The diameters of this first pair can be deterl
mined by given conditions. Draw JK tangent to the circles and d At the middle B, r point of EF, erect a perpendicl The length of BG should be .3 14 EF. With G as ular BG. a centre draw a tangent circle to JK. The belt-line of any other pair of pulleys must be tangent to this circle, Take any line as HI or LM. The circles about E and F drawn tangent
it
to
will
pairs.
PROBLEMS.
1.
In Fig. 43
A makes
eters of
and 12 inches respectively. Find the number of revolutions made by D. 2. In the same figure let A represent the drive- wheel of an engine
A, B, C, and
PULLEYS.
geared by belts to a dynamo-pulley
counter-shaft.
If the
Z>,
53
and
B and C
and
the diameters of
A, B, C, andZ> are 10
feet,
30 inches,
5 feet, 12
inches, respectively,
how many
A makes 100 revolutions per The diameters of A, B, and C is to make 3000. minute, and that are 10 feet, 30 inches, and 5 feet respectively. What is the diameter
dynamo
* The circumferential speed of any revolving wheel is the distance, in feet, passed through by a point in its circumference per minute, and is equal to the number of revolutions per minute multiplied by the
circumference of the wheel in
4.
5. 6.
feet.
What What
is
is
D in
A
in
Problem Problem
i ?
i
43 be made the drive- wheel of an are engine making 150 revolutions per minute, and that A, B, and What diameter should 20, 4, and 20 inches in diameter respectively. Suppose that
in Fig.
be given
*
Cin
order to give
there being no
CHAPTER
BELT-
VII.
AND ROPE-GEARING.
all
appliances concerned in transof a belt and pulley; such as chains running on pulleys or sprocket-wheels belts, bands, or with continuous motion; or with limited motion, as where a
Belt-gearing includes
in the
mitting motion
manner
rope,
or several times
as in the case
fast,
of the windlass. Belt-gearing very desirable especially where a uniform velocity of driver and driven wheel is not required,
because of
its noiseless running, lightness, and simplicity of construction as compared with tooth-gearing, link-gearing, etc. In cases where a mathematical relation must be preserved
between the speed of the driving pulley and the speed of the driven pulley, the sprocket-wheel, .which permits no slipping, Belts or ropes are apt to slip more or less. The is used.
driving power of a belt depends mainly upon the tightness with which it is stretched around the pulley; also upon the arc
of contact, and upon the condition of the belt and pulley-face with regard to smoothness of surface.
leather
will
usually
last
Leather
belts
may
object in increasing the thickness is The to increase the strength without increasing the width. best leather belts are made of oak-tanned leather curried with
cemented together.
The
Such
forty
belts
continue
in
use
thirty
to
years,
when used
54
as
BELT-
AND ROPE-GEARING.
55
simple driving-belts, transmitting a proper amount of power The hair side of the belt and being given suitable care. It has been found by should be run next to the pulley.
hair side will also crack
The experiment that the hair or grain side is the weaker. much easier than the flesh side. If
the grain side is shaved thin and stretched a little a large number of holes can be seen, showing that the weakness is probably due to the hair having had root on that side. Again
the hair side
better,
is
and
this
force of a belt.
When
a condition which promotes the tractive a belt is bent around a pulley, the side
of the belt farthest away from the pulley is stretched, while It is plain, then, the side next to the pulley is compressed. that the flesh or stronger side should be on the outer side,
which
is
placed against the pulley, where there is not so much strain. The safe working tension of a laced belt is 250 to 350 Ibs.
per square inch of cross-section. When the driving and driven pulleys, Fig. 45, are at rest
FIG. 45.
Sag of
Belt.
the tensions in the two halves of the belt will be the same
but
arrow, the tension on the tight side will be increased, and the tension on the slack side will be diminished. Let 7^ be the tension on
the tight side, and
effective
when
force
minute
then
Tr VP =
T2 the tension on the slack side, and P the on the circumference of the pulley; then, Let V be the velocity of the belt in feet per
the
56
VP -
If the belt
passes over a
feet
in
diameter,
that
V=
ri.r. "=
3.1416
X D X
33OOO
NX P
short and simple rule for determining the horse-power that will be transmitted by a belt is, that a single leather belt,
one inch wide, travelling 1000 feet per minute, will transmit double belt one inch wide travelling 600 one horse-power. The working feet per minute will transmit one horse-power.
is
33
Ibs.
Different writers give other figures for the speed of belts The rule above given, necessary to transmit one horse-power.
however, is a very safe one with which to work. Mr. F. W. Taylor describes in the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers a series of experi-
ments on
rise
to
expense are on this account not much used. Among other things he and the recommends cementing of belts in preference splicing of to lacings; the use narrow, thick belts, even on small pulleys, in preference to wide, thin belts and that the thick;
adopted, would entail heavier principles which, than is usual in installations of belting. The rules
ness of belts should be increased as they are made wider. belt running at a very high speed will have its effective
driving tension diminished by the tension due to centrifugal be the weight of one foot of belt, one square force. If we let inch in cross-section, v the velocity of the belt in feet per second,
and g the acceleration due to gravity = 32. 2, then the tension Tc may be found as f Hows:
centrifugal
BELT-
57
The weight
value of
of
leather
Ibs.
the
W will
be .388
Then
32.2
inch of
width on the
per inch of
width.
is
qualities
manufactured,
the
difference
in
strength depending upon the quality of the cotton-duck used, The belt as the tensile strength of the belt is in this fabric.
of plies of cotton cemented together with rubber, and the entire surface covered with rubber.
is
made up
for
by excessive degrees of heat or cold it for use in \vet or damp places, or where
action of steam
;
is
it
is
and
it is
on the pulley.
A
It
of belt
is
now made,
many
considerably used for heavy work. small leather links fastened together with
in the
illustration,
iron * rods, as
shown
Fig.
46.
The rods
run through the holes in the links and are as long as the width of the belt. It is devoid of the usual great stiffness which is
found
ordinary belts and it easily adapts itself to the contour of the pulley, no matter how heavy and thick it may be. Its
in
first cost,
however,
is
it
from coming
into
more general
use.
a large belt runs on the pulley, a cushion of air is made between the belt and pulley, which lessens the holding power
to
As
some
slits,
extent.
Some
belt
manufacturers
diminish
this
may
to stick close to the pulley. Belts will hold better when the pulleys are at long distances
* Sometimes leather thongs.
58
apart than
when
at short distances.
if
may
be a sag of the
desirable that
FIG. 46.
Leather Link-belt.
the angle which the belt makes should be not more than 45 degrees with the horizontal.
leather belting is from per square inch; but only about 1000 to 1500 Ibs. at the lacings. The working strain is taken at not over one third of the strength of the lacing.
The
2OOO
to
5000
Ibs.
FIG. 47.
Arrangement
the belt connects pulleys that are on parallel shafts, but this is not necessarily the case. Fig. 47 shows the
Commonly
BELT-
AND ROPE-GEARING.
on two perpendicular
59
shafts
may run off the pulleys In to any angle. setting pulleys give a quarter twist to a the belt, point where the belt leaves the driven pulley must be in the central plane of the driving pulley. In this arrangeat
which gives the belt a quarter twist. must run squarely onto the pulleys. It
ment the
belt
If
it
made
to
will
an attempt is be thrown
of
from the
Other
twists
may be
given
by the use
Guide-pulleys. Methods of Lacing. The effective strength of a belt, as well as the smoothness and uniformity of transmission, depends
on the manner of connecting the ends. WJien possible, the belt should be endless that is, it should be joined together in
;
such a manner that the strength of the joint shall be equal to the strength of the belt itself, or as nearly so as possible; also, so that there shall be no extra weight caused by heavy
The heavy joint causes a vibratory movement lacing-leather. of the belt when running; this causes variations in the arc of contact and this, in turn, may cause the belt to slip. Where
a uniform motion
is
required, as for a
dynamo,
this
would not
be admissible.
in fastening belting
ends are the Butt-joint and the Lap-joint. together With the butt-joint and especially with heavy belts, rawhide
lacing
is
used.
With smaller
is
made
of
some
used considerably. This makes a much less clumsy joint and less waste of strength by the punching of holes than is necessary when the rawhide lacing is used.
pliable composition
The
two ends and then gluing them together, under pressure; by gluing and riveting; and also by interlapping the different plies, when the The lap-joint is best belt is not single, and then gluing. because it makes practically an endless belt.
lap-joint
is
made by beveling
or scarfing the
The joints in rope belting are made similarly by interlapping the strands or fibres and then wrapping them with
6o
FIG. 48.
Butt-joint.
FIG. 49.
Scarf-splice.
BELTcords,
size.
AND ROPE-GEARING.
strong
endless
61
thus
making
rope
of
uniform
When
the diameters of the pulleys are given, the length of belting required may be found approximately as follows
:
RULE.
together^
Add
divide
the
diameters
by 2
in feet
the result
and
3.1416.
Then add
ROPE-DRIVIXG.
When
made
rope
is
in its face in
Rope
belting
is
commonly
flax,
of cotton,
hemp,
or manila,
but rawhide,
and
FIG. 50.
is
best
is
softer
and more
pliable,
therefore, less
danger of breaking the fibres. The principal advantages of rope-driving are quiet running and convenience in application. One of the greatest fields of
usefulness for rope-driving
is
in the transmission of
power
to a
With rope-driving
enabled at a comparatively small cost to transmit in any direction to a building remotely situated from power
one
is
62
the power, which would otherwise require a long and expenThe sive line-shaft, or an independent engine or motor.
with which a rope-drive may be carried in any direcacross rivers, canals, and streets, above or under ground, tion, up or down hill, over houses and into buildings, is a feature
facility
which recommends rope as a means of driving. The ropes most commonly used are from
diameter.
to 2 inches in
The
size of a rope
is
by
its
cir-
cumference or
Ibs.
girth.
The
though
generally from
is
7000
to
12,000
by the formula
given approximately is the weight where per foot of length and D the diameter and C the circumference The speed of driving ropes varies from 1500 to of the rope.
The weight
W=
when dry
.032 C
2
,
.$P =
7000
The accepted
Mr. C.
W.
Hunt.
rope of 200
This makes the working-strain about $ of Ibs. This strain is about ^V the the breaking strength of the rope. strength of the splice. In practice, however, this limit is often
greatly exceeded, on account of vibrations and imperfect tension-adjusting devices.
In his derivation of a formula for horse-power, he used a constant driving-strain on a I -inch rope of 200 Ibs., and
velocities varying
feet per second. The drivingthe tension due to centrifugal force by Tc is the tension Where the over of the rope passing pulley. due to centrifugal force, J/Fthe weight of rope in pounds per
from 10 to 140
foot,
and
gravity,
The
difference
power transmission.
BELTof tension
is
AND ROPE-GEARING.
necessary on the slack side of the rope to give it As adhesion to the pulley, all of this force cannot be used.
before, let TI be the tension on the tight side, and T 2 the tenThen Ti-(T2 + Tc) is the effective sion on the slack side.
Assuming that the tension on the slack side driving force. of the rope is one-half the effective driving force P, we have,
T ---Tc =
l
and
slack side will be
2,
on the
Tc.
The
tension TI will increase as the speed is raised, since Tc increases as the square of the velocity, With the foregoing assumptions, the formula for horse-
HP
The
64
For very light work and for guide-pulleys the rope rests on the bottom of the groove in the pulley {Fig. 50, a), but for heavy work the rope works in a groove which is V-shaped
(Fig. 50, b), whereby the holding power is much increased. Since the power of one rope is limited, and as it is not convenient to use very large ropes, it is necessary, in most cases, The pulleys have parallel grooves in to use several ropes.
PROBLEMS.
1.
leather belt
is
What
ten-
be required to break
?
3000
2.
Ibs.
leather belt running at a velocity of 4000 feet per minute Find the driving tension on the cirtransmits 40 horse-power.
cumference of the pulley. on the tight side of a belt 3. If the tension and 9 in Problem 2. slack side, find
is
4.
width
is
90
Ibs., find
the width
of belt required in Problem 2. A rope-pulley is 20 feet in diameter and makes 500 revolu5. tions per minute ; find the velocity of the rope.
6.
rope
it if
is i
inch in diameter.
is
What
Ibs.
force will be
required
?
to break
8000
of each of the 13 ropes which crive 400 horse7. Find the ciameter power, the velocity of the ropes being 4000 feet per minute. See table. 8. A certain drive has 21 ropes on a pulley 4 feet in diameter
trans-
the girth of the ropes is 3.14 inches? the weight of a rope which is 2 inches in diameter and 9. What is
10.
10 feet long?
A dynamo
20 horse-power to operate
runs at 1020 revolutions per minute and requires The power is furnished by an engine it.
running at 150 revolutions per minute. The engine drives a counterIf the pulley on the dynamo shaft, which in turn drives the dynamo.
is 12 inches diameter and the fly-wheel of the engine 54 inches diameter and double belts are used, find the size of the pulleys on the Assume the double counter-shaft, and the wilth of belts necessary.
belt to
65
A
1
velops
86 horse-power.
Corliss engine runs at 85 revolutions per minute, and deIf the main line-shall which it drives runs
at 235 revolutions per minute, and the pulley which receives the power is 5 feet in diameter, find the width of double belt used, and the
If the tension
on the slack
side
is
Problem n,
find T^
and
and the
OF THE
{
UNIVERSITY
OF
CHAPTER
VIII.
TOOTHED WHEELS.
of power between two shafts, by means of and friction-wheels belt-pulleys, is possible only so long as the resistance to be overcome does not exceed the friction which
TRANSMISSION
When
in
the resist-
prevent one case by pressing the friction-wheels closer together, and in the other by making the belt tighter. This excessive amount of pressure
this
To
must
be
made
greater,
causes a corresponding amount of friction of the shafts in their bearings, so that friction-wheels cannot be employed to advantage where the resistance is very great, especially in the
case of slow-running shafts. Neither can they be used where
it
is
speeds of the two shafts have an exact ratio at every instant, as in screw-cutting machines, clocks, etc., for experience
shows that, even with the greatest pressure, friction-wheels and belts will sometimes slip. To overcome these difficulties the toothed wheel is used. Suppose two friction- wheels running together have spaces cut in their circumference at regular intervals, and if the
material from these spaces be placed on the top of the remaining solid portion, so that the projections of one will fit into the
produced.
66
TOOTHED WHEELS.
the " pitch diameter ", and the circumference of the disk itself the pitch-circle. The
The
is
portion of the tooth above the pitch-circle is known as the " "face or addendum of the tooth, the portion below as the
LINE
FIG. 51.
Section of Gear-wheel.
flank or
dedendum.
The
measured on the pitch-circle, is known as the "circular pitch," or simply as the "pitch." Sometimes the pitch is given as the number of teeth per inch of
to the front of the next,
This is called diametral pitch. Thus, in a pitch diameter. wheel of 36 teeth, pitch diameter 12 inches, the diametral
pitch
is 3.
Let
Pd
of
3.1416
3p =D XN
f
4 l6 '
~
_ ~
3-14*6
'
68
In a spur-wheel (Fig. 51) the teeth are cut in the surface of a cylinder known as a "blank" (Fig. 53). Spur-wheels transmit motion between two shafts with parallel axes.
Bevel-wheels (Fig. 52) are formed by cutting teeth on the surface of a cone or frustum of a
cone.
tion
intersect.
Skew-wheels
cutting 'teeth
formed
surface
by
of
on the
They
shafts
FIG. 52.
Bevel-gear.
which do not intersect and which are not in the same plane.
If in the
elementary gear-wheel, considered earlier in this made in the form of rectangular prisms,
they would, in running, wear themselves to approximate forms of either one of two curves, the epicycloid or the involute of a
circle.
In the practical construction of gear-wheels the teeth are cut or cast in the shape of one of these curves, depending
The teeth of on the use to which the wheel is to be put. spur-gears can be easily cut to the proper form in the millingA bevel-gear, however, cannot be perfectly formed machine.
milling-machine, as the thickness of the teeth constantly It requires a special diminishes toward the point of the cone. These machines plane the machine, called a gear-shaper. There are two classes: one generates the tooth itself teeth.
in a
it planes it, such as the Bilgram planer; the second class uses a former or template which guides the planing-tool, such
as
For rough, heavy work the gears are cast in iron. These known as Cast Gears. Gears made in a milling-machine Sometimes in very or gear-shaper are known as Cut Gears.
are
in
is
transmitting power from turbine-wheels, intense and disagreeable, one of the gears
teeth which are locked in place
provided with
wooden
by a
TOOTHED WHEELS.
simple device.
69
These diminish the noise to a great extent. are also made of rawhide or leather, where it is Spur-gears The leather or rawhide is comdesired to diminish noise.
pressed between two steel or brass plates and then
is
cut as
To draw
American XacMnitt
CUTTER
FIG. 53.
BLANK
usually represented by their pitch-circles (see Fig. 54). They are also shown as blanks, in which a few teeth have been cut,
the teeth on each blank being in mesh. In making gear-wheels, the space is
made
is
slightly greater
This
the aim of
all
small as possible. greater than is absolutely necessary. this case is termed the "clearance."
designers to make this "backlash" as The depth of the space is also made a little
The
extra distance in
The width of the gear is termed the "face. generally made from two to three times the circular
It
is
pitch.
Grant's " Gear Book," in a list of stock gears, gives a face of 3 to 4 inches for a gear of 3 diametral pitch, 1.047 inches circular pitch, and i to f inch for a gear of 20 diametral
1o
pitch,
=0.157
inch
circular
pitch.
20
inches.
shown
in
Fig.
the fol-
=/=
2.5/5 thickness of
TOOTHED WHEELS.
tooth '= arc be
of tooth
= -47/; space = arc ab = -53/; total height = .//; addendum = s = .$p\ dedendum = d
Pd
\
-4A
In terms of diametral pitch,
An
on
is
shown
Fig. 55.
It
works
in
FIG. 55.
Annular Gear.
connection with a pinion (a small spur-gear), and the same considerations as to form and dimensions apply as in spurwheels.
Rack is a straight rectangular piece of metal in which It is used to convert rotary into recipteeth have been cut. The rocating motion or vice versa by means of a pinion.
7*
teeth
may be
or epicycloidal system.
An
illustration of a rack
and pinion
is
given
in Fig. 79.
The same
relations
as regards diameters
and revolutions
exist in gear-wheels as in pulleys. But for the diameter of the wheels the number of teeth may be substituted.
Let
D and d,
then
R*N=rXnIf
RN RN r=~; n=
may
a system
of gear-wheels
in calculating the relative velocities of the driver and followers; may be considered as if theytrjaelshed
directly into one another. train of gears and pinions (Fig. 56)
is
a train in which
FIG. 56.
a gear drives a pinion rigidly fastened to a gear on the same axis, which gear in turn drives another pinion, which may or may not be attached to another gear. If the number of teeth
in each of the gears and each of the pinions is given, together with the number of revolutions of the first driver, the number
last follower
may
be obtained as follows:
Multiply the diameters, or the circumferences, or the number all the drivers together, and this product by the
of revolutions of the
first
number
wheel; divide
this
product by
quotient
is
all
the followers.
last follower.
The
TOOTHED WHEELS
7J
In regard to power transmitted by gear-teeth, authorities All vary greatly as to the formulae which should be used.
formulae for determining the horse-power transmitted ing may be reduced to one of three forms
:
by gear-
H.P.
in
= CVpf
or
CVf
or
CVff,
the velocity which C is a coefficient, / the pitch in inches, of the pitch-line in feet per second, and /"the face of the tooth in inches.
The
Let
following
is
a formula of the
first
style
P= D=
V
PV H= 33,000'
ana
(I) v *
=
12
Vm
(i),
we have
.
33,000
12
is
An
average value of
Prof.
~-
Vi
+ 0.65 F
where
74
PROBLEMS.
1.
In Fig. 56
has 80 teeth,
10.
has 20,
has 60,
has 30,
per minute? In the same figure suppose that A and /'make 200 and 4000 have 50, revolutions respectively per minute, and that B. E, and
2.
If
A makes
and 30
3.
may be
the
number of
teeth
on
50 inches.
How many
teeth in a wheel
?
12 inches.
.
6.
and
its
tooth, height
Find the pitch, thickness of teeth, width of space, total height of above pitch-line, and depth below the pitch-line. 7. What is the diameter of the face circle in the above problem?
8.
What What
is
a diameter of 10 inches?
9.
is
What would be
11. What horse-power will be transmitted by a spur-wheel 3 feet diameter making 200 revolutions per minute, the pitch of the teeth being 2 inches?
12.
shall
It is
transmit
desired that a spur-wheel with a diameter of 24 inches 10 horse-power while making 100 revolutions per
the pitch of the teeth
?
minute.
What should be
CHAPTER
IX.
THE SCREW.
THE
screw
is
plane, and the mechanical advantage depends both on the arm of the working lever and the inclination of the thread or inclined plane which supports the weight. The efficiency of the screw is very low, from 15 to 45 per
cent.
large
If
in the nut.
amount of the force applied is lost in friction the faces of the threads are inclined, as in a
is
greater than for a square thread. The the pitch, or distance between two con-
Applications of the screw may be seen in the jack-screw, the vise, bolts, nuts, etc. The jack-screw, Fig. 57, is a machine for raising heavy weights. It consists of a screw to
which is attached a lever for applying force, and a heavy base A, having screw-threads on the inside. When the handle is turned, the screw moves up or down, according to the direction of rotation of the handle. The weight is placed on the head B, which does not turn with the screw, thus allowing the
weight to move up without rotation.
* ,F
The
equation
3-
Hi6 X ^ =
Wx
R=
pitch
X (/+
i)
F= force
f
gives the relation of the Weight to the applied force, in which radius of handle, and applied, weight,
W=
This relation
is
derived
by the application of the Law of Machines, Chapter I. With one turn of the handle the applied force moves around the The"
"
Efficiency
^ X Pitch
2X
3-
1416
XJ?
75
76
circumference of a
the handle.
given, radius
of which
is
To
find
the circumference
radius
2
when
multiply the
by
X 3.1416 through by the applied force during one turn of the handle. During this one turn of the handle the weight is lifted through
by R, we have
X R
THE SCREW.
77
though a pulley could be used, instead of a crank, and belted to an engine or shaft.
Fx
is
3-i4i6
for the
X R=
pitch
the equation of
work
l
By
solving for
W we
w
1
Fx
X 3-HI6 X R
Pitch
This weight W^ in its turn, acts as a turning force against the circumference of the worm-wheel at A so that we may now
,
FIG. 58.
Endless Screw.
regard
it
resistance offered
wheel B.
Let
by the weight which hangs on the smaller be the radius of the large wheel A, and R 2
W^ by
its
lever-arm
we have
FX2
or
3-1416
Pitch
X R
W=
The
the
3-1416
Pitch
xRxR
R.
worm-wheel
which
R and shown in the equation R = X r, in and r represent the number of revolutions of the crank
A
is
N the
number of
for
teeth
two pur-
securing, and the other of the former are bolts, nuts, Examples transmitting motion. screws, etc. of the latter, endless screws and the screw on the
;
engine-lathe for moving the tool-carriage. Fig. 59 shows the Sellers or United
States
standard
FIG. 59.
thread, which
is
used principally
United States.
It will
be noticed that the V-shaped threads are flattened a little at The amount of flat is given by the the top and bottom.
equation /"='\
in
which
to
is
the width of
flat
and n
is
the number
result
of threads
the
inch.
This
makes a
solid
sound thread avoiding the broken edges which are often the
if
make shown
The sides of the thread the sharp edge is permitted. an angle of 60 degrees with the axis of the thread, as
in the figure.
THE SCREW.
79
The
the U.
relation
S.
of
standard thread
formula
P=
The Whitworth The sides Fig. 60.
.24
VD-\- .62$
.175.
is
shown
in
of the threads
make an angle
of 55 degrees
FIG. 60.
Whitworth Screw-thread.
is
is
with each other, and the bottom and top of the thread rounded. Fig. 6 1 shows a square thread, a part of which right-handed and part left-handed.
RIGHT
LEFT
FIG. 61.
Square Thread.
is
the largest diameter measured The depth of thread perpendicular to the axis of the screw. The pitch is the vertical height of the tooth above the bottom.
of a thread
of the thread
axis.
is the distance taken up by one thread on the For a square thread the pitch would consist of a thread
The diameter
and a space.
The
size of thread
many
cylinder, as threads of a bolt, are called male threads, and the threads on the inside, as the threads in a nut, are called female
threads.
8o
made
The tap is used for making inside or screw-cutting machines. female threads, and the die for making the outside or male
threads, while either kind of thread
may be made
in
the lathe.
In threading bolts and piping, different sets of taps and dies must be used, the pipe-thread always being smaller and of greater number to the inch than those on the bolt or screw. They also taper toward the end of the pipe. For this reason, we have what is known as the bolt or standard dies and taps, For example, the number of threads and pipe dies and taps. a i-inch U. S. standard, is 8, while the on inch bolt, per number of threads per inch on a i-inch pipe is 11.5. The reason for making more threads on a pipe is that by making more of them the depth of each thread is made less, hence
danger of cutting through the thin pipe. made of wrought iron or steel and are forged out by bolt-making machines, and the threads put on with
there
is
less
Bolts.
Bolts are
may
FIG. 62.
Machine-bolt.
carriage-bolt, Fig. 63, differs from the machine-bolt mainly in having a round or oval head and
The
FIG. 63.
Carriage-bolt.
a short distance under the being square The stove-bolt, Fig. head, and generally has a square nut.
in cross-section for
THE SCREW.
81
64, has a countersunk head with a slot sawed in it for the use cotter-bolt or split pin is split along its of a screw-driver.
FIG. 64.
Stove-bolt.
the split portions are bent at right angles to the axis, The stud-bolt thus doing away with screw-threads and a nut.
axis
;
FIG. 65.
Stud.
has no head, but screws directly into the piece which it is to hold, a nut being used on the end an example may be seen
;
An
eye-bolt
is
one having
takes the
66 represen
cap-screw.
It
Fiv;. 66.
Ca^
-31
rew.
place of a bolt, and screws into one of the pieces to be held, the shoulder or cap on the end of the screw giving it the hold-
FIG. 67.
Lag-screw.
ing power.
The
is
used in
wood
8z
and Fig. 69 the common wood-screw. The wood-screw may have a round or a flat head. The set-screw is one in which
FIG. 68.
Drive-screw.
FIG. 69.
Wood-screw.
the holding power is produced by the pressure of the end The end is hardened. against a piece of work.
PROBLEMS.
1. What weight will be raised by a jack-screw, if its handle is 20 inches long, the pitch of the threads J inch, and the force applied Ans. 75,398.4 Ibs. 130 Ibs., neglecting friction?
2. Design a jack-screw that will raise a weight of 20,000 Ibs. with an applied force of 100 Ibs., the length of the handle being 10 Ans. Pitch inches, neglecting friction. .31416 inches.
3.
Ibs.
What
force
must be applied
is
in order to raise a
weight of 12,000
if
the handle
Ans.
60
Ibs.
about.
Design a jack-screw that will raise a weight of 1600 Ibs. with an applied force of 100 Ibs., taking the efficiency to be 30 per cent on account of friction.
5.
threads \ inch, the radius of the worm-wheel A 10 inches, and the radius of the small wheel 5 inches, the force applied at the end of the handle being 100 Ibs., the efficiency being 50 per cent ?
6. What must be the length of the handle of an endless screw in order that a weight of 4000 Ibs. may be raised by a force of 100 Ibs., the other dimensions and efficiency being the same as for problem 5 ?
THE SCREW.
7.
83
which
8.
will raise a
Design an endless screw similar to the one shown in Fig. 58 weight of 8000 Ibs. with a force of 100 Ibs., neg-
lecting friction.
In
Fig.
58,
how many
revolutions will
?
A make
if
has 20
teeth
9.
and
will
How many revolutions of the crank in the above arrangement be required in causing A to make 3 revolutions? 10. What should be the pitch of the threads for a bolt 2 inches in
diameter ?
CHAPTER
CAMS.
X.
a revolving inclined plane. It may be either an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder, as in Fig. 70, or
is
THE Cam
FIG. 70.
it
Cam,
an inclined plane curved edgewise, as in Fig. 71. is generally used for the purpose of producing a reciprocating motion in rods and levers by giving the cam a
maybe
This mechanism
In Fig. 72, rotary motion. represents the cam turning on the axis A, and giving a reciprocating rectilinear motion to the heavy rod EF, which is constrained to move in its recti-
BCD
The rotation of the axis path by the guide-rollers. has an upward being in the direction of the arrow, the rod motion until the extreme point B of the cam comes in line
linear
EF
when
the portion
BG of
the
cam
CAMS.
to
fall
by
its
own weight
the point G comes revolution of the cam here presented will cause the rod to make three upward and three
;
by the
downward
strokes.
limits
Within certain
the use
r\
/~\
of cams admits of the certain transmission, from a uniformly revolving shaft, of widely varying velocities
3
3]
and
in
manner.
FIG. 71.
Cam.
FIG. 72.
Cam and
Follower.
By varying the curve of the cam any law be The rod may given to the rod. Fig. 72, is called the follower, and is generally provided with a roller as shown in the cut, by means of which the contact between the
often convenient.
of motion
cam and
the follower is changed from a sliding contact to a thus lessening, to some extent, the friction and contact, rolling The use of a cam is accompanied by a very large wemr.
amount
follower.
driver, especially
where
it is
This causes a wear of the parts, which in time makes a backlash and, with high speeds, much noise. The
cam
the designer usually calls to his aid as the last resort, after having failed to obtain the
is
the mechanical
movement that
made
lighter
parts.
The cam
is,
how-
movement, and
to be avoided
in certain cases
must be
a circle
accepted, though
it is
where
possible.
line,
The path
or
of the follower
may
be a straight
any other curve. Fig. 73 illustrates a cam with a swinging of the follower In this case the path of the point follower.
will
flat
bearing-
piece, Fig. 74, instead of a point, which for the same cam changes the law of motion of the follower, but
gives a
sur-
face to the
footed follower.
grooves
its
in
FIG. 73.
Cam
with Swinging
FIG. 74.
Cam and
Follower.
Flat-footed
Follower.
To find the curve forming the edge of the cam so that the velocity ratio of the rod and the axis of the cam may be constant: as From In Fig. 75 let A be the centre of the cam.
as a radius describe a centre with any convenient distance the circle CEDBN. On BA take Ba equal to the length of the stroke of the rod divide it into any number of equal parts,
;
AC
say
five,
BDEFG
the points b, c, d, e, and divide the semicircle into the same number of equal parts by the radial lines
in
AD, AE, AF, and AG. From A as a centre with Ab, Ac, Ad, and Ae as radii describe the dotted arcs cutting AD, AE,
etc., at
the points
s,
k,
I,
m\ then through
CAMS.
This curve is the Spiral of Archimedes. the curve asklmpn. The peculiarity of this curve is that a point following it will move outward radially equal distances when passing through
All lines drawn through the centre of this equal angles. curve are equal thus aC equals In Hence if rod the sp. had two pins placed at a and C, the cam would revolve between
:
them, and would cause the rod to make a downward as well as an upward stroke.
88
* gives a solution of the cam and following example follower in which the cam has a variable velocity of revolution
The
about
curve.
left
its
axis,
and the follower moves through a given desired D be the follower, a part of which is
is
cam, and
desired that the path of the follower-point be a curve I 2345. To find the curve
of a
cam necessary to
fill
these con:
according to the velocities several their of the curves may be struck the stroke, during part the in the arcs Now from the points I, by templet. drawing
of the follower-path, we obtain intersections and can draw the curve 1234, etc. This is called the method of
2,
3,
etc.,
intersections
and
is
Cams
are
often
the one usually employed in practice. used on engines for giving the proper
Fig. 77 shows a
movements
to valves.
times used in operating shearing- and punching-machines. The cam revolves about its axis O, presses against the under side of the lever A, thus causing an upward and downward
FIG. 77.
FIG. 78.
movement
The
inverse
cam
is
movement
in
which are the elements of the grooved cam and follower, but
* Robinson's " Principles of Mechanism."
CAMS.
89
where the driver has the pin or roller and where the follower It is sometimes called the pin and slit. has a groove. An example is shown in Fig. 78, in which the slotted piece B is the follower and A the driver.
The
lated for
relation of the applied force to the resistance is calcucams in the same manner as in the case of the screw ;
that
let
In Fig. 72 is, by the application of the Law of Machines. the length of the handle be R. Let d the distance through which the follower is lifted. The follower
AC
AH = =
will
make
three
movements
Law
Fx
X 3-HI6 X R
IV
X d
IV the
as the equation of work, /''being the force applied and weight of the follower. This of course applies only
friction is neglected.
where
CHAPTER
THE LEVER AND SOME OF
As
make up
XI.
ITS MODIFICATIONS.
has been stated before, the lever and its modifications a large part of the mechanism of much of the
machinery now used, different methods of using it being employed as may be convenient. A crow-bar is an excellent
example of the
lever.
Examples
FIG. 79.
and
pinion, the pulley, the wheel and axle, cranes, etc., the action of the lever in these last-named cases being continuous.
Law
distance
of the Lever.
from
the
its
its
ITS MODIFICATIONS.
In this arrangement Fig. 79 shows the rack and pinion. the lever-arm of the applied force is the length of the crank of FM, and the lever-arm of the resistance is the radius
FN
the pitch-circle of the pinion. The Moving Strut and the Toggle-joint are The moving tions of the lever.
strut
two applica-
consists
of a
bar,
Fig.
80,
which
tion.
rests against
some
projec-
rests
ity
of the bar
If
a force
is
FIG. 80.
Moving
Strut.
forced
the weight will move away from the fixed If the angle between the strut and the plane on point. which the weight rests is small, a comparatively small force
down and
will
move
If the
angle
be denoted
by
to being
moved by R, then
PX
If
cos
=R x
sin a.
a be 5, cos a
resistance
it
.99619, sin
.08716,
and
The moved
;
may
is not always the weight of the body to be be principally the friction of the body on the
plane.
The
It is
toggle-joint
in
is
shown
is
resistance
two
struts
strut rests
overcome through a short distance. The have force applied at their junction one end of one against a fixed point, and the other against the body
to be
;
to be
moved.
The
force
is
motion of the body. a be the angle each strut makes with the Let
92
the points about which the outer ends of the strut rotate, the resistance. Then the applied force, and
2R
sin
OL
= P cos
a.
is
An
crushers.
example
of
the
toggle-joint
found
in
stone-
FIG. 81,
FIG. 82.
WHEEL-WORK, CRANES,
Fig.
83,
ETC.
to the
same
shaft, illustrates
the application of the lever to wheelThat is, the radius of one wheel
is the lever-arm of the applied force, and the radius of the other the lever-arm of
the weight, the pivot on which the two wheels turn being the fulcrum.
This
is
the
principle
for raising
of the wheel-
work of cranes
connection with
each other,
FIG. 83.
still
for the
which gives a corresponding loss of speed. In calculating such an arrangement, the wheels may be considered by pairs, applying the law of the lever in each case if so desired, how;
work may be abridged considerably by the use of the following equation, which is deduced from the law of the lever and which is known as the Law of Wheel-work The continued product of the weight and the radii of the wheels is equal to the
ever, the
:
and
the radii
of
the
in Fig. 84,
we
let
R,
R^ R ^ R^ R R R
2
,
be the
radii of the
wheels
B, C, D, E, F, G, H, respectively, then
PXRX
RZ
R,
X R6
W X R, y R
R,
X Rr
These
FIG. 84.
The force are spur-wheels which mesh into each other. a of means be applied at the first wheel crank, or it by
may may
be turned by an engine, as
in the
Sometimes the various pairs of wheels in wheel-work are connected by means of belts or sprocket-chains instead of teeth. In the figure here shown the circles which are tangent are the pitch-circles of the spur-wheels which mesh with -each other and are so drawn to save the
trouble of drawing in the teeth.
or Pulley. pulley-block in a simple form consists of two metal plates carrying a grooved cylindrical disk or sheave.
The Block
The number
the
pulley
etc.,
triple,
of sheaves
is
may be
then
described as
block.
triple
block in perspective.
ical discussion
Triple Pulleyblock.
is
Chapter
I,
page
The
Differential Windlass.
This machine
shown
in
two drums
of unequal diameter,
D and
94
d,
upon the -opposite sides of which two ropes are fastened and wound. By this arrangement the rope winds upon one of the A movable pulley hangs drums, while it winds off the other. to this pulley is attached the in the loop of the rope, and The equation of motion is derived from the Law weight.
of Machines.
The
by the applied
W
FIG.
86.
Differential Windlass.
is
force in
of which
is
is,
X
is
3-
1416
R.
The
dis-
3.1416
X D
3.1416
X d
winding on the large drum and off the small one, and because the movable pulley will divide the distance
is
moved through by
applied force
the weight by 2. Then, multiplying the and the weight by the distances through which they move, respectively, we have the following equation of work:
3-1416
w (3.1416 X D
3.1416
95
1416,
we
have
FX
XR=
same
tial
two pulleys A and B, Fig. 86, keyed to the same shaft, and which have pockets in their circumferences, into which fit
the
links
of a
chain
The
passing chain
its
endless
and,
in
one of
movable
There are other differential hoists, which depend for their action on trains of gear-wheels, which usually have a sun-andplanet
motion.
They
are,
96
PROBLEMS.
i.
In Fig. 87
Ibs.
let
FM
feet,
FN'=
in
12 inches,
4000
pounds, by
the application of
Ans.
F
FIG. 87.
Lever.
2.
let
and
let
FN 4
inches.
How
FMbe?
feet 8 inches.
3.
In Fig. 79
and the
radius of
Ibs.
What
resistance will
it
overcome,
neglecting friction ?
Ibs.
the radius of the pinion be 5 inches, the re4. sistance 600 Ibs., and the applied force 100 Ibs. Find the length of the handle.* Ans. 2 feet 6 inches.
In Fig. 79
let
is 6000 Ibs., the length of the handle and the radius of the 30 inches, pinion 2 inches, what force at the end of the handle is required to overcome it ? Ans. 400 Ibs. 6. Find the radius of the pinion and the length of the handle of a rack and pinion that will raise a weight of 2000 Ibs. with an applied
5.
In Fig. 83
let
and
raised with
an applied force of 100 Ibs. ? Ans. 500 Ibs. 8. Find the diameters of two wheels, similar to those above, which will raise a weight of 2000 Ibs. with an applied force of 50 Ibs., the
efficiency being
60 per cent. In 9. Fig. 84 let the radii of the wheels A, C, E, and G be 24 20 inches, inches, 16 inches and 12 inches, respectively, and the radii
of the pinions B,
D, F, and
be 5 inches, 4 inches, 6 inches, and Find what weight can be raised with an apAns. 25,600
Ibs.
* Friction
is
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
and
10.
97
Design a
weight of 8000
wheels
Here we = 8000 X the product of the radii of the four pinions or, P and *9 represent the above products, respectively, we have letting 8000 X S. We may assume S to be the equation, 100 X P
;
of 4 wheels and 4 pinions which will raise a with an applied force of 100 Ibs. must have 100 x the product of the radii of the four
set
Ibs.
3X2X4X2=
=
48, that
is,
we may assume
pinions are 3 inches, 4 inches, 2 inches, and 2 inches, Substituting this in the above equation, we have
respectively.
100^=
radii
8000
48
of the four
These radii may be wheels of any length so their product is 3840. Therefore the radii of found by trial. 3840. the wheels may be 10 inches, 8 inches, 6 inches, and 8 inches, respec-
10X8x6x8 =
tively.
Where
.
the
is
known, number
of teeth
1 1
may be substituted for radius in the above equation. Find the diameters of the three wheels and three pinions in
a crane which will raise a weight of 20,000 Ibs. with an applied force of 200 Ibs., the efficiency of the machine being 50 per cent. 12. What weight can be raised with an applied force of 100 Ibs.
with a system of pulleys in which the block contains three pulleys as in Fig. 85, the efficiency being 50 per cent ?
13.
A
is
weight of 1800
Ibs. is to
in
friction
500
Ibs.
neglected, to lift it. weight of 2 tons is to be raised with an applied force of How many pulleys should be put in the block, friction beraised with a differential windlass, the
ing neglected?
15.
large and small drums being 12 and 8 inches in diameter, respectively; the force applied 100 Ibs. and the length of the handle 20 inches ? 1 6. What force will be required to raise a weight of 8000 Ibs. with a differential windlass, the large and the small drums being 20 and 12 inches in diameter, respectively, and the length of the handle 16
inches
17.
Ibs.
will raise
a weight of 4000
20 inches.
CHAPTER
XII.
LINK-WORK.
applied to such machinery as consists of rods, cranks, levers, bars, etc., either with parallel As axes, intersecting axes, or axes not in the same plane.
THE
term link-work
is
an instance, take
and B, Fig.
motion
FIG. 88
AD as
the
centre
BE
or
and
DE as
its
As
AD
turns about
the link.
When
Here DE is compels BE to turn also. the point C, where the axis of the link interis
DE
or
>,
the
when C is between the centres. The connecting-rod of an engine, the pitman for giving motion to the sickle of a mower, and the valve-rod of a Corliss engine are examples of
link-work.
Link-work
is
only resistance being due to the slight friction paratively small pins in well-oiled bearings.
pin rarely
98
LINK-WORK.
99
makes more, and usually much less, than one complete turn in its bearing in a complete movement; while in the corresponding movement with a cam the roller (in the best arrangement) makes from 6 to 12 or more turns on its pin, and even this is not so prejudicial as regards resistance as the movement
of a roller along the surface of the cam-groove. For the above reason, link- work is much more durable than other forms
of
mechanism
in preference to
etc.
it should be adopted, wherever possible, toothed gearing, cam-work, belted gearing, Most link- work belongs to the class in which the axes
;
hence
are parallel, and some examples will be given in explain their action and use.
order to
Fig.
89
is
a diagram of the
Corliss
valve-gear.
The
FIG. 89.
wrist-plate
makes a
D back and
are
forth from to F. The valve and the stem at B moved by the link BE as it swings from BE to BG. As another example * suppose that a point is required to move from E to F, Fig. 90, and return within the sixth part
of the revolution of the main shaft A, and then allowed to remain quiet at for the remaining five sixths of the turn.
By
there
E
A
this movement can be easily made but if no particular objection to the additional movement from to G and return, link- work may be employed, as follows main shaft, AD the crank, De the pitman, and is the
the use of a
is
cam
eBG
= HBF
that while the crank-pin moves from c to b the required sixth and back, and moves part of the turn of A, a moves to
to
100
These positions
FIG. go.
for
uniform motion should be equidistant, as shown in Fig. 91. moves around the circle The crank-pin
12345678
FIG. 91.
with
as a centre.
The
as a
link
BE
moves about
B as
a fixed
movable centre,
describing an arc
18273465.
It is required to find the
By
path described by the point F. an examination of the figure it will be seen that the
LINK-WORK.
101
between
E and F,
will not
change
to
simultaneous
positions.
AD
will
be at a point
on the
circle,
described by the crank; with a radius equal to DE, and with Their intersections with I, 2, 3, etc., as centres, describe arcs.
the arc
18273465
be
the
I,
various
Again, with
DF as
a radius, and
12345678,
etc., of the arc
as centres,
describe arcs.
as centres,
Also with
I,
2, 3,
18273465,
The corresponding
Other which are required points of the path of F. and the manner more same the in be found path points may
fully determined.
For every elementary combination in link-work the equivalent motion can be obtained by wheels in rolling contact, these wheels being non-circular
Equivalents for Link-work.
in form (see Fig. 92).
FIG. 92.
One of the objections to the use of link-work, Dead-points. to be provided against, is what is known as the
dead-point or a dead-centre is a point or set of points or positions of the links at which, if a certain one of the links in combination be made driver, the linkage will be found locked.
When the crank and connecting-rod are in rod of an engine. line the crank cannot be started by any amount of force applied
to the cross-head.
in Fig.
It is
shown
capable
of
turning completely
-Dead-point.
around, hence
the system to
it is
called a crank.
It is
come
shown
in Figs.
This position 93 and 94 in which AB and BD coincide. links which the coincide is called the dead-point.
in
FIG. 94.
Dead-point.
purpose, the
momentum
In the steam-engine the fly-wheel serves the of the wheel carrying the crank over
LINK-WORK.
the dead-centre.
103
Sometimes springs are used. In the singlethe crank must not stop on the dead-centre. In acting engine two sets of cranks are used, being placed nearly locomotives,
at right angles to each other, so that while
one crank
is
on
an extra
entirely obviating the link is added, as in Fig. 95, in order to destroy the
dead-point.
FIG. 95.
The examples and explanations thus far given of link-work have been of those in which the axes of the driver and follower were parallel. Its use may also be extended to work in which the axes intersect. This is sometimes called conical work or
solid link-work, the principal essential being the bringing of all the axial lines of shafts and pins to a common point O, as
in Fig. 96.
The
is
similar to that
FIG. 96.
Conical Link-work.
it
makes connections
which
intersect.
Any
104
parallel
may
As
with
parallel
axes,
its
every
may have
equivalent
non-circular wheels in rolling contact, and will also be subject to the same conditions in regard to dead-points.
simple example of this class of link-work may be seen Hooke's universal joint, which is employed as a shaftthe in
coupling.
The
joint
is
shown
in Fig. 97,
where
and
are
FIG. 97.
and FEE half hoops between the shafts to be connected, which is a cross with one branch at EF, parallel to the paper, The branches and the other at perpendicular to the paper.
AD
E and
D in
AD*
Sometimes
generally for simplifying the mechanism, a notable example being that of the cross-head of an engine.
Robinson's " Principles of Mechanism."
CHAPTER
XIII.
PIPE-FITTINGS.
used to designate ail the pieces necessary for the control of liquids and gases such as water, steam, oil, ammonia, etc., water and steam being the
Valves.
The term
'
'
'
'
pipe-fittings
is
fluids
most generally dealt with. These fittings are exclusive of the piping itself and may consist of valves and those parts of which the elbow and the plug are examples.
Valves
divided into the following classes as globe-, gate-, ball-, conical-, and Valves; (1) Lifting
:
may be
some
safety-valves.
Rotary Valves; as cocks, faucets, throttles, etc. Hinging Valves; as clack or butterfly check-valves. (4) Spring-valves; in which the valve is held on its seat by means of a strong spring, an example of which is the pop
(2)
(3)
safety-valve.
(5) Sliding Valves; as the slide-valve
on a locomotive.
The Globe-valve
control
is
used valve in pipe-work, and is used to the passage of fluids through a It generally consists of a straight pipe.
fits
in a simi-
lowering of which causes the passage to be opened or closed. It derives its name
Jenkins Globe-valve.
is
somewhat globular
in form.
The
Io6
flat
The
valve-disk
contains a vulcanized-rubber ring which rests upon the seat when the valve is closed. This makes a good valve because
makes a water- or steam-tight joint. There are which are similar to the Globe-valve, the differvalves many ence being that they change the direction of the passing fluid
the rubber
;
By an
inspection of the sectional cut which is shown, of the globe-valve, it will be noted
that the fluid in passing through the valve does not move in a
straight line but
makes a
turn of
extent.
section
Fig.
passage.
water,
desirable.
99 For
this
allows
the
is
a straight control of
especially
form
A
is
Check-valve
is
used where
it
may
pass in
fluid
itself.
The
valve
pressure of the fluid pushing the valve against the seat and the
forward
the seat.
pressure
be
FIG. Q 9 .-Jenkins Gate-valve.
lifting-valve,
va l ve> or ball-valve.
The
Throttle-valve
is
PIPE-FITTINGS.
107
on or
off.
The
but the
throttle-valve
globe- valve is often used for this purpose, has the advantage that it is much
This
is
in case
FIG. 100.
Check-valve.
all
The
shown
throttle
is
found on
locomotives.
It
may
be of
50.
An
When
taking the valve apart and scraping the disk and seat until a good surface is obtained. With the Jenkins valve the leak can
The generally be stopped by putting in a. new rubber disk. small is a machine which is used for reseating Valve-regrinder
It is really a small lathe, which fits bonnet of the valve, with cutters that may be adjusted It may be used on the globe-valve to a valve of any size. with either the conical or flat seat. This is an invention which
makes a great saving, because it makes possible the use of old valves which would otherwise have to be thrown away, besides
the saving of time,
it it
from
its
position on the
108
The
177.
is
shown
in
Fig.
Poppet-valve, which is also used in engines, air-comthe control of operating-fluid is shown in pressors, etc., for
The
Fig. 232.
For
made
different gases and acids it is necessary to use valves of different materials for instance, a valve used for the
;
control of ammonia in ice-machinery is generally made of iron> the common brass valve being subject to destructive chemical
action.
Small valves are generally made of brass, but where large piping is used or where la"rge pressures are to be resisted
is
allows a
fluid to
pass
in
It differs,
from the
check-valve,
seat
however,
having
ball as
its
valve
in
held
Fig.
upon
101.
its
shown
With
this
FIG. 101.
or above a pressure which can be fixed at will by moving the weight further away from or closer to the pivoted end of the
lever.
PIPE-FITTINGS.
109
is
shown
in
Fig. 102.
This valve
is
designed
pressure.
An
example
of
its
use
may
be noted
The
following
:
is
its
mode
of
boiler
the tension of the spring S, passes down the port marked from
'
'
underneath auxiliary to cylinder the differential piston D. By this the valve -C D, raising piston
is
'
'
initial
pres-
FlG
102.
Mason Reducing-valve.
is
Steam
thus admitted to the low-pressure side, and also passes up the port underneath the diaphragm below S. When the
XX
low pressure in the system has risen to a required point, which is determined by the tension of the spring S, the diaphragm is force'd upward by the steam in the chamber, the valve closes, and no more steam is admitted under the piston D.
The
valve
is
forced to
its
seat
by the
initial
pressure, thus
steam from the low-pressure side. This action is repeated as long as the low pressure drops below the required is fitted with a The piston amount. dash-pot E, which
shutting off
From
the description
it is
no
Piping
iron.
is
generally
made
An example In all steam-piping wrought iron is used. of the use of cast iron is that of the piping used in watermains, the different sections of pipe being put together by
what
is
known
as the
'
'
socket-and- spigot
'
'
joint,
or
more
commonly called the bell-joint. One end of each section is enlarged to a bell shape into which fits the end of the next
section,
filling
a joint being made by pouring in molten lead and With wroughtup the space between the two pieces.
is
made by
which join to the pipe by means of screw-threads and those which join by means of flanges. For small work the screw-thread joints may
pipe-fittings in use, those
be used, but
for
is
an Elbow which
a Nipple.
Fig.
FIG. 103.
Elbow.
FIG. 104.
Tee.
FIG. 105.
Nipple,
FIG. 106.
Coupling.
FIG. 107.
Plug.
FIG. 108.
is
Flange-coupling.*
pipes.
Fig. 107
pipe.
end of a
*The above
Lunkenheimer Company.
PIPE-FITTINGS.
Ill
Fig.
is
screwed to the end of each of the two pieces of pipe and the In flanges are then fastened together by means of bolts.
order to
is
make a
made
of rubber or copper
is
generally used.
It
When
made,
a tight joint
threads.
may be obtained by putting red lead on the should be remembered that the examples given
all
but are mentioned only to give a general idea of what they are
may
be made with either the screw-thread or flange-joint. For instance, the elbow may be fastened to the pipes by either
screw-threads or flanges. with flanges on it. Other
In the latter case the elbow
is
cast
fittings are the Cross, the Union, the 45 Elbow, the Cap, the Right and Left Coupling, the Reducing Coupling, the Retiirn Bend, and others too numerous to mention. When the diameter of a pipe is spoken of the inside
diameter
is
meant.
PROBLEM.
Devise a separator for a steam-engine, similar to that shown ii? Draw a sketch of it and write a list of fre Fig. 200, of pipe fittings.
fittings
needed.
made
of 6 inch wrought -
iron pipe
and the
and
PART
II.
STEAM-POWER.
CHAPTER
XIV.
Heat
is
in a substance results
from a motion
is
of its mole-
The
unit of
measurement
of heat
the British
Thermal
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperaone of ture pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. The number
of heat units in a
tures
in the
is
Unit which
pound
Table
of water or
in the
found
in
I,
Water
is
at 32
units. in
Temperature.
added
while
iron,
This term
If a certain
number
of
B.T.U. be
to
if
one pound of
the
same
iron, a certain temperature will result, amount of heat be added to two pounds of
evidently the temperature will be less, even though the quantity of heat in both cases is the same. Temperature, therefore, is an effect produced by heat but is not a measure of
the quantity of heat.
bodies.
Temperature is measured by noting the effect of heat upon It is found that heat will expand a body and this
principle is made use of in thermometers, pyrometers, and other instruments for measuring temperatures. A thermometer, in its most common form, consists of a small glass tute, having a
H3
filled
and a bulb at one end, partially and with graduations upon its entire length. mercury
with
Changes
of temperature cause variations in the height of the mercury, by reason of expansion or contraction. In order to arrive at a
standard method of graduation, two well-known facts are made use of, viz., that the boiling temperature of water at atmospheric pressure and the temperature of melting ice, are conIn the Centigrade thermometer, the freezing temperastant. ture is marked o and the boiling temperature 100, while in the
Fahrenheit thermometer, the freezing-point is marked 32, and In the former, that part of the instruthe boiling-point 212.
is
divided into
100 equal parts, while in the Fahrenheit it is divided into 180 equal parts, each of which is called a degree.
Absolute Temperature.
is
abstracted
Its
from a body
ature
tion
is
until
it
temper-
by calculatemperature
it is
Absolute
on
any
the
On
the
may be
expressed (i)
pounds per square inch, (2) in pounds per square foot, (3) in inches of mercury and (4) in inches of water. Pressure of in either one these be reduced to the units, may expressed
All the data equivalent pressure in any one of the others. necessary for this reduction is that (i) one cubic inch of mer-
cury weighs 0.49 pounds and (2) one cubic foot of water, at 60 F., weighs 62.4 pounds. As an example, a barometer reading of 30 inches of mercury would correspond to a pressure of
pounds per square inch. Atmospheric or Barometric pressure is the pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere and its measurement is usually
30 X. 49
= 14.7
II4
in inches of
STEAM-POWER.
If no instrument for this purpose mercury. as 29.92 inches of mercury. taken be may
is
available,
it
Gauge pressure or pressure above atmosphere is usually measured by instruments which give readings in pounds per the atmosphere or vacuum square inch, while pressures below are usually measured by instruments which give readings in
inches of mercuiy.
Absolute Pressure.
ume,
etc.,
upon a point of absolute zero pressure, and since all instruments for measuring pressures are from atmospheric- pressure up, it is evident that absolute pressure must be obtained by adding atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure, or if the press-
ure
is
These relations are pressure from it. shown in the accompanying diagram,
in
c 9 absolute pressure; d,
which a represents gauge pressure; b, atmospheric pressure; vacuum; and e, absolute pressure in a
condenser.
STEAM.
If heat
F. under a
piston in a cylinder, three kinds of effects will be produced, viz. : (1) The temperature rises until the boiling temperature is
reached, the piston remaining stationary, except for the pracThe boiling temperature tically zero expansion of the water.
shown
under which the water exists and is column 3 of the steam table. The number of B.T.U. which must be added to raise one pound of water from 32 to the boiling-point for different pressures is found in column 4.
varies with the pressure
in
(2)
Further
addition
of
heat,
after
the
boiling-point
is
115
reached, does not cause a corresponding rise of temperature, but steam begins to form and the piston rises until all the water
is
this
here
called
or
It is
end of the vaporizing process is always a constant for a given In column 8 of the steam table is given the volume pressure. of one pound of steam at different pressures.
(3) After the water has been entirely vaporized, further addition of heat causes a corresponding increase of the temSteam which has thus received perature and rise of the piston.
is
By adding the heat of the water in column 4 to the corresponding latent heat in column 6, we obtain the values given in column 5, which represent the total number of heat units
required to convert one pound of water at 32
into
steam
at a
If just
enough heat
is
orate all of
it,
we have
which
be
the heat of vaporization and / the heat of the liquid or water. If only enough heat is added to the pound of water to raise
in
is total heat,
it
H = L +/,
saturated steam,
from 32
it,
to
the boiling-point
part of
sion.
we
will
is
This
have steam containing some water in suspencalled wet steam, and the expression for the
= quantity of heat added will be, B.T.U. added l+xL, in which x is the weight of that part of the pound which has been vaporThe temperature of the moisture in the steam is the ized.
same as
that of the steam.
If enough heat is added to a pound of water, to raise it from 32 to the boiling-point, to completely vaporize it, and then to raise its temperature above that corresponding to its
n6
pressure,
STEAM POWER.
we have
is,
superheated, steam.
An
heat added
B.T.U.
in which,
t8
added=/+L+.53&-0=H+.53(/.-0,
of the superheated steam in de rees F.
= temperature t = temperature
= specific
in
Superheated steam is made by adding heat to steam after it has passed from contact with the water in the boiler. As an example of the use of the steam tables in the determination of heat exchange, let it be required to find the number of B.T.U. ne:essary to convert one pound of water with a
temperature
of 80
F. into
pounds absolute
and containing
2%
moisture
From Table I, the heat in the water, /, at 80 F., is 48.04. The value of I for steam at 100.5 pounds absolute is 299.3 anc* L for the same pressure is 882.7 The heat in one pound of steam at the given pressure is,
therefore,
299.3
is
1164.34
48
04 = 1116
This
last
subtraction
is
made because
is
the initial temperature of the water the number of B.T.U. already in it.
STEAM BOILERS.
Steam
called
a boiler.
closed in
eam-engines is rrade in a closed vessel, necessary that the vessel should be order that pressure higher than that of the atmosphere
for use in
s
It
is
may be
but
it is
obtained.
evident in this
The apparatus for manufacturing steam, including the boiler, the furnace, the chimney, the feedThe manner of pump, etc., is called a steam-boiler plant.
Fuel is burned 'in a furnace producing steam is as follows which is so situated with respect to the boiler that the heat
:
117
comes
in
boiler, part of the heat being taken up by the water in the The remaintoiler, thereby converting the water into steam.
ing heat
draft or
is is
either taken
lost
by
generate heat, that of the chimney and create a draft, and that of the boiler to transfer heat into
to carry off the products of combustion
or by leakage.
The
CLASSES OF BOILERS.
Steam-boilers
may
Water-tube
boilers,
be classed as either Fire-tube boilers or according to whether the heated gases pass
through the tubes which are surrounded by water or around These two classes may be the tubes which contain water.
further classed as
Internally-fired or Externally-fired.
FIRE-TUBE BOILERS.
Fig. 109 shows in elevation a fire-tube boiler, known as the return-tubular boiler, and Fig. 1 10 shows the same in section. The fuel is burned on the grate in the furnace. The heated
and pass over the bridge-wall to the back end of the boiler, then return through tubes or flues to the front end; thence up the chimney which is over the front end of the
gases
rise
furnace.
is
side of the shell of the boiler, the gases being somewhat cooled further amount of heat is taken up by the water thereby.
surrounding the tubes, as the hot gases pass through them. Thus the heated gases are made to remain in contact with the surfaces which are in contact with water as long as possible so
a large part of the heat. The volume of the boiler-shell consists of two parts, the water-space and the The water-space consists of that part in which steam-space.
as to
utilize
the water
is
contained.
is
steam-space.
The
n8
STEAM POWER.
i
steam-space shou d be suffic ently I.ig to separ..te the parti Jes of water carried up into the sWam by th disturbances caused
-
by boiling. FOJ the purpose of providing for dry steam, the steam-dome is often used, but it is now often dispensed with,
as being
unnecessary.
From
the
top of
the steam-space
pipe takes the steam off to the engine, thus drawing dryest steam.
off
the
Heating Surface.
in direct contact
That surface
f
which comes
is
om
called the
'1
20
5 TEAM-PO WER.
"heating surface."
it
consists of
the surface of the shell in contact with the hot gases (generally about two thirds of the boiler-shell) plus the inner surface of
the tubes.
in feet,
;/
Let
the
D=
feet,
the length
and d length of the surface shell in Then their diameter in inches. heating 3. 1416/2 X L X f the heating surface of tubes square feet 3.1416^ X / X n Total heating surface in square feet
number of
in feet,
=fX
3-
HI6Z2 X L
'
I4l6
X /Xn ^2
The
shell of this
Its thickness type of boiler is made of steel or wrought iron. The plate is put together with is usually from J to J inch. rivets. One of the greatest causes of trouble with this type of
boiler
is is
which
plate.
due to the expansion and contraction of the tubes, apt to cause leakage where the tube joins the headTubes with diameters less than 6 inches are called
those
with diameters larger than 6 'inches are The former are fastened to the headgenerally called flues. the latter are riveted means of by tube-expanders, plates
tubes,
while
in.
The ends
by tying them
Fig.
of the boiler above the tubes are strengthened by means of stays (see
1 This type of boiler gives good results when correctly 10). One objection to it is that proportioned and well managed. it sometimes is the cause of great loss of life by explosion, by
reason of having the whole steam-pressure in one large vessel. The fire-tube boiler may be classed as either externallyfired
or
internally-fired.
The
externally-fired
boiler
has
The internally-fired boiler has Internally-fired Boilers. furnace within the shell in a flue which is made large enough
to contain a grate. The gases may pass to the back in this flue and then return to the front in small tubes above the fireflue as in the case of the return-tubular boiler, or
they
may
pass to the back and then to the front through openings in the brick setting and then to the back again and out the chim-
121
ney by another passage under the shell. The latter plan isillustrated by Fig. ill, showing the Cornish boiler, one of the
earlier
in the Cylindrical in the combustion which or boiler, Marine, Scotch, Fig. 112, <4 to back connecthe in two large flues, passes takes place
' '
An
tion
and then
above the
FIG. in.
Cornish Boiler.
and up the stack. The Locomotive boiler, Fig. 113,* is an internally-fired boiler, in which the heated gases of combustion pass directly from the front to the rear of the boiler through
flues
fire-tubes
smoke-stack.
in cut.
The
fire-box
is
of a rectangular form as
shown
Water-tube Boilers.
boiler has
its
As
before
stated,
the
water-tube
with water, and surrounded by hot 1 14 shows a side view of the Babcock & Wilcox gases. Fig. The boiler is made up boiler, which is an example of this type.
tubes
filled
of a
number
by
side.
Each
section consists of several tubes connected one above the other, at each end to a header, the headers being connected at the
Fig. 115
shows one
no,
furnished by Messrs. E.
122
STEAM-POWER.
4-20"
\
FIG. 112.
Scotch Boiler.
123
124
STEAM-POWER.
It
is
of these headers.
made
of cast iron or
wrought
steel.
The
tubes are placed over each other in zigzag fashion in order The to intercept as much as possible the gaseous currents.
tubes are
made
of
wrought iron or
steel,
FIG. 114.
FIG
115.
the header by means of a tube-expander. Fig. 116 shows a portion of the end of a tube and a header in section showing
the arrangement for getting at the end of the tubes for the purpose of inspection and cleaning. By taking off the handhole nut the hand-hole cover may be taken off and an opening
made in the header-wall opposite the wall entered by the tube. The same figure shows how the feed-water enters near the bottom, of the drum. The tubes slant downwards toward the back in order to facilitate the circulation of the water. The heated water tends to rise and the water in the drum above flows down A mud-drum is. through the rear headers to take its place.
*
of the
125
all
Fig. 117.
The
boiler,
advantage of being more easily handled. Another type of the water-tube boiler
Stirling boiler,
shown
in
the
126
STEAM-POWER.
connected to a fourth drum below them by means of nearly vertical small tubes. The hot gases come in contact with
these small tubes and part of the drum-surface, being made to pass in contact at the proper time and in the proper direction
by means
of deflecting-plates, as
'
shown
in the figure.
' '
because of the quick steamers small volume of water in each tube, each tube also being surrounded almost entirely by hot gases. They have an advan'
is
FIG. 117.
Heine Boiler.
This makes the resistance to rupture much more perfect, and for this reason many makers of water-tube boilers call their
boilers "safety-boilers."
The heating
surface of water-tube
BOILER-SETTING.
By the term setting is meant the general arrangement of the boiler, furnace, and chimney with regard to each other and the manner of closing the boiler in. By an inspection of the
127
FIG. 118.
Stirling Boiler.
128
different forms
STEAM-POWER.
and shapes of the boilers already described it is seen that the setting will depend largely upon the make readily of the boiler. Fig. 119 and Fig. 120 show two views of the
FIG. 119.
Boiler-setting.
+>
"
"
setting
for
a return-tubular boiler.
The
nace are sometimes " battered," that is, the inner surface of the walls is inclined outward from the vertical. This enlarges
the combustion-chamber.
The line along the side of the boiler at which the brickwork joins the shell is called the fire-line. This determines the amount of shell-surface in direct contact with the heat. It is generally about two thirds of the boiler-surface. The walls
should be thick enough to prevent radiation.
It is
best to
have a double wall with an air-space between. This prevents and cracking consequent leakage of heat of the walls due to This double wall is equally important unequal expansion. where there are several boilers side by side (called a
battery^.
The
grate-surface
side.
is
placed side by
necessary to have
The
grate
HE A T AND STEAM.
rests
129
at
at the front
is
inclined slightly from the front toward the back end, usually about f inch fall for every foot
The
grate
of length of grate.
The bridge-wall rises from the back end of the grate, making an -angle of about 45 with the horizontal. The object
FIG. 120.
Boiler-setting.
of this
is
manner
as to
On
is
it
this
just
Sometimes the top of a straight horizontal line as in Fig. 120. is curved to conform to the shape of the
is
It is
the space between the grate and the bottom formed by the sides of the furnace and
paved at the bottom, usually in order that water may lie in it. The flame-bed is that part of the furnace just back of the
It bridge-wall and extending to the back end of the furnace. inclines downward from near the top of the bridge-wall to the
'30
STEAM-POWER.
This inclination causes the soot
draft
In this
way
The
boiler
is
set a trifle
is
lower at
order to
This
done
in
drain the boiler toward the blow-off pipe. Hanging the Boiler. Supporting the heavy weight of the boiler itself and its volume of water is effected in two ways
:
boiler is supported at its sides by the furnace- walls, .or it hung from beams above by means of links and eyes attached to its upper part. The first plan is carried out by riveting " of steel or cast iron, at least two to each side, to "brackets the boiler as in Fig. 109. These brackets rest on a place made for them on the walls. The walls of the furnace are apt
is
The
to be spread apart by reason of the expansion of the boiler when heated, if the bracket is fixed movably on the wall.
its
seat
Fig. 12
shows an
FIG. 121.
Eye Riveted
to Boiler-shell.
is fitted
a hooked link
Owing to the different supporting the boiler from above. forms and dimensions of water-tube boilers, no established rule
131
Each can be adopted for setting them. make has its own special setting, which is
usually specified by the maker. shows the setting of the Babcock
boiler,
Fig.
14
& Wilcox
and Fig.
1 1
ing boiler.
CHIMNEYS.
The connection
setting
boiler.
will
of the chimney to the depend upon the type of the For the return-tubular boiler shown
in
Figs. 109
and
10,
on the end of the boiler opposite With most water-tube boilers the furnace. the stack is at the back end.
The
The
cost
brick
chimney
it
is
of
much
greater
first
apt by reason of Its great weight makes the concracks. struction of the foundation a serious problem.
is
and
to
leak
The
brick
chimney
is
is
usually
made with
brick,
an
air-space between.
The
outer wall
thick,
and of ordinary
giving stability to the structure, while the inner wall is thin and made of fire-brick (see
Fig. 122). Steel or wrought-iron chimneys are made of sections riveted together. They may be"
made
practically air-tight.
The higher
the
,
chimney the greater the force of the draft. The air on the inside of the chimney, being heated, expands and becomes lighter and
therefore
lower in pressure
than
the
air.
I3 2
STEAM-POWER.
on the outside, hence the temperature of the gases entering The force the bottom of the chimney affect the draft force.
of the draft
is
column of heated gases inside of the chimney and that of an The draft is usually spoken equal column of the outside air. " " It is determined by means of as so many inches of water. of the U-tube gauge shown in Fig. 123.
FIG. 123.
U-tube Draft-gauge.
One end
is
The
two
in inches
of water
in the figure.
of chimneys are
3.
33
y77=
3.33(^4
0.6
VA} VH.
0.3
133
E+
For round chimneys, diameter of chimney = diameter of 4 inches. For square chimneys side of chimney in feet = V -f- 4
In
inches.
these
I
formulas
H.P.
commercial
Ibs.
horse-power
of
boiler,
hour;
feet.
H= height
It is usual in
chimney design
to
chimney such that the smoke, etc., rounding buildings and then find the corresponding area by means of the formula. The passage which connects the different boilers of a It battery to the main chimney is called the breeching.
' ' ' '
is
generally
made
of sheet iron.
is
Forced Draft
all
means
of
is
chimney. produced by passing the exhaust steam such a manner that a current of air is
This method
is
In the loco-
also frequently
stationary practice, but it has the objectionable adopted features of making a disagreeable noise, especially in an iron
and of rusting the metal parts due to the moisture in It is also wasteful of steam, on account of its causing back-pressure on the engine. The most common method of producing a forced draft is to produce a current through the furnace and stack by means
stack,
the steam.
is
usually run
by a small indepen-
dent engine.
for
Here the
may
be controlled
Fig.
draft.
The
fan
end of the
The
fan consists of a
number
of vanes on
revolves within an iron casing. The is shown at the right of the cut. small engine which runs it Fig. 125 shows another method of producing draft in which the
a revolving shaft.
grate
is
made up
of hollow pipes.
134
STEAM-POWER.
pipes are perforated and air and the fuel by means of a blower.
The
is
FIG. 124.
the
the chimney or stack needs only to be high enough to carry smoke above the surrounding buildings.
'35
The Rate of Combustion is measured by the number of pounds of fuel burned on one square foot of grate-surface in one hour. It depends mainly upon the nature of the fuel and the force of
draft.
maximum
rate
is
generally produced
when
forced
FIG. 125.
Forced-draft Fan.
draft
is
fuel,
while the
minimum
rate
is
produced with natural draft and the best grades of fuel. In locomotive practice a rate of combustion as high as
200
Ibs.
is
sometimes
used.
stationary generally ranges between 10 and 25 Ibs., and as low as 3 or 4 Ibs. is sometimes found in small boilers used for steam-heating.
The ordinary
rate
for
boilers
The principal elements in fuels are Hydrogen, Carbon r and Oxygen. Carbon may combine with oxygen and form two different chemical compounds, carbon monoxide, CO, and carbon dioxide, CO 2 that is, one atom of carbon and one of oxygen or one atom of carbon with two of oxygen. The former is produced by limiting the supply of air and the latter by an abundant air-supply. When it burns to CO 2 or carbon
;
136
STEAM-POWER.
dioxide, 14,600 heat-units are produced per pound of carbon When it burns to CO or carbon monoxide, 4450 heat-units per
pound of carbon are produced. Hence 10,150 heat-units per pound of fuel are lost by improperly ventilating the fuel during
combustion.
in the proportion of
Ib.
of hydrogen to 8 Ibs. of oxygen, or 2 atoms of hydrogen to I In so doing a pound of hydrogen gives up 62,000 The oxygen in the fuel does not burn, but will heat-units.
Then if one eighth of its weight of hydrogen. C, H, and O, represent the proportions of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the pound of fuel, the number of heat-units,
f
J4,6ooC
+ 62,oooH
-....
(i)
The
is
determined by chemical analysis. Owing to the different heat wastes of by radiation, by dropping of fuel through the grate, by incomplete combustion, and by the hot gases escaping through the chimney, much of this heat is not taken up in
producing steam.
The amount
utilized
may
range from 50 to
75 per cent of the total heat, depending upon the excellence of design, and upon the conditions of operation.
The
be generated
in the furnace is
finding the weight of steam required per by to run the hour By the use of the engines or other apparatus.
calculated
steam-table the number of heat-units required to produce this the total heat weight of steam is found as follows Let
:
H=
above 32
of
Ib.
the given pressure, and let / be the heat in the water for the I is the heat given feed-water temperature; then required to evaporate i Ib. of water from the given feed-water tempera-
ture into steam of the given pressure. = the number of heat-units that If
the complete combustion of i Ib. used, and E the efficiency of the boiler which
may
may
be expected
37
HEK
The
fuel.
It
is
Ibs. of
the furnace for every pound of carbon in the coal in order to obtain complete combustion.
air to
Fuels
The
and
grate.
principal fuels used in boiler-furnaces are wood, coal, Wood and coal are burned on the ordinary petroleum.
Petroleum
will
fuel.
requires
special
which
other
for
it,
be described
later.
Wood
a
is
as in a sawmill plant, or in a
wooded
locality.
Wood
burns with
carbon
large.
is
flame and rapidly. Its percentage of comparatively small and that of the volatile gases
bright
Coal
may be
little
Anthracite or
Bituminous or
flame.
Its
soft coal.
Anthracite
burns
percentage of carbon is large and hence it is a great producer of heat. The percentage of volatile gases is small. Bituminous coal breaks easily, burns
more
rapidly,
Its
from 20 to
50.
better classification
'
is
'
138
STEAM-POWER.
The
anthracite and
semi-anthracite
coals
are
found
in
eastern Pennsylvania; the semi-bituminous in a very narrow stretch of territory from central Pennsylvania to the southern
boundary of Virginia; the eastern bituminous coals in the remainder of the Appalachian coal-field from northern PennThe western bituminous coals sylvania and Ohio to Alabama.
and the
are
lignites are
They
characterized
by being high
moisture as well as in
volatile matter.
The
figures
in
portion of the coal, that is, the carbon and the volatile matter, The percentage of not including the ash and the moisture.
as
It may be as low ash varies greatly in all the several classes. as and as cent. cent 30 high per 5 per Coke is made from bituminous coal in a manner correIt
sponding to that of producing charcoal from wood. duces little smoke and is an efficient heat-giving fuel.
pro-
Petroleum has a heating value of about 50 per cent greater It is burned with less than average good coal per pound.
cost of labor in feeding
it.
The term firing is used to designate the process Firing. of burning the fuel on the grate. It consists of keeping the fire in a clean condition, regulating the draft-supply, etc.
There are systems of firing, among which is the spreading system, in which the fuel is spread all over the grate-area in thin layers at frequent intervals of time. Thick layers always choke the draft and consequently cool the furnace.
The
is
first
alternating system requires a wide grate. charge put on one side and allowed to burn a while, when
another charge
the
new
This keeps one placed on the other side. and the volatile gases from charge pass over the hot part of the furnace and are
is
burned.
upon the and gradually pushing it back This makes the hottest part of the
139
furnace toward the back, and the volatile gases, being driven off soon after the charge is placed in the front of the furnace,
This pass over this heated part at the back and are burned. is usually carried out by means of a mechanical of firing process arrangement called a Mechanical Stoker. The fuel is placed
in a
taken thence to a moving grate, either endless or reciprocating, which causes the fuel to move gradually
is
hopper and
to the
in the
meantime.
the
Roney
is
The
coal
to the grate-bars
grate consists of bars arranged in steps which take an inclined and then a stepped position, which causes a movement
of the fuel toward the
The
back end.
Motion
is
transmitted to the
The grate-bars through the connecting-rod and rocker-bar. fed of the fuel out is of the feedhopper regulated by quantity wheel.
Petroleum Fuel.
The
usual
method
is
which
This makes a finely divided mixture of up. drawing the air and oil, or steam and oil, which is sprayed into the ordinary furnace and burned. Using steam for this purpose has the
advantage of being the cheaper arrangement, but it has the objectionable feature of introducing moisture from the steam
into the furnace.
When
air to
compressed
air is
used an air-com-
a large reservoir, which holds the air pressor supplies start to again after the steam-pressure in the boiler necessary
127 shows the arrangement of a plant for burning petroleum by means of compressed air. Fig. 128 is a sectional view of an oil-feeder.
is
down.
Fig.
140
STEAM-POWER.
141
*Fic.
127.
leading from
Plant for Burning Petroleum Fuel. oil-tank; pipe / to the burner A GG = air-compressor which keeps
;
/=
/=
its side.
* FIG.
128.
Section of Burner.
air-valve
;
air-entrance
to
B=
oil-entrance
F=
A =
pipe leading
combustion-chamber under
boiler.
From " A
142
STEAM-POWER.
BOILER ACCESSORIES.
The
type.
articles
named and
boiler
Steam-gauge.
This
is
pipe to the steam-space of the boiler for indicating at a glance the condition of the steam-pressure in the boiler. Fig. 129
FIG. 129.
Ashcroft Steam-gauge.
shows the internal mechanism of a steam-pressure gauge. The steam- pressure enters it at the bottom and enters the flat curved tube, which is connected at one end to the needle.
the pressure is increased the ends of the spring spread apart and the needle is turned around the dial accordingly. The Water-gauge. This consists of a glass tube, generally
When
about
one end of which is on a level with the the other on a level with the steam-space. and water-space
1
2 inches long,
143
stands at the same level in the glass as in the boiler, and the gauge thus shows at a glance the height of For the same purpose gauge-cocks, the water in the boiler.
generally three, are placed in connection with the boiler, one with the steam-space, one with the water-space, and one at about the level of the water-line. By opening these the height
of the water
may
be determined.
They
pose of having a reliable source of information even gauge-glass should get out of order.
The Water-column. The gauge-glass, and gauge-cocks are all usually connected to the water-column as shown in Fig. The water-column is usually made 130.
of cast iron.
in
pressure-gauge,
gauge, to which the needle is attached, from becoming too hot and
the
thus
is
FlG. 130
Watercolumn.*
this pressure is
is
liable to burst.
Some
keeping the steam-pressure from rising The safety-valve is used for the above this given pressure. It consists of a valve so arranged that it will open purpose. and let the steam escape when the pressure for which it was
set
is
reached.
In the former a lever safety-valve and the pop safety-valve. of the third class is used in connection with a heavy weight for
The pressure at which the steam blows retaining the steam. off will depend on the distance of the weight from the fulcrum.
Fig. 131
shows
The
lever
is
pivoted at
*
The
pressure of steam
b
is
A =
water-column,
siphon;
gauge-cocks; d
T44
at B.
STEAM-POWER.
of levers or
moments we
have,
P
or
P=
in
Wm
-I
wn
-4-
w, l
, '
which
P=
total
W the
the weight
FIG. 131.
Safety-valve.
of the valve and spindle, s the distance from the centre of the fulcrum to the centre of the the distance from valve-spindle, the fulcrum to the centre of the ball, and n the lever-
arm of the weight of the lever = the total length divided by 2. The pop safety-valve gets its power to hold steam-pressure by means of a strong spring above the valve, which takes the
of the lever and weight of the other Different type. pressures are held by increasing or decreasing the tension in the spring by means of a nut. of this Fig. 132 is an
average
place
example
type.
Feed- water. The water out of which steam is made is forced into the boiler against the steam-pressure therein by two distinct means; viz., the feed-pump and the injector. The
145
FIG. 132.
Pop Safety-valve.
FIG. 133.
Feed-pump.
146
STEAM-POWER.
at
feed-pump puts water into the boiler cold or at the temperature which it receives it, while the injector warms it in putting
it in.
The feed-pump
injector
is
The
more
is
may
on the locomotive.
of greater
first cost,
The feed-pump
Fig.
133 shows a sectional cut of the Deane boiler feed-pump. The water-piston is actuated by a steam-piston. The steam is controlled by a common D-valve. The valve-motion is produced by a vibrating arm. The Injector. The water is drawn through the injector and fed into the boiler by means of an induced current produced by the flow of steam from STEAM
the
boiler
through
the
injector.
Fig. 134 is a very simple example of the injector. Steam from the
boiler
enters
through
ing
R into
and S, where
is
partially
condensed.
The
condensation
this
through
S,
the water to be
and through
boiler.
FIG.
i3
The
is
4.-Penberthy
Injector,
"overflow"
only while starting the injector, that is, when the water is to be lifted and put into the boiler, the entering stream will be blown to waste through the overflow during a few seconds
As necessary to exhaust the air in the water-supply pipe. soon as the steam which is passing out of the overflow turns to water it shows that the lifting" of the water has begun. The
above makes plain the fact that for pumping water by this process there must be a condensation as well as a very high
147
The
first
water must be cold, otherwise the injector will not work. The high velocity of steam is produced by the rapidity with which
it
is
The
injector
cannot be
FIG. 135-
Monitor Injector.
the
steam- valve,
first
W the
water-
valve
little
to let
To
out through the overflow, and shut again as soon as clear Next open the water-valve W, after which steam appears.
open the steam-valve slowly and the injector is at work. The maximum temperature of water at which this injector will cease The economy of the injector is due to feed is about 130 F.
to the fact that
it
required to operate it; nevertheless it is not as economical as a feed-pump used in connection with an exhaust-steam heater,
for
Feed-water Heater.
The number
of heat-units required
148
to
STEAM-POWER.
I,
in
which
Jf?
= the
By increasing h the heat required per pound of steam is reduced. As has just been shown, the injector does this, but at the expense of steam taken from the boiler. The from exhaust steam non-condensing engines, which would
otherwise exhaust into the atmosphere, is generally used for The exhaust steam usually surrounds heating the feed-water.
a number of pipes through which the feed-water circulates. The Fig. 1 36 shows a sectional view of a heater of this type.
through the tubes to the top and down the left-hand tubes and The heat of the exhaust steam surrounding out to the boiler.
the tubes heats the water.
The Feed-pipe.
injector or the
It
The
feed-pump
to the boiler
pipe which takes the water from the is called the feed-pipe.
may
enter the boiler at the bottom near the back end, in is lower at the back end, so f hat the feed-
pipe may also serve as a blow-off pipe and to drain the boiler. better method is to introduce the feed-pipe into the front of
the boiler just above the top row of tubes and extend it a few feet within the boiler. By this means the contact of the cold
is
damage
Another method
to utilize
the heat from the chimney-gases for heating the feed-water. Coils of pipe through which the feed-water passes on the way
from the feed-pump to the boiler are placed so that the fluegases pass in contact with them, thus heating the feed-water. This apparatus is called an economizer, of which Fig. 137 is an
illustration.
Here the economizer is placed by the side of the furnace and from the back end of the setting around The feed-pipe usually has two check-valves with to the stack. a gate-valve between the boiler and feed-pump.
in the flue
Blow-off Pipe. When the boiler contains sediment due to the precipitation from impure water and the high temperatures,
an opening
is
made somewhere
in the
149
SURFACE BLOW
FIG
136.
Feed-water Heater.
STEAM-POWER.
151
and the rush of the steam towards this point carries the For this purpose the blow-off pipe is placed impurities with it.
at the lowest point of the boiler.
By
it
the boiler
may
also
be
drained of water.
consists
usually
The
The
blow-off
mud-
drum.
Dampers. The draft in a boiler-furnace is regulated by means of the damper, or draft-doors. That is, by closing the draft-doors the draft stops and vice versa. This is frequently done automatically, by a mechanical device which causes the
doors to close or open according to the variations of pressure
of the steam in the boiler.
PROBLEMS.
1.
120.
What h
the absolute
temperature? 2. A steam The gauge read 106.3 pounds per square inch. barometer reads 29.84. Find the absolute pressure in pounds per square inch. 3. A vacuum-gauge on a condenser reads 26 inches of mercury. Find
the absolute pressure in the condenser, if the barometer is 29.92 inches. 4. Find the heat-units in a pound of water at 60 F.
5. Find the heat-units required to change 8 pounds of water from a temperature of 60 F. to a temperature 202 F. 6. Find the heat-units required to convert 60 pounds of water at a temperature of 100 F. into dry saturated steam, at a pressure of
85-3 gauge.
7.
at a
temperature of 70
Find the heat-units required to convert 20 pounds of water F. into steam at 120 pounds absolute, con-
taining
C.
3%
moisture.
Find the heat-units required to convert i pound of water at a temperature of 50 F. into steam with a pressure of 100 pounds absolute and a temperature of 360 F.
152
9.
STEAM-POWER.
Find the volume of
2
pounds
of
70.3
of 10 cubic feet of
of 74.3
pounds gauge.
boiler horse-power, according to the A.S.M.E. standard, is 11. the evaporation of 30 pounds of water at 100 F. into steam at 70 pounds gauge in one hour, or 34 J pounds from water at 212 F. into
"
steam
12.
at 212
How many
to
one horse-power
boiler evaporates
The
feed-
water has a temperature of 202 F. and the steam-pressure is 100 pounds absolute. Find (a) the equivalent number of pounds (equivalent evaporation) that would be evaporated "from and at 212." (b) the horse-power developed. The diameter of the return tubular boiler has 82 tubes. 13.
boiler
feet
is 5 feet,
the length
is
18
feet.
The
is
16
and
is 2^-
inches.
f of the
with the
14.
What
feet
square
15.
inches.
1 6.
is the rated horse-power of the above boiler, allowing 15 of heating surface per H.P. ? grate for the above boiler is 4 feet 6 inches by 4 feet 6
is
17.
On
burned every 24
hours.
1
Find the
8.
the above.
shows 60
furnace burns 50 Ibs. of coal per hour. chemical analysis cent cent carbon, 5 per hydrogen, and 10 per cent per number of Find the heat-units oxygen. generated per hour. 20. If 3000 Ibs. of steam per hour is required from a boiler, the
19.
steam-pressure being 100 Ibs. gauge, and the feed-water temperature 200 F., how many Ibs. of coal per hour will be burned, the heating value of the coal being 13,000 heat-units per lb., and the efficiency of
the boiler being 60 per cent
21.
?
boiler.
feet
H.P.
53
The
be 18 inches, inches, In Fig. 131 let 2$ valve weighs 3$ pounds, the ball 85 pounds, and the lever 7 diameter. Find the pressure, in pounds. The valve is 3 inches in
s
12
and
inches.
inch, at
will
blow
off.
CHAPTER XV.
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
STEAM-ENGINE
is
All
engines, whether reciprocating or rotary, are either simple- or multiple -expansion engines, and are also either condensing or
non-condensing.
or double-acting.
In a reciprocating engine, the steam gives to a piston, operating in a closed cylinder, a back-and-forth motion. This
back-and -forth or reciprocating motion is usually, converted into rotary motion by means of a crank, but sometimes, as in
the case of pumps, steam-hammers, etc., it is not so converted. rotary engine uses the expansive force of steam to pro-
duce rotation directly, without the interposition of cranks, This style of engine is usually very uneconomipistons, etc. cal and but little used. Recently, however, the steam-turbine It runs at a high rate of speed and is has been developed.
fairly
economical
in its use of
steam.
It will
be discussed
in
the section on steam-turbines, Chapter XXII. In a simple engine the steam does its work in one cylinder, and is then exhausted into the atmosphere or a condenser.
In a multiple-expansion engine the steam is exhausted from the first cylinder into a receiver. From the receiver it is taken
into a second
it is
used a second
time.
receiver to be used
cylinder may go to a second another time, or it may go to the condenser, or exhaust to the atmosphere. An engine using the steam twice is a compound engine;
either
still
154
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
155
;
one using
it
it
three times
is
a triple-expansion engine
engine, etc.
one using
is a quadruple-expansion non-condensing engine exhausts directly into the atmoswhere phere. A condensing engine exhausts into a condenser,
four times
condensed by means of cold water, and is atmosphere by means of a pump. In a single-acting engine the steam acts only on one side In a double-acting engine it acts on both sides o f the piston.
the exhaust steam
is
then removed
to the
This chapter will treat only of reciprocating Rotary engines will be discussed later.
engines.
The
138 and
first
engine to be considered
is
acting, non-condensing,
i
39.
The
is
The
ends.
cylinder
shown in Figs. various parts are named in the illustrations. a hollow, cylindrical vessel, closed at both
slide-valve engine,
is
The
piston
a disk,
flat
or otherwise, which
moves
so that
it is
of piston-rings.
piston means within the cylinder, by steam-tight These are cast-iron rings, which are split
The
diagonally at one point of their circumference, and which are When made, they are turned sunk into grooves in the piston. of the cylinder, and then the diameter than slightly larger
split.
Enough metal
is
split so that
the rings
When
The
placed in the piston the rings spring out against the making a steam-tight yet easy sliding fit.
by means
of
its
The D-valve,
letter
so-called on
account of
shown, the steam from the chest passes into the steam-port, and from The steam forces the piston back. thence into the cylinder.
resemblance to the D, being
in the position
is transmitted to the fly-wheel by means of the cross-head connecting-rod, and crank, and causes piston-rod, On the crank-shaft of the engine the fly-wheel to revolve.
This motion
156
is
STEAM-POWER.
eccentric.
placed the
shaft
This
to
is
on the
and fastened
This
fit,
and
is
The D-valve
is
of the valve-rod as
shown
eccentricity, or distance between the centre of the shaft and the centre of the eccentric, determines the amount of move-
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
157
is
As
is
moved by the
eccentric,
and
at
piston
it
valve
closed
The steam is now prevented from entering is cut off. The point in the stroke where the is the point of cut-off. The steam already
I5 8
STEAM-POWER.
to
admitted
as
the
cylinder
is:
expands,
The
pressure, the temperature being uniform; or more conconstant, and by its expansion, the piston is cisely, p X v
the stroke
is
over so that
communication
is
exhaust-port by means of the valve. By this means the steam is now released from the cylinder and flows to the atmosphere
by way
pipe.
is
The
of the steam port, valve, exhaust-port, and exhaustpoint in the stroke at which the steam is released
called the Release point, or simply the release. At or near the time that the steam was released from the
head end of the cylinder,* the valve uncovered the steam-port leading to the crank end, thus admitting steam behind the The point of the stroke where the valve uncovers the piston.
port, so as to
is
of admission.
The
which
it
piston
moved
by
started,
in the opposite direction to that in the steam which is admitted behind it.
is
It drives
moved
in the
so that the communication between the exhaust- and steamports at the head end
cylinder, and
is
is
closed.
compressed by the motion of the piston. The at which the exhaust-passage is closed is stroke of the point When the piston reaches the called the point of compression.
to the
end of the stroke, or usually just before, the valve admits steam head end of the cylinder again, and the cycle of the
engine
is
complete.
The cylinder of the engine is usually made of cast iron. The walls are made heavy enough to withstand the unbalanced The thickness of the pressure of the steam on the interior.
walls
may
Kent:
*
0.0004/2^
-f-
-3 inch,
engine.
The head end of the cylinder is the end away from The crank end is the end next to the crank.
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE
159
where
is
the thickness
of the
cylinder-wall,
and
the
diameter of the cylinder, both in inches, and of steam in pounds per square inch.
is
the pressure
The cylinder-heads, or covers, are also of cast iron. They are usually made slightly thicker than the walls of the cylinder. Thurston says the excess over the walls should not exceed 25
Sometimes the head per cent. In this case it from the centre.
is is
stiffened
by
ribs, radiating
The cylinder-head so heavy. the cylinder by means of machine-bolts or studs. Studs are a for horizontal These studs or bolts are preferable engine.
screwed into flanges on the cylinder, which flanges are made The flange on the slightly heavier than the cylinder-walls.
head through which they are screwed is usually of the same thickness as the flange on the cylinder. The piston is also usually built of cast iron. It may be cast in one piece and the grooves for the piston -rings turned in it, or it may be built of a number of pieces, fitted together.
piston should be heavy enough to stand the difference of pressure of the live steam and that of the steam which is being exhausted.
The The
latter kind,
shown
in Fig. 140, is
of steel or wrought iron. It is usually tapered on the piston end and fits into a taper-hole. On the opposite side of the piston it is secured by a nut. It passes through the cylinder-head, through a stuffing-box, piston-rod
is
The
made
The Fig. 141, which keeps the rod steam-tight. end of the rod outside the cylinder is fastened to the crossThe method of fastening varies in different cases. head.
in
shown
is
In locomo-
is
tapered to
it,
driven through
a tapered hole, and a taper-key is from one side of the cross-head to the other,
Unwin gives the followthus holding the rod firmly in place. of formula for the diameter the ing piston-rod
:
d = bD Vp,
i6o
STEAM-POWER.
where
d is
D the
diameter of the
cylinder, both
is
the
maximum
sure in the cylinder in pounds per square inch, and b stant. For iron b .0144. .0167; for steel b
FIG. 140.
Built-up Piston.*
in
The
of
cross-head,
shown
steel.
wrought iron or
connecting-rods.
It is
Fig. 142, is often a solid block serves to unite the piston- and the connecting-rod by means to joined
It
* Bass-Corliss engine.
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
161
This is a steel pin of generous of a wrist or cross-head pin. which retains the end in a slot in connecting-rod proportions The pin is seated in the sides of the back of the cross-head.
the slot, and
is
moving around
it.
CYLINDER HEAD
FIG. 141.
Stuffing-box.
FIG. 142.
Sometimes, however,
in
made a
bearings in the cross-head. of cross-head pins is to make its length from .25 to .3 the diameter of the piston and its diameter .18 to .2 that of the
piston.
part of the rod and rotates rough rule for the dimensions
The cross-head
slides
back and
forth
1 62
STEAM-POWER
termed guides. The wearing surface of the cross-head may be lined with brass or some anti -friction metal. The guides are two long, smooth surfaces, placed parallel
They guide the proper path. The area of the cross-head bearing surface, according to Seaton, should be such that the bearing surface on which the thrust of the connecting-rod is
its
crank end.
cross-head in
its
the square inch. That is, the area of that portion of the guide on which the cross-head bears when the engine is standing still. But for
Ibs. to
good working the surfaces should be made so that this pressure The formula given for the area of will not exceed 100 Ibs.
the slides
by various
authorities
is
A=P
where
sine
tan B
+/
the total unbalanced pressure, 8 the angle whose stroke of piston -r- length of connecting-rod. If the the of in direction the rotates the wear arrow, Fig. 139, engine on If it the will come principally rotates in the upper guide.
P is
opposite direction it will come principally on the lower one. If the engine is a reversing one the greatest wear will be on either guide, depending on the direction of rotation.
a steel or wrought-iron bar joining the cross-head to the crank. In length it is usually four to five
is
The connecting-rod
In section it may be either times the length of the crank. I section. or of Rods of circular section circular, rectangular,
are sometimes
made
Whitham
where
the diameter of the cylinder in inches, / length of connecting-rod in inches, and p is the maximum steam-presis
The diameter of the rod at sure in pounds per square inch. its ends may be seven eighths of the diameter at the middle.
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
163
of the connecting-rods are secured to the crank and cross-head pins in various ways. brass bearing is placed around the pins, and then a strap passes over the bearing and
The ends
end of the rod and is secured in place by a taper-key, passing through both rod and strap as in Fig. 143. In marine engines
FIG. 143.
FIG. 144.
Marine Connecting-rod,
c'
c"
FIG. 145.
Solid
Crank and
Shaft.
the brasses are generally secured to the rods by bolts passing through the brasses, into an end forged directly on the rod.
may
be made
in various
ways.
It
may
be an
i6 4
it
STEAM-POWER.
in the
shape of a disk with a crank pin set in The crank may be overhanging it as in Figs. 138 and 139. In this as in Fig. 138, or it may have an outboard bearing. case another disk or arm is placed parallel to the first, as
may be made
shown
in Figs.
FIG. 146.
Crank
them.
is
The diameter of the crank-pin bearing outside of the engine. is found by the formula given by Unwin:
where
is
P 9000 Ibs. /and d are the length and diameter of the pin respectively
inches.
the allowable stress on the metal, being about for iron. is the maximum load on the piston,
in
The
is
ratio
-=
is
assumed.
If either the
:
length
or
diameter
#^V-/2ilV5PZ
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
165
grvesnh
/=
in
I.H.P.
.9Q75/
which
is
this coeffi-
FIG. 147.
Crank.
cient
may
if
if
cated;
not,
take/=
.08 to
.1.
66
STEAM-POWER.
engine in
feet,
the
and I.H.P.
represents
the
theoretical
indicated horse-power of the engine. The crank-shaft carries the fly-wheel, and
when turned by
the crank,
be made
causes the fly-wheel to revolve with it. It should Its diameter should be, of wrought iron or steel.
it
,
according to Unwin,
H a
.,-/ a\ I
LH
-n
P
n
where R.P.M. represents the revolutions per minute and a is constant, depending on the strength of the material and the He gives a = 3.294 for wrought iron and factor of safety.
a
2.877
f r steel.
engine is direct-connected to an electric generator, of the generator is carried by the crank-shaft. armature the The shaft in this case must be made very much larger than
If the
the diameter determined by the formula, to decrease the deflection of the shaft due to the weight of the armature as much as
possible.
The
up energy, or gives it off in accordance with the fluctuations of The fly-wheel is sometimes used as a band-wheel, the load.
usual
rate,
as
may
governor-belt breaking, the fly-wheel, if not strong enough, Fly-wheels should be may burst from centrifugal force. designed so as to withstand a moderate increase in speed.
The maximum
be run
is
6000
be
wheel
will
6000 ~^R''
1910
~R~'
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
167
The
eccentric
is
flat
the shaft.
The amount
of eccentricity,
e, Fig. 148, determines the travel of It may be either keyed to the valve.
two pieces
the strap
may
rotate freely
The
to
eccentric-rod
within it, and yet have no lost motion. fastened to the eccentric-strap usually by of bolts, passing through the rod and strap. It serves
is
Eccentric.
to the slide-valve,
by means of the
valve-rod.
The valve-rod
the slide-valve.
a steel or wrought-iron rod, which moves One end is attached to the valve, the rod
is
usually passing through the valve, by a nut on each side of the valve. The rod passes through the steam-chest through a
The rod stuffing-box, similar to that used on the piston-rod. the of a eccentric-rod by means rocker. The usually joins
valve-rod
rod.
may
The steam-chest
passes from the
cular.
first
boiler.
The
Its
chest
may
may be either rectangular or cirbe cast solid with the cylinder or bolted
It is position with regard to the cylinder varies. on the side of stationary-engine cylinders and usually placed on top of locomotive cylinders. Sometimes it is placed beneath
to
it.
The same formula applies to the thickness of the cylinder. the steam-chest walls as to the walls of the cylinder, both
The bottom of the chest is being subject to the same pressure. a wall of the cylinder. There are three openings in the bottom,
which
The two smaller of these openis made a plane surface. ings are the steam-ports which lead to the cylinder. The third and larger one is the exhaust-port, which communicates with
1 68
STEAM-POWER.
made
area
the atmosphere. The length of the steam-ports is usually 2 inches less than the diameter of the cylinder. The
is
found as follows
feet, let
Let
square
be the stroke
in feet.
Then
the cylinder in one stroke will be in ^revolutions the volume required will be V = 2LAN.
is
V = LA
Live
steam
feet per
'steam a velocity of
feet. The steam-port has to convey steam, hence calculations must be made Hence the area of the port to carry for the exhaust steam.
4000
exhaust as well as
live
away
is
2LAN .
4000
If
it,
The
is
wall separating the ports is called the bridge. made too narrow, the valve will travel over
to
the
and
Hence
pass into the atmosphere from the steamthe bridge must be made so wide that there is
no
This pipe is termed the exhaust-pipe, and The area of the should be laid with as few bends as possible.
exhaust-port should be 33 per cent greater than the area of It should gradually increase the steam-port at the valve-seat. in area until it is 50 per cent greater at the entrance to the
exhaust-pipe. The valve of the engine will be discussed in a later chapter, under the head of " Valves and Valve-gears." The bed of the engine is a heavy cast-iron frame, which is
bolted firmly to foundations of masonry or concrete. The cylinder various forms with different makers.
It
has
of the
is
engine
is
sometimes cast
guides are also sometimes cast on the bed, and sometimes not. The frame usually carries the crank-shaft
bolted on.
bearings, Fig. 149.
The
The governing,
is
150.
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
169
FIG. 149.
Sf
Gamble
FIG. 150.
Governor.
T 7o
S TEAM-POWER.
the load on the engine was suddenly lightened, and the steam-supply remained the same, the engine would commence
If
not checked might cause its fly-wheel to checked by the governor. When the engine speed driven the balls GG, through the pulley E, and speeds up, and Z), by a belt to the crank-shaft, fly out from bevel-gears
to run faster
burst.
Its
if
and
is
centrifugal force.
KK.
The rod
As they
is
out they rotate about the pivots depressed, partly closing the valve C in
fly
and shutting off the steam-supply. The the steam-pipe causes the run slower. decrease in the steam-supply engine to If it runs too slowly the balls drop and open the valve C, thus
admitting more steam to the engine.
spring at
will act.
AB
T serve
known
as
a throttling governor. Clearance is the volume contained between the piston and the end of the cylinder when the piston is at the end of the
stroke plus the volume of the steam-passage or port. The clearance is prejudicial to the heat efficiency of an engine
because
it
which
the
It
is
preserves a volume of steam which is not active and By so doing it increases subject to condensation.
amount of steam required to do a given amount of work. varies according to the make of the engine from 2 per
cent to 12 per cent. Back-pressure is the resistance on the side of the piston opposite the live steam and is due to the
pressure of the atmosphere plus the resistance of the exhaust steam on passing out through the exhaust-pipe which offers
friction.
An
little
back-pressure as
possible.
the distance passed through by the piston in one movement in one direction and is approximately equal to the length of the cylinder minus the thickness
The
stroke of an engine
For one
stroke,
on head end,
in
which
is
the diamis
and
Clearance
p essc
in
SIMPLE STEAM-ENGINE.
crank-shaft.
rotation
171
may
For a given velocity of piston a higher speed of be had by making the stroke short ar.d a slow
The velocity of the piston speed ty makirg the stroke long. is equal to the length of the stroke multiplied by the number of strokes per minute. The foregoing is a discussion of a simple non-condensing
All that would be necessary to convert the engine engine. into a condensing engine would be to connect the exhaustpipe to a condenser having an adequate supply of cold water. To convert the engine to a multiple-expansion engine, it would be necessary to provide the requisite number of cylinders
ratio,
and the
will
receivers.
Comsep-
be treated
The
essential parts of all reciprocating engines. The only difference between the engine just described and a Corliss or automatic Otherwise cut-off engine is in the valve-gear and governing.
both
in construction in the
identical.
Such
given formulae as are necessary to suit these changes be made at the proper time. will cases special
PROBLEMS.
1.
An
in
engine
Find
the
piston
speed
2.
F.P.M.
a sketch of a steam-engine and
a sketch showing the position of the valve, piston, and 3. of the four events of the piston stroke. Indicate the for each port direction of motion of the piston and valve.
4.
Draw Draw
name
all
the parts.
An
Determine the
maximum diam1
eter of cast-iron fly-wheel that will be safe. Determine the dimensions cf he steam 5.
pipes for a
at
150
R.P.M.
Assume
the
length of the ports as 8 inches. 6. Find the diameter of a steam-pipe that will pass 5000 pounds of steam, at a pressure of 100 pounds absolute, per hour. Velocity of
flow,
6000 F.P.M.
NOTE.
Find volume per hour by using column 8 of the steam
table.
172
5 TEAM-POWER.
7.
Examine the
effect
different
upon
when adjustment
inches.
is
made
8.
for wear.
An
engine
is
io"xi2".
Piston-rod
ij
Find
the
If in the
to
fill
the crank-end
engine of problem 8, 6 pounds of water were required clearance space and 7 pounds for the head-end
clearance space, find the clearance in per cent for each end. 10. Same engine as in problems 8 and 9. Find the volume back
of the piston in cubic feet.
(a)
(b)
When When
it
is
at
it is
at
40% 40%
of
H.E.
stroke.
of C.E. stroke.
CHAPTER
XVI.
kinds
Long-stroke
engines, having a moderate rotative speed, say about 60 to The Corliss, Brown, and Greene 1 20 revolutions per minute.
2.
high rotative speed, 200 revolutions per minute and upwards. The Buckeye, Porter- Allen, and Ball & Wood engines are in
this class.
cut-off engine
is
that
type
in
which the regulation of the speed of the engine is effected by changing the travel of the valves in such a manner as to control the
This is a modern type of engine chest into the cylinder. at a The high speed does not mean is run which high speed.
necessarily high piston-speed but high rotative-speed by means of a very short stroke the diameter being in many cases equal
;
This means a short engine, if to or greater than the stroke. we assume that the length of an engine is always equal to four
times the stroke, which is an average value if the length of the connecting-rod is taken as two and one half times the stroke.
The Buckeye engine shown in Fig. 151 is an example The increasing or decreasing of the number this type.
revolutions for a sudden change of load amounts to about cent and the change is for a few revolutions only.
I
of
of
per
greatest source of trouble with high-speed automatic the heating of the main bearings, caused by the high engines '73
is
The
STEAM-POWER.
FIG. 151.
Buckeye Engine.
FIG. 152.
Watertown Engine.
AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF
speed of rotation. must be provided.
ENGINES.
I? 5
For
this
On
account of the comparatively large diameter of these is large, about 5 to 10 per cent. The
mean back-pressure
is 3 to 4 Ibs. above atmospheric pressure. This type is fairly economical in its use of steam; it occupies small space and regulates well but requires careful atten-
The valve in this engine is and balanced multiple-ported as shown in Fig. generally a order to in large port-opening with a short travel 152, give
tion,
especially to bearings.
of the valve.
Here
it
has two openings through the valve into the steam-port, making an ample area for the steam to pass through without Also the steam enters above and below the being retarded.
valve, producing a balance and preventing the friction of the valve against the seat caused by steam-pressure upon one side
only v
If is
seen that
it
when
the
left
to the
right: until
a double
port-opening.
Some engines also use an auxiliary valve, in connection with the main valve, to control the cut-off more fully than is The Buckeye engine uses such possible with a single valve.
a valve
;
it is
shown
in Fig.
151.
Another form of balanced valve used on this type of engine is the piston-valve, of which Fig. 153 is an illustration."" In this case the steam- enters in a direction which is the reverse of that with the ordinary valve that is, it comes into the. cylinder through the middle and exhausts through the hollow valve and out at the ends. This is evidently a balanced valve, ifie pressure being equal on all sides.
Piston- valve.
;
The-governor of an automatic engine is placed in the flywheel as shown in the illustration of the Straight-line Engine,
:
*
into
The piston-valve here spoken of controls the passage of the steam and out of the small cylinder. The valve of the large cylinder is of
76
STEAM-POWER.
1
Its construction will be discussed more fully in the on "Valve Motions." chapter However, it may be proper to say here that the mechanism
Fig.
54.
of the governor and eccentric is such that, for an increase in the speed of the engine, the travel of the valve is made less and the cut-off occurs earlier, causing a diminution of speed;
AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF
for
ENGINES.
177
This a diminution of the speed the cut-off occurs later. what steam to use is stroke each causes just arrangement necessary for that stroke and no more, the quantity depending
upon the
load.
CORLISS ENGINES.
By the pure Corliss type is meant an engine having four rotary valves for the control of the steam, two for admission and two for exJiaust (see Fig. 156). Under the Corliss type are
generally included
all
FIG. 154.
line
Engine.
in their
teristics
motion or which have more of the pure Corliss characthan of the other types. These engines have a high
This
is
effected
by a
The average
ratio of the
diameter
STEAM-POWER.
bfi
AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF
means a small clearance, which
is
ENGINES.
179
I to Cor5 per cent. revolutions minute or per engines usually The system of valves for each end of the cylinder makes less.
from
liss
it
possible to cut off the steam to suit the requirements of the load without changing the amount of compression, as is neces-
l8o
STEAM POWER.
Under varying loads, the Corliss engine acts precisely the same as the high-speed automatic engine. The governor
alters the valves, so that the
later in the stroke,
according to
is
decreased
or increased, thus admitting to the cylinder the steam necessary to do the work.
amount
of
The mean back-pressure for this type, on account of the slow speed, is small, being from I to 3 Ibs. per square inch above atmospheric pressure.
This type is the most economical of the three types discussed in the use of steam, but it takes more skill to keep it in order than do the others, for the reason that it has more parts,
delicate.
it is
The long
high
first
of
cost.
is
The arrangement
in Fig.
shown
in elevation
The valves are of 155, and in section in Fig. 156. the form shown in Fig. 156 and are rotated by the valve-rods. These valve-rods acquire their motion from the wrist-plate This rotation is which is partially rotated about its centre. The eccenthe eccentric. means of ordinary accomplished by
the movement of the valves by the dash-pots, These are used in order to give a quick Fig. 155. of the admission-valves, whereby the port is given a shutting wide opening up to the time of cut-off, and this prevents wiretric is assisted in
shown
in
drawing.
engine.
The governor
It is
is
cut-off,
shown
will
in the
connected to the valves by means of the rods as diagram. The action of the valves and governor
fully discussed in the
be more
Valve-gearing."
CHAPTER
XVII.
INDICATORS.
an instrument used for determining the actual amount of work that an engine is performing, besides
indicator
is
THE
giving other information as to the conditions of working, such as the operation of the valves, etc. The diagram obtained by the use of the indicator is called
the indicator-card.
157 shows in section the Tabor indicator, with a It comprises a paper-drum B on which reducing attachment. blank paper is held by means of two clips; a cylinder in
Fig.
which works a steam-tight piston connected to a piston-rod this piston-rod connects at the top with a lever which carries a The paper-drum is connected by a suitable reducing pencil.
;
motion to the cross-head of the engine. As the piston makes a stroke the paper-drum is turned on its axis by the pull of the A strong spring on the inside of the drum causes it to cord.
make
its
backward movement.
by steam-piping
Between the piston of the indicator and the upper cylinder. is placed a end of the cylinder in the space marked spring
of
known strength, which offers a measured resistance to the upward movement of the pencil. The steam from the enginecylinder enters the indicator at Z, pushes the piston up, and At the same time the this in turn causes the pencil to rise.
cord causes the paper-drum to revolve. By means of the attached to the of levers pencil-lever, the pencil is system
made
to
move
in
182
STEAM-POWER.
drum.
the
When
the pencil
is
made by
pressing
paper and revolving the drum should be When the pencil is pressed of the drum. the base to parallel
pencil to the
FIG. 157.
Tabor Indicator.
against the paper, it makes a line every point of which represents at once the pressure in the engine-cylinder and the position of the engine-piston within the cylinder.
By
shutting
off
the indicator from the steam of the engine, opening connection from the indicator to the atmosphere and pressing the pencil to the paper, a line parallel to the base of the drum is
INDICATORS.
183
made, called the atmospheric line. The pressure of the steam as shown on the indicator-card may be referred to this line.
The
num-
bered according to their strength; that is, a No. 40 or 40scale spring is one which allows a movement of the pencil of
I
inch for a pressure of 40 Ibs. per square inch. The following are the prinicipal conditions required in a
indicator:
line
good
pressing the pencil to the paper and while the paper-drum revolves should at rest keeping the pencil be perpendicular to the line made by keeping the drum at rest
The
made by
The
The
tension of the
spring to be used in the indicator will depend of the engine and the pressure of steam used.
Strong springs should be used for high speeds and high pressures and weaker This difference in ones for low speeds and low pressures.
strength
The
is made partly on account of the effects of inertia. indicator should be as light as is consistent with the
proper strength, and no joints should be tight enough to cause the least binding.
The
allow
it
In taking the cards from an engine it is necessary to take the cards from the two ends at precisely the same time or as nearly so as possible in order that the relations of the condi-
two ends may be shown correctly. This can be done by the use of two indicators, one on each end, but one indicator may be used for one cylinder with the arrangement
tions in the
shown
in Fig. 158.
Reducing Motions.
The paper-drums
in diameter.
inches
It is desirable
184
STEAM-POWER.
INDICATORS.
185
than the circumference, hence the lengths of the cards usually taken with the above two sizes are usually 3 and 4 inches,
As the length of the stroke of the engine is the times many length of either one of these, it is evident that motion must be used between the cross-head some reducing
respectively.
and the indicator. Fig. 158 shows the pendulum-reducing motion in which the length of the cord depends upon the distance from the fixed pivot to the point where the string is
tied.
caused to swing by being fastened to the cross-head by a link. In an indicator reducing motion the cord should lead off from the reducing motion, for a short
is
The pendulum
distance at least, parallel to the axis of the engine. The Pantograph, or lazy tongs, is shown in Fig. 159. It consists of a number of wooden links pivoted together as
shown.
The end
is
FIG. 159.
point.
The cord
point
leads
The
must be
on the centre
AB.
NOTE. The most convenient and most improved reducing motion of those here given is that shown in Fig. 157 which is attached directly to the indicator. The reduction of motion is produced through the worm R.
i86
STEAM-POWER.
The steam should then be shut off from the indicator, and an atmospheric line taken. The atmospheric line should be taken by disconnecting the string from the reducing motion, and pulling it by hand, so that the drum makes a complete
If this is not done the atmospheric line will be of revolution. the same length as the card, which is not desirable. The following data should be placed on every card Date,
:
time, revolutions per minute, gauge-pressure, length of stroke, diameter of piston, diameter of piston-rod and the card should
;
FIG. 160.
Indicator-card.
;
pansion-line
3,
;
of compression
1-2, steam-line 2, point of cut-off 2-3, ex5, point point of release 4-5, back-pressure line 6, point of admission 5-6, compression-line AB,
; ; ; ; ;
atmospheric
line.
also be
marked so
as to
show whether
it
is
in
of the points and parts are given. It should be kept in mind that vertical distances represent
INDICATORS.
187
pressures and that horizontal distances represent volumes; shows that the piston is at the that is, in Fig. 160 the point middle of its stroke, passing from left to right and that the
pressure in the cylinder at that part of the stroke is represented by the distance CD. The average height may be found by
dividing the area of the card as determined by a planimeter by the length, or it may be done by the method shown in Fig.
161,
into a
number of rectangles,
finding
FIG. 161.
the middle height of each rectangle as shown by dotted lines, adding together the heights thus found and dividing by the number of rectangles. This average height multiplied by the
scale of the spring gives the average pressure per square inch of the steam in the cylinder during the whole stroke, and is
Mean Effective Pressure^ or M.E.P. Horse-power. The work done in a cylinder in foot-pounds
is
equal to the average pressure on the piston in pounds multiplied by the distance moved through by the piston in one minute, that is, Work the total 0F, in which
per minute
V=
minute.
the M.E.P., L the length of the stroke in feet, the area of the piston in square inches, the number of strokes and H.P. the then minute, per horse-power;
Let
P=
V=LN.
<
i88
STEAM-POWER.
and
H.P.
=PXA xLXN
33,000
PLAN 33o'
area of the piston is different in the two ends of the cylinder, owing to the presence of the piston-rod in the crankend.
The
The
Steam per hour per H.P. from the Indicator Card. Theoretically, the weight of steam in the cylinder between the points of cut-off and lelease, and between compression and admission, should be constant, as It is found, both the steam and exhaust valves are closed.
Calculation
.
of
the
Weight
of
this is
will
now
enters the cylinder through a been has which cooled just by the exhaust steam of the port of it is some condensed. The point of cut-off previous stroke,
is
When steam
cylinder.
reached, therefore, with a mixture of steam and water in the After cut-off occurs expansion begins, and as the
pressure
The water decreases the loiling-point is lowered. in the stroke begins to evaporate, and
release takes place a considerable
by the time
amount
of water
has been re-evaporated, though never all of it. It is evident that there will usually be more steam in the cylinders at release than
at cut-off
szme.
though the weight of the steam and water will be the From the above it is also evident that the indicatorall
will
is
always be
caught in the cylinder at the point of commixes with the entering steam on the next stroke,,
in
which
by
the weight during compression. Finding th? weight of steam per stroke, therefore, is simply a matter of finding the weight at release and subtracting from
it
INDICATORS.
189
To
any
find the weight at release, erect an ordinate (Fig. 162) at By measuring point / on the expansion line near release.
the card find the per cent of the stroke represented by this This, multiplied point and add the clearance in per cent to it. of steam behind volune the will the by piston displacement, give
the piston.
Having found the volume its weight is found as follows: Find the pressure of the steam by measuring the ordinate hj and multiplying by the scale of the indicator-spring.
FIG. 162.
steam
For the pressure thus found, the weight of a cubic foot of is found in column 9 of the steam tables. This, multiin cubic the volume the feet, gives weight at release. plied by
determine the weight at
To
comp
some point g on
Let
',
W
Then
and
tl
w. t
be the weight of steam at release on H.E. " " " " " " compression on H.E. " " " " " " release on C.E. " " " " " compression on C.E.
',
of
ll
-w =w'^
ll
"
"
"C.E.
"
H.P. per
(JF'+w')XR.P. -
Hp
190
STEAM-POWER.
Expansion of steam
in a cylinder
Suppose
full
steam
is
of steam which, during the remainder of the stroke, expands according to Mariotte's law, the presThe curve representing sure varying inversely as the volume.
full
is
a hyperbola.
It is
desired to
how
nearly
it
comes
FIG. 163.
First
it
is
volume swept over by the piston. Take any two points a anc b on the compression-line and on them erect the rectangle
acbd.
Draw
the vacuum-line.
This
is
INDICATORS.
the atmospheric
line,
191
and
at a distance
below
it
corresponding
it
would be
-^40
inches.
the diagonal dc meeting A'B' at O, which will be the origin of the hyperbola of expansion To construct the
.
Draw
7
DOTTED LINE 6 - 7, LATE AD. DOTTED LINE 8 - 9 RELEASE DOTTED UNE 3-4-5, TOO GREAT EXPANSION FULL LINE NORMAL
FIG.
164/3.
DOTTED LINE 3 - 4, EARLY RELEASE WIRE DRAWING DOTTED LINE - 8, DOTTED UNE 5-6-7, TOO GREAT COMPRESSION FULL LINE NORMAL
FIG. 1643.
on the expansiontheoretical expansion-curve take any point line of the card, after the cut-off, and draw mn perpendicular
toAB.
Through
cutting
curve.
;;/
also
draw a
line
ml
parallel to
AB.
Draw Ol
mn
at
P and
The
ml
at
/.
a rectangle.
point
On
Any number of points may be found In manner, and the curve filled in as shown.
the
same
example,
T Q2
STEAM-POWER.
is
it
seen
that
the
actual
expansion-line
falls
below the
kind.
some
in
the
same
Indicators are also used in determining the conditions of working and work done in the cylinders of Gas-engines, Air-
EFFICIENCY.
The
efficiency of
any machine
is
it
converts into
energy supplied. In the steam-engine, efficiency may be of two kinds, thermal and mechanical. In consideration of the former, the cylinder
it a certain quantity of steam. This steam has in a determinate quantity of heat, which represents the supplied The energy converted into work may be found by energy.
work
to the
has fed to
it
testi-g the engine, using an indicator, thus determining the cylinder horse-power. By reducing these to the same units of dividi and eneigy, g the latter by the former, we get thermal
efficiency.
As an example, take an enghe which develops ico H.P., and uses 36,000 pounds of stean in 12 hours. The steam has The a pressure of 100 pounds absolute and 2% moisture.
feed- water has a temperature of 90
F.
It is
required to find
One pourd
of
steam at
100 pounds
absolute,
and
2%
moisture, has in it 1164 14 B.T.U. A pcu d of water at 90 F. The heat supplied to the engine per has in it 58.06 B.T.U. = pound of steam is, therefore, 1164.14-58.06 1106.08 B.T.U.
^^ X OO
43,026,512.
The work
done
in
foot-pounds
is,
100X33,000=3,300,000.
*-
efficiency
therefore, 3,300,000
43,026,5
of
expressirg
INDICATORS.
efficiency are
193
"pounds of st:am per indicated horse-power per hour," and "B.T.U. p:r indicated horsepower per minute." "Pounds of steam per I.H.P. p:r hour," in the above ex2
-ample, would be 1
-= X IOO 30,
o X oo
and
minute" would be
-=
X
i
oo
The former
efficiency, as
is
it
does not take into account the temperature of the feed- water and steam. The litter is an exact measure of the efficiency
and varies inversely with the same. Pounds of steam per horse-power per hour
the commercial efficiency.
is
often called
The following is given to acquaint the student with the actual performance cf the more common types of engines:
9.56 pounds of steam per I.H.P. per hour. " " " " " " " 20 " " " " " " " Locomotives.... 35 " " " " " " " Slide-valve ..... 40 " " " " " " " Small pumps. .. 200
Corliss .........
Maximum ......
Steam turbines
"
(large)..
"
"
"
"
"
"
13
Mecbarical
efficie'cy is
the ratio
of the
power developed
It vaiies
at
brake
ho se-powe
to 0.94.
from 0.75
PROBLEMS.
1.
release,
Trace the cards given in Fig. 162 and locate admission, cut-off, and compression for H.E. and C.E. cards. Draw in also,
boiler-pressure,
the
clearance,
and vacuum
lines.
Barometer
14.5
pounds; crank end 9%; spring 80. 2. In the above problem, measure
8%,
all
194
STEAM POWER.
Dei ei mine also the mean effective
If
the
above cards
were
taken
from
i2"Xi6"
engine
it
(piston rod 2
inches),
An
engine
test
The
sure,
clearance,
15" 22'' has a piston rod 3 inches in diameter. on head end, is 11% and on crank end 11.5%.
During a
pres-
by gauge, 100 pounds; barometer, 14.5 pounds; moisture. 2%; weight of steam used per hour, 3000 pounds; temperature cf feed From indicator cares the following cata was determined water, 84 F.
as in Prcblems
i
and
2:
Area
of "
inches.
465
4.26 inches. "
4-25
"
Length
H.E.
C.E.
"
"
"
Events.
INDICATORS.
195
12. Calculate the percentage weight of steam per H.P. per hour unaccounted for by the indicator cards. 13. A card taken from the H.E. of an engine gives the following
120.3
8%;
and
cut-off,
30%;
release,
pounds gauge; barometer, 14.7 pounds; 84%. Find the absolute pressure
See
at
60%
Marriotte's law.
hour.
An engine developing 200 H.P. uses 5000 pounds of steam per In each pound of steam supplied to it, there are 1120 B.T.U. Find B.T.U. per. I. H.P. per minute. of an engine to which 410 B.T.U. 15. Find the thermal efficiency
14.
is
are supplied per I. H.P. per minute. 1 6. If the clearance on the H.E.
5% and
21%, what
is
the total
number
of expansions?
CHAPTER
COMPOUND
XVIII.
ENGINES.
IN the Simple Engine the steam after cut-off expands until The degree of expansion depends the release-point is reached.
The earlier the point of cut-off the cut-off. versa. vice and the By making cut-off very expansion greater a or condenser, the steam may be by connecting early
upon the point of
expanded
pressure
becomes
less
than
(see Fig.
is
1640).
in
The steam,
one cylinder.
after
ceased,
exhausted.
Now
expansion is sometimes carried on by means of two cylinders That is, the steam enters one or more instead of in one.
is expanded a certain amount, after which it is exhausted into another, in which the expansion continues. This is called compounding, and any engine in which the steam passes through two or more cylinders consecutively is
cylinder and
called a
is
The term compound Multiple-expansion Engine. those used to designate engines in which the commonly
two cylinders. In a compound engine the steam at boiler-pressure enters
is
expansion
accomplished
in
a comparatively small cylinder called the high-pressure cylinIt is exhausted into a larger one called the low-pressure der.
there are three cylinders, with three stages of expansion, the last entered by the steam is the low-pressure cylinder, and the one between the high pressure and low
cylinder.
If
pressure
is
If
COMPOUND
ENGINES.
19?
cylinders, with four stages of expansion, the one next to the high-pressure cylinder is called the first intermediate and the
one next
is
called the
second
intermediate.
which the steam exhausted from the first, or high-pressure, cylinder passes into two other cylinders, half into each, is called a three-cylinder compound engine, and an engine with four cylinders, in which the steam exhausting from the second, or intermediate, cylinder passes into two cylinders,
engine
in
is
An
called a four-cylinder triple-expansion engine. Of the compound engine there are two types,
viz.
the
which the cylinders are placed end to end and having only one piston-rod, as in Fig. 165, are Tandem Engines and those having their
the Cross-compound.
in
Tandem and
Those
cylinders side
by
66.
side
pounds, Fig.
In the
boiler
left
is
tandem shown
entering the smaller or high-pressure cylinder to the of the piston and driving it to the right.
is leaving the right-hand end of the h.p. the cylinder through large pipe at the bottom and entering the It will be noticed here at the left of the piston. l.p. cylinder
The exhaust
that this pressure of steam against the low-pressure piston is also back-pressure against the h.p. piston, but owing to the greater area of the l.p. piston a working effect is produced.
The
steam-distribution in a
cross-compound engine
is
prac-
tically the
same
tandem
to
which
sizes
This rod
is
may
be made
in
two
much
that
it is
This makes engine, having two cylinders and two pistons. its cost small and it requires a small floor-space. The cross-compound has two piston-rods, and in fact, is practically two separate engines operating one crank-shaft.
i 93
STEAM-POWER.
Simple and Compound Engines Compared.
The
object of a
compound engine
is
to
economize
in
the
The question may be asked: Is it better to a given number of steam-expansions in two cylinders The question is answered by saying, in rather than in one ? some cases yes, in some, no.
use of steam.
make
It is evident that by making the point of cut-off early and the cylinder large enough, any number of expansions may be made in a single cylinder, and that compounding does not
is
that in
made
less
than
in the
simple engine.
The
losses
to-
engines are subject are, principally: loss of heat by radiation, heating the walls of the cylinder, and the loss due
all
which
may be reduced by covering or be done may equally as well with the simple engine as with the compound engine, so that there is no advantage to be claimed for the compound in that respect.
loss
The
due to radiation
this
lagging, and
loss of heat due to heating the walls of the cylinder be reduced may by giving the piston a high speed, thereby shortening the period of contact of each particle of steam.
The
Here again the compound engine has no advantage, since the simple engine is, in fact, more easily run at high speeds.
by the cooling of the entering steam, however, are in some cases made less by expanding in the two cylinders of a compound engine rather
,
The
than in the single cylinder of a simple engine. The following is an explanation: When a certain number of expansions, say eight, take place in one large cylinder the steam at a temperature a
little less
than that of the boiler enters the cylinder and full pressure and heats that end of
its
the cylinder up to
own
temperature.
The
cut-off occurs at
COMPOUND
ENGINES.
199
one eighth stroke, after which the expansion of steam begins and the temperature is correspondingly decreased until the end
of the stroke
is
reached.
of the cylinder-metal much lower at the end of the stroke than This difference of temperatures is called the at the beginning.
gives up a cool end of the cylinder and so for every stroke there is an
for the
return stroke
warming the
to
economy.
By making the eight expansions take place in two cylinders, with cut-off say at one half stroke in the high-pressure cylinder, making two expansions, and then exhausting into a
low-pressure cylinder with a volume four times as large as the high-pressure cylinder, making a total of eight expansions, the This is the range of temperature in each cylinder is reduced.
principal advantage of the tage is that by the use of
compound
engine.
for
two cylinders
given pressure for the exhaust, much higher initial pressures It is known to be economical to use of steam may be used.
This
is
accounted
for
by the
part of the heat at low pressures is spent in breaking up the molecular construction of the water, while it is comparatively
easy to increase the pressure of the steam after become a perfect gas.
it
has once
that the
is
be distributed at different angles on the crank-shaft, The hottest steam is used in the a cross-compound is used.
may
is
increased
by reason of
of
moving
200
STEAM-POWER.
compound, the greater loss of radiation from two cylinders instead of one, and the fact that the engine is wasteful of steam
as
compared with the simple engine, unless nearly the average it was designed is carried. Ratio of Cylinders. It has been shown that the low-
pressure cylinder is of much larger volume' than the high-presSince the volume of a cylinder varies as the sure cylinder. of the diameter, if R be the ratio of the volume of the square
high-pressure
cylinder, then
cylinder
to
the
volume of the
low-pressure
R=
D*
-^-,
D and
The
value of
is
engine and
and high-pressure cylinders. depends upon the make and type of the usually from 2\ to 4^.
number of expansions in a compound engine is number of expansions in the high-pressure cylinder multiplied by R. It has been explained that in a tandem comReceiver. the engine, steam-pressure acts against the same side pound of the high- pressure and low-pressure pistons at the same
total
The
equal to the
time.
not the case with the cross-compound, because the cranks are usually placed on the shaft at an angle
This, however,
is
of
90.
first
cylinder cannot
therefore
be used directly in the low-pressure cylinder. The exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder
is
passed into an intervening vessel, called a receiver, where it remains during a half stroke or while the crank makes a turn
90. The space between the exhaust-port of the h.p. cylinder and the steam-port of the l.p. cylinder, in either a tandem or
a cross-compound,
l.p. cylinder.
is
of
It
includes the
This space should be as large as possible order to make frictional resistance of the steam small.
The expansion
with
a
lowering
of the
of the steam in the h.p. cylinder is attended For the purpose of temperature.
COMPOUND
reheating" this steam,
coil
ENGINES.
201
hot steam from the boiler into this between the two cylinders. receiver-space In order to get an indicator-card from Indicator-cards. the two cylinders of a compound engine it is necessary to attach an indicator to each cylinder and connect them indiof pipe
carrying
vidually or
by the same
A
F
FIG. 1670.
d
Indicator-card taken from
Compound Engine.
FIG. 167^.
is a card taken from the h.p. cylinder and the low-pressure cylinder of a compound from taken one ()
engine.
The
is
represented
by
OF TH*
UNIVERSITY
^c 2
5 TEAM-PO \VER.
boiler-pressure by the steam-line, and
FE, and
FH.
FE
is
AB
the point of cut-off for the h.p. As the piston advances the volume of .steam in the cylinder. h.p. cylinder increases and the pressure decreases correspondis
B is
producing BC, the high-pressure expansion -curve. The point C represents the position of the high-pressure piston when its exhaust-valve is opened and the steam allowed to
ingly,
pass into the low-pressure cylinder. This point C also represents the end of the h.p. pistonstroke, after which its return-stroke begins, the pressure falling
to
D as
is
when
the steam expands into the l.p. cylinder. The point the point of compression for the h.p. cylinder, that is, the valve which opens at C closes. DJ\s the compres-
sion-curve,
the h.p. cylinder admits it to the low-pressure cylinder, hence C is the point of admission for the l.p.. cylinder. Also, since the h.p. exhaust is the l.p. steam, the line for the two
CD
If there
is
a space between
them,
it is
PROBLEM.
T.
in Fig. 1670
Find the H.P. of the compound engine from which the card was taken, the stroke of both pistons being 12 inches, the
number
To Combine the Indicator-cards of a Compound Engine. Let Figs. 167^ and \6jc represent average cards from a
compound engine, obtained by averaging the cards from the head and crank end of each cylinder. Divide each card into, say, ten equal parts, and erect ordinates at the points of division.
Now
take a line
AB,
for
CD
AB
distance, as
EF,
COMPOUND
combined diagram.
ENGINES.
2C3
of equal parts as the h.p. card and erect ordinates. The clearance of the high-pressure cylinder being known, lay off the distance should be to represent the clearance.
GH
GH
FIG.
167*:.
as the clearance is of the volume the same percentage of Then enlarge* the ordinates on the highof the cylinder. pressure card, Fig. 167^, to a convenient scale and take the
EF
this
ordinates erected in Fig. i6/*/as equal to the length found by Draw a curve through the extremities of enlargement.
the ordinates.
This curve
will
the combined diagram. Now let the volumes of the high- and low-pressure cylinders,
V
-=^
.
Then
*i
the length
JK
be
on the combined
diagram
will
Lay
G K as
cylinder,
volume.
Then
erect the
pheric line as
same number of ordinates on the atmoswere erected on the low-pressure card, Fig.
*
Multiply.
2O4
\6jc.
STEAM POWER.
Determine the length of these ordinates by enlarging or reducing those on the original low-pressure card to the same scale as the high-pressure ordinates on the combined card, and
taking their length as the length of the ordinates on the com-
bined card.
ordinates;
Draw the card through the ext draw DL, the line of zero absolute
ities
of these
pressure,
and
MN,
COMPOUND
ENGINES.
205
Now
if
compared with the theoretical area for the volume of steam at boiler-pressure admitted to the high-pressure cylinder expanding to the volume in the low-pressure cylinder, the back pressure being taken as that in the condenser, the ratio of the area of the cards to the theoretical area is the ratio of the work
done
work.
determined by extending the comthe law pv to constant until it pression-curve according meets the line of boiler-pressure at O, and also the expansiontheoretical area
is
The
from some point below the cut-off until it meets the boilerpressure line at P. Make QR equal to OP and draw Martotte's curve RS, taking as the origin. Lay off the distance TV,
line
making
it
equal to
JK,
the length of the low-pressure card. The actual areas and the theoretical
area are found by planimeter; the theoretical area is QRUVTQ. It is assumed in this case that the length of stroke and
number
of revolutions
is
the
same
for
each cylinder
CHAPTER
XIX.
CONDENSERS.
THE
but the
condenser
common
frequently used with the simple engine, practice is to make compound or multipleis
The object of the condenser expansion engines condensing. is to economize in the use of steam, or, in other words, to get
more nearly the entire ene gyfrom the steam in an engine than could be obtained without one.
if exhausted into the atmosphere on the side of the piston opposite causes a small back pressure
vertically,
make sharp
let
and
in Fig.
entering and pushing the piston towards the right. Suppose that
b opens to the atmosphere, then
the pressure on the side C will be 14.7 pounds plus that due
to the friction of the
steam
in
that
much
of
FIG. 168.
Suppose, however, that b is made to open into a chamber D, and that by a spray of water or otherwise the steam is con206
CONDENSERS.
207
Sensed immediately upon entering. By this means the entire volume of steam is reduced to a few drops of water in the
It is evident that this will produce a partial This changes the back pressure to an effective This partial vacuum is usually made still forward pressure.
vacuum
more
bottom of D. in D.
perfect
D but keeps
is
free
from water.
The foregoing merely to illustrate the principle of the The principal difference in the different makes of condenser.
condensers
is
in the
manner
by
This
is
done
either
by bringing
it
in
The
The Jet-condenser.
from the engine chamber, where it is intercepted by a spray of cold water and condensed it then falls with the condensing water to the
;
From here it is drawn condensing-chamber. off, usually by an air-pump, to a reservoir called the hot-well. From the hot-well it is taken as it is needed to the boiler by
bottom
of the
the feed-pump, providing it has been previously freed from by means of a separator or filter.
Fig. 169
is
oil,
an illustration of
this type.
It is
made by
the
Worthington Hydraulic Works. The exhaust steam from the F is the condensing-chamber into which engine enters at A. the condensing-water is introduced at B and through D which The condensed steam falls to the bottom and is sprays it.
forced out through by the air-piston G. This air-piston is worked by the steam-engine at K. The water is carried from
J to the hot-well.
is
The amount
of condensing-water admitted
controlled
by means
of the hand-wheel E.
of a jet-condenser are the condensthe air-pump, and the hot-well. ing-chamber, In the surface-condenser the exhaust Surface-condenser.
principal parts
The
208
STEAM-POWER.
steam from the engine enters a condensing-chamber, which consists of a vessel in which a number of tubes are placed,
with water circulating through them.
is
cooled
FIG. 169.
Jet-condenser.
It jet-
contact with the cool pipes. and condensed on coming falls to the bottom of the condensing-chamber, as in the
in
condenser, and
drawn off to the hot-well by the air-pump. in section a condenser of this type made shows Fig. 170 and Engineering Co. The exthe Wheeler Condenser by
is
CONDENSERS.
209
haust steam enters the top of the condensing-chamber, striking the baffle-plate, which spreads it and protects the tubes
The steam is condensed upon nearest the entering steam. the bottom of the condenser, falls to the and tubes, striking
210
STEAM-POWER.
it
whence
is
drawn
off
if
the
oil in
the
taken
off to
shown
in the figure
by the dotted
The condensing water enters at the of the circulating-pump. bottom, thus causing the coolest water to meet the cooler This reduces the damage done by steam and vice versa.
uneven expansion in the tubes and tube-plates. From the two Jet- and Surface-condenser Compared.
foregoing examples
it
may
much
For
simpler reason the jet-condenser is used largely on land. Since the cooling water comes in direct contact with the steam
this
in
construction
it is
if it is
obvious that pure water must be used for cooling purposes used in the boiler again.
surface-condenser has the advantage that its condensing water does not come in direct contact with the steam. This makes it possible to use any kind of water for cooling
Salt water at sea, muddy water, etc., may be thus purposes. For this reason the surface-condenser is used on seaused.
The
going vessels, in which case the condensing water is salt and When surface-conit is allowed to run back into the sea.
densers are used on land the condensing water, after
its
it
has
and been heated, is usually cooling accomplished allowed to run to waste. Sometimes, however, this water is used over again after cooling it by some method. One of
effect
these methods
is,
to cause
it
troughs winds.
in
the open air exposed to the cooling effect of natural The troughs are arranged one over the other with a
bottom trough
pumped again through the condenser. Another later and better method is to cause the heated water
it is
CONDENSERS.
211
of wire gauze. circulating-fan induces a current of air which When it has causes a vaporization and cooling of the water.
TOWER
:<
C<56
HOT WATER.
COLDWATEH,
SUCTION TANK
FIG. 171.
Cooling-tower.
it is
fallen to the
again
pumped
212
STEAM-POWER.
of the principal objections to the surface-condenser is that the expansions and contractions of the tubes caused by
their heating
One
their leak-
CONDENSERS.
213
214
ing,
STEAM-POWER.
This is generally similar to those in tubular boilers. obviated by making the tubes fast to one head-plate and movable with reference to the other, a joint being made in
the
manner
of a stuffing-box.
The
be destroyed by corrosion.
When
Fig. 173 illustrates several ways of making such a joint. the tube increases in length by reason of expansion by
Fig. 170 shows a heating, this joint allows the end to slide. the method of stated The above. avoiding difficulty unique
condensing water passes through a set of double pipes, one within the other, the smaller one fastened to one and the
The water enters larger one or casing to the other head-plate. the small pipe at and flows to the end at the left and empties
which
it
goes
tion
to the outlet
D.
By
this
and expansion.
The Air-pump. sometimes asked why should the pump question which keeps the condenser drained of water be called an air-
The
is
pump.
in
pumping water but also maintaining and increasing the vacuum which has been
In reality,
'it
in
partially
air
it
also
removes
The
has
in
its
pump
is
lifting or
is usually placed below the condensing- chamber The air-pump order that the water may enter it by gravity.
The pump
piston driven
be driven by a belt from the engine or it may be a by separate engine, especially for the purpose. This-
may
kind
is called the independent condenser, of which the Wheeler and Worthington condensers are examples. The belt-driven condenser-pump has the advantage of small first cost and simple construction, but it is obvious that the speed depends on the speed of the engine itself; and that
CONDENSERS.
if
2I 5
belted directly to the engine, it must be in the plane of the engine in order to receive the belt-connection, making it
necessary to place
it
oftentimes where
is
it is
in the
way.
of higher fifst cost and more complicated in construction, but it has the advantage of being more easily controlled. It can be started before the engine is
started and can be speeded up or down according shown by the vacuum-gauge, which is attached
to the needs
to the con-
densing-chamber.
Fig. 174 shows a vacuum-gauge.
Its
inner
mechanism
is
FIG. 174.
Vacuum-gauge.
similar to
that
of the
common
make a
steam- or
air-gauge,
It
is
impossible to
the
perfect
vacuum, and
in
the
case
Ibs.
condenser, 26 inches of mercury or about 13. Tl e pressure is about the average vacuum produced.
of
2l6
STEAM-POWER.
FIG. 175.
Bulkley Condenser.
CONDENSERS.
perfection
217
of the
vacuum
will
of course
Tne atmospheric
over 32 feet high.
pressure will support a column of water This principle is sometimes used to make
The
are
drawn by atmospheric
which the exhaust steam and cooling water Fig. 175 shows this, pressure.
passes
the gooseneck at the top of the apparatus and through the inner coneThe steam is consurrounded by an annular cone of water.
downward through
falls
This
it
with the condensing water, entraining the will be seen requires no air-pump, but
the injection- or circulating-pump is still necessary. Fig. 176 represents an indicator-card taken from the lowpressure cylinder of a condensing-engine.
Here
it is
noticeable
FIG. 176.
that the atmospheric line, AB, is considerably above the line of counter-pressures, its distance above the same correspond-
PROBLEMS.
1.
lent pressure in pounds per square inch. 2. In the indicator-card shown in Fig. 176 find the
vacuum reading
being 40.
in
inches of mercury,
CHAPTER XX.
VALVES AND VALVE-GEARING.
IN Chapter XV in the description of the simple engine, mention was made of the fact that the engine was operated by a D slide-valve. This valve is shown in section in Fig. 177,
FIG. 177.
Slide-valve.
valve-seat. The spaces together with a portion of the is the and HI are the steam-ports leading to the cylinder, is the exhaust-chamber in the valve. and exhaust-port,
EC
EF
DG
The
are
AB and
when
known
portions,
DC
The as the steam-lap or outside lap of the valve. and HG, projecting into the exhaust-chamber
inside
beyond the
219
The
is
it
has been explained in Chapter how the valve moved by the eccentric so as to admit steam to and exhaust The manner in which the valve is set from the cylinder.
Lead.
It
XV
will
of
its
now be shown. Suppose the piston to be just at the end stroke. The crank-pin will be just passing over the deadand
will
centre,
be moving slower
of the stroke.
It
desirable that steam be admitted to the cylinder as quickly as possible; to do this it is necessary that the valve should be
moved quickly, thus opening the steam-port wide in the If the eccentric is placed 90 shortest possible time. ahead of the crank on the crank-shaft, in the direction of rotation, it
will be
moving
its fastest in
is moving slowest. If the was fixed in this position of 90 ahead of the crank, the valve would be in mid-position, the centre line of the valve
coinciding with the centre line of the exhaust-port, when the Then before steam could be engine was on its dead-centre.
admitted
to
to, say, the port HI, Fig. 177, the valve would have the distance of the steam- lap, //. But it has been stated that steam was to be admitted as quickly as possible to
move
the cylinder; therefore the eccentric is advanced still further is just over or beyond the on the crank-shaft, until the point is advanced beyond / is distance the The /. point point
J J
The angle through which the termed the lead of the valve. of ahead the crank over 90 is termed is advanced eccentric the angle of advance. Thus, steam will enter the port HI just
before the crank passes the dead-centre, or just before the piston reaches the end of the stroke; the amount of lead
determines
how much
before.
the angle of advance is such coincide when the crank is passing the
If
The amount
of lead
is
by
moving
the eccentric.
220
STEAM-POWER.
Lap.
engine. If there were no steam-lap on the valve, that is, if when the and the point /were to valve was in mid-position, the point would valve admit the steam coincide, during the entire stroke
The steam-lap determines the The greater the lap, the earlier
of the piston.
The
valve
is
passing
will
its
dead-centre.
If
wide open when the eccentric is there is no lap or lead the valve
just closed when the crank passes the dead-centre, the eccentric being but 90 ahead of the crank Now if the valve be given steam-lap it is easily in this case.
be
in mid-position
and
when the valve is wide open, the point will be nearer the point / than would be the case if there were no lap. Hence the valve will close the port before it reaches midBy making the lap great enough it is possible to position.
seen that
admit but a small amount of steam to the cylinder, the cut-off occurring soon after the beginning of the stroke. The extreme
case
is
obtained
not open at
cylinder. said to occur at the beginning of the stroke. The object of the exhaust-lap is to increase the compresIt acts in the same manner sion of the steam in the cylinder.
as the steam-lap, closing the port before the end of the stroke. By closing the port before the end of the stroke some steam is
if the lap is made so great that the valve does thus all, allowing no steam whatever to enter the If such a case were possible the cut-off would be
it cannot get out it is comof the In motion the the valve shown in piston. pressed by Fig. 177, if the steam were compressed above the pressure of
the steam in the steam-chest, the valve might be lifted from In many cases therefore the valve is held in place its seat. which a presses against it and is fastened to the steamby plate
chest.
The
between
this plate
and the
seat.
lap on each end of the valve is not always the same. If the lap, both steam and exhaust, were the same the cut-off and compression on each end of the cylinder would be different.
The
This
is
It is
usual
221
design of engines to equalize the cut-off and compression by making the steam- and exhaust-lap on the two ends differThe method of equalizing the cut-off and compression ent.
will
the chapter on " Valve-diagrams." First put the engine on a deadSetting an Eccentric. done be This may centre. by bringing the piston almost to
be shown
in
Make
Next make another on the guide, close beside the first one. This mark should be opposite a a mark on the fly-wheel.
pointer which remains stationary when the engine revolves. When these marks are all made, revolve the engine past the
mark on the cross-head is once more mark on the guide. Mark the fly-wheel once
pointer.
If
fly-wheel between the two marked points be brought opposite the pointer, the engine will be on the dead-centre.
The
eccentric
is
in the
Then it is given an angle direction of rotation of the engine. of advance until the desired lead is obtained, the steam-chest
cover being removed to make the valve visible. The eccentric should be temporarily fastened until the engine has been put on the opposite dead-centre, and it has been ascertained if the If they are not, they should be leads on both ends are equal.
made
by adjusting the length of the valve-rod and then the of lead is given by turning the eccentric on the amount proper
so
shaft in a direction
less
lead
is
desired.
If
it is it is
which
desired to run an engine in the opposite direction to already running, the eccentric should be loosened
and rotated on the shaft until it is as much behind the crank The engine should be put on as it was formerly ahead of it. the dead-centres and the lead equalized, just as if the valve
was being
Reversing Gears. There are a number of valve-gears in existence, both for reversing and for varying the cut-off. The
simplest of these
is
shown
in
Fig. 178.
222
STEAM-POWER.
consists of the link
The gear
two eccentrics
and
CA
this
and BD.
other
block
E slides
rod
EF joins
block to a rocker
HGF.
The valve-rod
HI is
attached to
end of the rocker which rotates about G. One " eccentric is the " go-ahead eccentric the other is the reversIf the rocker HGF were not interposed, B ing eccentric.
the
;
FIG. 178.
Stephenson Link.
would be the forward eccentric, but the relative direction of motion of the eccentric and valve-rods is reversed by the In the position shown by the full lines, the block is rocker. at the middle of the link; the two eccentrics neutralize each To move the engine other and the piston cannot move.
either
way
the link
is
raised or lowered as
may
be desired, by
means of the system of levers shown. If the link is in the position shown by the dotted lines the engine will run forward, The cut-off will occur that is, in the direction of the arrow. with this combination. time The nearer at the latest possible
the block
cut-cff.
is
system is most extensively employed American locomotives and on some marine engines.
This
on
223
22 4
STEAM-POWER.
Another form of
link
is
the
Gooch
link.
In this contriv-
ance the link remains stationary and the block is moved. There are many other forms of valve-gear for operating the
D-valve, but lack of space forbids their description in this work. The piston-valve has already been described in Chapter XVI. There are a number of modifications of the D-valve
which are used. They will be described briefly below. The Allen Valve. This is an ordinary D-valve having a steam-passage around the outside of the exhaust-chamber as
shown in Fig. 179. This passage lap and so communicates with the
open the
is
maximum
as in an ordinary slide-valve,
amount, steam enters the port from outside and also by means of the passage.
equal to one half the port-opening. valve is that it works more quickly than an ordinary D-valve and accomplishes the same results with half the travel.
FIG. 180.
Double-ported Slide-valve.
The Double-ported Valve. This valve, shown in Fig. 180, One half accomplishes the same results as the Allen valve.
225
the steam enters the port from the outside of the valve the other half enters through the passages cut in the sides of the
valve and leading to an auxiliary port in the valve-seat, as shown. The exhaust steam enters the exhaust-chamber in
two places, one half coming over the live-steam passage, the The area of the steamrest coming directly into the chamber.
passage
in the
valve at
its
area of the auxiliary port. It should become smaller toward The valve should be the centre until it is zero at the centre.
high enough to take care of all the exhaust steam that flows over the steam-passage. Gridiron Valve. This consists of an arrangement of transverse openings and bars, covering a like arrangement in the valve-seat. There is usually a valve for each end of the valve gives a wide opening with a very short This cylinder.
travel.
The
Only a few
The Meyer Valve is shown in Fig. 181. It consists of a plain D-valve with passages outside of the steam-lap leading
FJG. 181.
Cut-off Valve.
which
slide
eccentric.
These passages are covered by blocks on the valve, and which are driven by a separate Steam is allowed to enter the ports only through
226
STEAM POWER.
The
distance which separates the blocks can This wheel turns turning a hand-wheel.
these passages.
be varied at
a right-
will
approach or recede from each other according to the direction The blocks can be varied so as to be totally of rotation.
inoperative or to prevent steam from entering the cylinder at any portion of the stroke.
TJie
The
This valve is shown in Fig. 151. Buckeye Valve. valve is held to its seat by balance-pistons which are
Steam enters
at
in
the valve.
These ports are covered by the Meyer valve. These blocks are driven
The valve-rod of these blocks passes the main The cut-off is valve-rod, which is hollow. through varied by the eccentric driving the blocks, which is rotated on
its
shaft
by
explained The Ideal Engine Valve has been illustrated in Fig. 153. is of the hollow-piston type. It The valve is driven by a
slotted eccentric,
later.
which
is
shifted
by the governor on
variation
of the speed. This alters the travel of the valve, thus making the engine automatic in its action.
Corliss engine
Two
and two the exhaust. These valves are shown in section in Fig. 156. The two upper valves are the admission-valves; the two lower are the exhaust-valves. The valves are rotated % links from the shown on the by wrist-plate cylinder of the
engine, Fig. 155. The wrist-plate is rotated by the eccentricThe rods rod, through a rocker, as shown in the figure.
joining the valves to the wrist-plate may be altered in length so as to change the admission cut-off, release, and compression
AND VALVE-GEARING.
227
FIG. 182.
FIG. 183.*
Giddings Valve.
shown
in the figure.
228
STEAM-POWER.
as
may be
desired.
The admission-valves
are
opened by a
is
latch
This latch
shown
in
piece carrying two arms, CD and CA, rotates Fig. 184. about the centre C. C is a point on the axis of the valve. a at D is a trip with two arms, ED and FD. Swung on pivot
FIG. 184.
At
is
valve.
a notch which engages a lever CL, which rotates the The extremity, F, of the other arm of the trip, when
the piece
circular piece,
A CD is rotated, moves along the circumference of a HGK, which also is centred at C. On the cirthis piece is a projection,
cumference of
HG, which
joins the
circumference by means of a concave curve at G. is connected to a dash-pot at J/by the rod LM.
The The
valve
piece
ACD
is
229
The piece HGK carries an arm CL At the point / of arm a rod connecting with the governor is attached. Now the wrist-plate moves the piece ACD, causing the trip EDF to rise. The notch at E being engaged with the lever
this
is rotated and the port opened. When the trip has been raised a certain distance the projection at on the
DF
HG.
The
away from
valve
is
and the
trip
is
rotated about
D as
LG
to its
the speed is varied the governor moves original position. the rod //, thus turning the piece about C and altering of HG. This will the position make the cut-off occur earlier
As
HGK
may be.
are connected
rigidly with the wrist-plate, and having no releasing devices The valve-rods are in two pieces. The are positively driven.
pieces are joined by a turnbuckle with a right and left thread, so that the rods may be lengthened or shortened at will.
Its piston is an airdash-pot is shown at M, Fig. 184. a not shown in valve but the tight fit, figure admits a limited of air under the The object of the dash -=tpot piston. quantity
(
is
it
is
released
by
the
trip.
It also affords
of the Corliss engine is of the fly-ball typei the engine speeds up the balls rise, thus moving a lever which is attached to the rods moving the piece in Fig.
The governor
When
184.
GHK
Greene Engine.
valves for admission,
This engine,
like
the
Corliss,
has two
and two
for exhaust.
flat
In the Greene
instead of being
slides
rotary. operating mechanism is shown in Fig. 185. AB is a sliding-block, operated by the eccentric. It carries two These tappets strike toes E and F on the tappets C and D. respectively, which move the valves. rocking levers G and
The
23
STEAM-POWER.
block
If the
AB
be moving
in the direction
D will
shown by the
engage the toe F, rotating it and thus The other tappet will pass under the toe
E\
the toes are beveled on the under side and thus raise in
their sockets,
when
the beveled side of the tappet come? in When the tappet has passed the toe will
drop of
its
own
weight.
The
toe
FIG. 185.
Hence
it
will
On the return stroke of the drop into its original position. block the operation will be reversed, rising in its socket and
rotating.
The
cut-off
is
which
attached.
The lower
the plate
is,
HIGH-SPEED ENGINE-GOVERNORS.
use of Fig. 1 87 it may be shown that by making the less and the travel greater, the cut-off occurs of advance angle
By the
later.
for
This principle is applied in the construction of governors automatic cut-off engines, an example of which is shown
1
in Fig.
54.
231
it
The
The
eccentric
is
from a pivot 5.
eccentric proper
a is plate 57", which is held firmly in place by the spring the centre of the shaft and // is the centre of the eccentric disk.
the eccentricity. the wheel increases its speed, the ball C moves towards the rim of the wheel by reason of centrifugal force.
Hence ah
When
This causes
H and
to
move
to the left
and with
it
the
That is, h moves towards a, thus making the eccentricity less and making the cut-off occur earlier, which will tend to
cause the engine to run slower. When the engine begins to run slow the ball C moves toward the shaft and the cut-off is
made
later,
many forms of high-speed engineAll or nearly all operate by shifting the eccentric. governors. Those having but a single valve move the eccentric in a slot'
Those having multiple valves, engine, rotate the eccentric on the shaft.
as above.
as the
Buckeye
CHAPTER
XXI.
VALVE-DIAGRAMS.
THE
For the piston stroke, etc. valve, port opening, the events of all which of this purpose there are several styles of diagrams,
are
more
diagram on account
simplicity
and
adaptability.
FIG.
1 86.
In Fig. 186,
will not be the
let
AA
represent the stroke of the piston and This may te done, though the scale
is
same
wfll
be seen
232
VALVE DIAGRAMS.
later, that just
233
what
same
figure, let
argle of advance. When the center of the crank pin is at Let the crank eccentric will be at A'.
center position will n:ove to the
OA
to
dead
eccentric
f
new
AA
AOB.
of mid-position
Ob when
principle of the
Zeuner diagram
the left of
now be shown.
The Draw
OA "
making
a', to
advance.
OF
the side
OA"
is
equal to
In the triangles ObB' and ObiA", the side OB', the angle Ob^A" is
ObB' and
the angle
angle
AiOB'. The two triangles are therefore equal in every respect and Obi is equal to Ob. The latter is the distance of the valve from mid-position. Since OB is any crank position it follows
that the distance of the valve to the right of mid-position for any position of the crank may be found by drawing the crank
and dropping a perpendicular upon it The distance from the center of the circle to this from A" intersection is the distance from mid-position. Since Ob\A" is
in
a right triangle
it
follows
will call this a valve-circh. the hypothenuse as diameter. Any crank position that will intersect this circle will correspond
to a position of the valve to the right of mid-position and the distance from the center, O, to the intersection will give the cistance of the valve from mid-position for that particular
We
crank position.
Prolong
A"O
to
OA '" as diameter.
Similar reasoning will show that crank positions intersecting this circle, correspond to positions of the valve
to the left of mid-position.
234
STEAM-POWER.
When
will
is
at
mid-position and its edges will lap over the H.E. and C.E. ports by the amount of the steam lap which may or may not be the same on both ends. It must therefore move from this position the amount of the steam lap before the port If the distance from mid-position is known, begins to open. the port opening is found by subtracting the steam lap. The
have
same may be
This
is
performed
and graphically by drawing the steam lap circle with center radius Oc equal to the steam lap, and the exhaust lap circle
and radius Od equal to the exhaust lap. The distance, therefore, measured along any crank position, between For the lap circle and the valve circle gives the port opening.
with center
example, the port opening for the crank position Consider next the events of the stroke.
OB
is eb\.
Admission and
cut-off occurs
opening is zero and the valve to the right of mid-position. The crank positions for these events will therefore be those
passing through the intersections distance between the two circles
/
and
g, positions
on which the
the
is
zero.
for crank position for H.E. admission and H.E. cut-off. Release and compression occur when the exhaust
opening
position.
is
zero.
Upon
reflection
it
will
when
the valve
The
OE
and
OF
In a similar H.E. release and compression, respectively. manner OG, OHj O/, and OJ are the crank positions for admission, cut-off, release, and compression, respectively on the crank end. For the dead center crank position OA, the port opening is ch, which is therefore head-end lead. The maximum
is }A" when the crank has the position OA". a complete Zeuner diagram. By its use, practiFig. 187 cally all problems concerning the simple valve gears may be
solved.
study of some of
its
profitable.
VALVE-DIAGRAMS.
(1)
35
Proof:
The line A" A'" divides the diagram symmetrically. Of = Og, therefore the angle CO4"-the angle DO A"
bisects
line
and
OA"
DOC.
is
Likewise
OA"
to
bisects
GOH
the steam lap circle and tangent gA" (2) at g, because the triangle OgA" is inscribed to perpendicular
The
OD
in a semicircle.
(3)
The
line
CD
is
perpendicular to
A"O
and tangent
to the
Proof: The line OA" bisects the triangle steam lap circle. is which isosceles, and is therefore perpendicular to CD. DOC,
FIG. 187.
the triangle OgA" = the triangle OjD. is the steam to therefore tangent lap circle. Similar reasoning will show that GH, and JI are also
Oj = Og because
CD
EF
tangent
to
their
respective
lap circles
and perpendicular
to
A" A'".
(4)
The
line
A"h
is
perpendicular to
AO
Oh A",
CD,
being inscribed in a semicircle, is a right angle. circle with radius and center A, and tangent to (5)
The
AM
236
Proof:
STEAM-POWER.
Draw
AK
parallel to
CD.
The
triangles
AOK
and
A"hO
mon
being right triangles with equal hypotheunse and a comand angle are equal in every respect, hence
OK=Oh
As an example
in the solution of a typical problem, let us consider in which the valve travel is 4-inches, H.E. steam
an engine
lap f-inch,
C.E. steam lap H-inch, H.E. exhaust lap f-inch, C.E. exhaust
Valve to right
C.O.H.E.
Comp. C.E.
Rel. H.E.
Adm.
C.E.
Valve to
left
FIG.
88.
= y ** 5
7?
This
for a
data
plain
to
for a valve
valve and the engine is to "run over." It is required determine the positions of the crank for all events and the
per cent of stroke at which they occur. With radius OA =2* inches and center O, Fig. 188, draw the
*
Fig.
1
88
is
drawn
to a
reduced
scnlc.
VALVE-DIAGRAMS.
crank and eccentric
circle.
237
as shown, OA dead center. Lay off the two valve circles on the line A"A' n With radius Oa = |-inch and radius O6 = ii-inch, draw the H.E.
= angle of advance 40, will be the H.E. dead center and OA\, the C.E.
Lay
off the
.
and C.E. steam lap arcs. With radius Oe = f-inch and radius Od = &-'mchj draw the H.E. and C.E. exhaust lap arcs. Through the center O and the intersections of the lap arcs with the valve circles, draw the eight lines representing the positions of the crank for each of the events H.E. and C E.
A consideration of the principles laid down on page 234 with reference to whether the valve is to the right or left of mid-position, also the "right and left" valve circles, will serve as a guide
for
tions.
naming the event corresponding to each of these crank These are marked for the present problem.
posi-
events occur
to the
In order to determine the per cent of stroke at which these it is necessary to take into account, the effect due
On account of the angularity of the connecting-rod. between the length of the eccentric-rod and the eccentricity, it is usual to neglect the angularity of the eccentriclarge ratio
rod.
It
was
=
5
was given.
It
will be remembered that AA\ represents the stroke as well as the valve travel, and therefore represents the length of the The length of the connecting-rod will therefore be crank R. $R. Let us determine the per cent of stroke of the piston at
OA
With a radius = 5^
MN.
=77i%. The others may be found in the same 4 way, the head end events being measured from A and the crank end events from A \.
AA\
An
wheel
engine
is
said to
its
fly-
When
"
is
said
"
direct valve
D slide
valve.
An
"
indirect valve
"
is
238
STEAM-POWER.
in the piston valve, see evident that with the direct valve, cut-off and
admission occur on H.E. with the valve to the right of midposition and release and compression on H.E. with the valve to
the
left
of mid-position.
on H.E.
The
DIRECT VALVE
Valve to
left
Valve to left
Valve to
left
INDIRECT VALVE
Valve to .right
FlG. 190.
Valve to
left
FIG. igoa.
direct valve.
It
will
making A, be assumed
Figs.
1
in Figs.
of the crank shaft, as is 1 igs. 138 and 139, 186 and 187, the H.E. dead-center. This
for
all.
grams
and 1900 show the forms of Zeuner diamarked. In each figure, A is H.E.
VALVE-DIAGRAMS
center, a, as before,
is
239
that with
an indirect
preceding
valve,
it,
It will be seen the angle of advance. the eccentric follows the crank,
instead of
as with the
direct
valve.
Angle of
advance for
an
indirect valve
may
therefore be defined as
eccentric.
90,
PROBLEMS.
1.
An
travel of 3^",
engine with a direct valve and running over, has a valve steam lap H.E. and C.E. J", exhaust lap H.E. and
7-=. ** 5
all
events,
Using the Zeuner as constructed in the above problem, determine the per cent of stroke at which each of the events occurred.
engine with a direct valve and running under, furnishes the following data: Valve travel 4", steam lap H.E. f", steam lap C.E. f", exhaust lap H.E. f", exhaust lap C.E. f", angle of advance
3.
An
30, and
= Y *
engine with a direct valve and running over, has the foldata* Valve travel 4", lead &", cut-off H.E. 75%, release lowing
4.
An
-~
j-
The
valve
is
and
ex-
haust laps for the two ends. Construct a Zeuner diagram and determine steam and exhaust laps, and locate crank positions for all events.
5. Engine with direct valve and running over, steam lap H.E. and C.E. }", C.O. H.E. 60%, compression C.E. 15%, lead j" and
=
7
all
events
NOTE.
point h.
cent of
Determine first, the point c as shown in Fig. 186, then the Next determine the crank position for cut-off H.E., the per which is given. To do this draw any crank-pin circle, and
on
its
horizontal diameter locate a point 60% from H.E. dead center. to 5 times the assumed radius of crank circle
240
STEAM-POWER.
draw an arc. Through center of circle and the intersection of this It will be the true position of the crank arc and circle draw a line. Proceed according to propositions 3 and 4, page 235. for cut-off H.E. 6. The engine of problem i is to be set to give a lead of J" on
each end.
7.
in degrees.
D-valve used on an engine running over, the steam laps is ij'' and the sum of whose exhaust laps
set to give cut-off at
sum
is
of
is
whose
to be
J",
is
75% on
both ends.
The
valve travel
3" and
L~
?L=S
lap,
Find the angle of advance, steam port opening (H.E. and C.E.).
maximum
NOTE.
same on both
may be determined.
equal to the
CD and GH, Fig. 187, Using the given data, locate D and H. With radius
of the steam laps and center D, draw an arc to be tangent when drawn. With same radius and center H, draw another arc to which CD will be tangent when drawn. CD and may then be drawn tangent to these arcs. The differ-
sum
which
HG
will
HG
ence between the H.E. and C.E. exhaust laps will, of course, be the same as that between the H.E. and C.E. steam laps.
8.
$",
=
5
all
events
CHAPTER
XXII.
To
ordinary engine.
enters the cylinder directly from the boiler without passing through the intermediate steam-chest. The area of the piston against which the steam presses is
The steam
The piston must enlargement of the crank-pin. a steam-tight fit with the circumference and the ends of the cylinder, and the steam must be controlled so as to exert
really an
make
pressure on the surface of the piston and then be allowed There must therefore be the pressure of the steam on one side and the pressure of the atmosphere on the other
its
to escape.
side.
the ordinary engine for separating the openings is usually called the abutment.
Every rotary engine must have an abutment and a piston. Rotary engines may be divided into two classes, those in which the abutment and piston interchange their functions and those in which the abutment remains abutment and the
piston remains piston.
an example of the former class. The steam from the boiler enters at A and the exhaust
Fig. 191
is
.
241
242
STEAM-POWER.
ends of
is no turnhence it acts to control the produced by C, only steam. However, the steam-pressure coming against the lower end of D rotates it in a direction opposite to the hands
C having
ing effect
THE ENGINE.
FIG. 191.
Rotary Engine.
of a watch until
it reaches a position similar to that held by C, becomes abutment and C becomes piston. It is seen that the two wheels have projections in their perimeters gearing with each other. The engine has only one shaft, but by this
when
it
effort of
both wheels
is
utilized.
In this
243
design the steam-joint between the piston and cylindrical part of the casing is made by the use of packing which is pressed
out radially by the means of springs. The steam-joint between the piston and the flat sides of the casing is made by the use of radial packing-strips as shown in the figure.
In this design
to the right of
it
is
is
no expansion of
which exerts no
effort
their functions.
is
the
FIG. 192.
abutment and D is the piston. Steam here acts to produce motion in a direction contrary to the hands of a watch because
there
left. is
The advantages
as follows:
may be summed up
244
STEAM-POWER.
There are no reciprocating parts, and for that reason no by the inertia of heavy mechanism. There is no dead-point, which is evident from either one of the figures shown. Their construction being simple and without the necessity of converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion, it occuresistance caused
pies small space.
friction is
light.
little skill
It
requires very
to operate. as follows
:
is
it
will not
changes for different parts of the revoluwhich soon wears away the packing.
is
As
ance-space requiring steam which exerts no rotative action. There is no expansion of steam. It is evident then for the
last
is
very uneconomical
in the
use of steam.
The expansive
with the single rotary engine is sometimes effected by placing two or more of them on the same shaft, the steam from the first one being exhausted into the next one of a larger diameter, and so on. By this means economy may be practised to some degree.
Owing to the large waste of steam these engines are not used to a large extent. Rotary engines formerly had their on steam largest application fire-engines, driving rotary pumps;
but even for this purpose they have been largely displaced
reciprocating engines, driving reciprocating pumps.
by
STEAM-TURBINES.
is similar to the rotary engine in that it a direct motion without rotary produces any reciprocating parts. It consists of a small turbine-wheel which runs by steam
The
steam-turbine
2 45
interesting to
which history gives us any knowledge was Hero's engine known as a "reac" In 1629 about 120 B.C. tion-wheel
Branca proposed one similar to it, the form of which is substantially appropriated in
turbines.
and Branca 's) furnished the principal features of the two types of modern
steam-turbines.
Hero's Engine.
The rotary speed of the modern steam-turbine exceeds greatly The efficiency of the that of the ordinary reciprocating end -e.
FIG. 194.
Branca's Engine.
is computed by Prof. Thurston to be about 87 The steam-turbine has per cent, without allowing for waste. the advantage of requiring very small floor-space as compared with the reciprocating engine; radiation of heat from the
steam-turbine
heated surfaces of the engine is small and the condensation losses caused by the constant changing of temperature in
cylinders
is
here avoided.
It is
246
ciple
STEAM-POWER.
and inexpensive in construction and by good designing may be made to attain great economy in the use of steam.
FigJ
probably the first Its essential feature is a steam reactionengine ever made. Steam is admitted into the sphere through the hollow wheel. As the steam escapes into the atmosaxles or trunnions.
93
represents
Hero's engine,
to that of the phere the sphere revolves in a direction opposite flow of the steam from the nozzles, which motion is due to the
A.D. 1629. Fig. 194 represents Branca 's steam-engine, its circumference, It consists of a wheel containing vanes upon acts of steam a which directly. jet against
The
two
in the
The
principle of the
Fig. 195
is
De Laval steam
shown
in
Fig. 196.
a sectional plan.
The steam
enters the
FIG. 195.
By
247
means, the expansive property of the steam is utilized in The high velocity of the steam producing a high velocity.
FIG. 196.
De
Laval Turbine.
wheel, the
R.P.M. varying from 10,000 to 30,000. Referring to the steam enters the steam chest Fig. 195, through the steam a From D, the pipe in which is situated throttling governor. steam passes through the nozzles to the turbine wheel A which
From
the wheel
it
passes to the
exhaust chamber G, and from there to the atmosphere or to a The very high speed makes it impossible to use condenser.
fixed bearings, the shaft being
that
it
will revolve
about
its
made very srrall and flexible, so center of mass, instead of its geo-
bearings T and S are made movable so that they may adjust themselves to the movement of the shaft. They are so constructed as to prevent the escape of steam. The
metric axis.
The
is too high to be used direct for power purHelical poses. gears are used to reduce it in a ratio of 10 to i, L being the power shaft. The slant of the teeth is opposite, on the two pairs, in order to avoid end thrust on the shaft.
The
is its
high speed,
2 48
STEAMPOWER.
This is avoided in the Parsons Turtrouble with the bearings. steam the bine by expanding against the buckets of the turLine
wheel
to
itself,
expanding
fig. 197
is
uuquo M) FTJJ
])
Stationary Bl des
J)
1)
Mo
ing Blades
cuccmc
FIG. 197.
Stationary Blades
Blades )) Moving
turbine.
and comparatively small reflected to the moving blade at PI, causing the latter to revolve. The steam is again This reflected at PI, to another moving blade, and so on. is evidently a combination of the impulse and reaction types
Steam
at
boiler
pressure
blade at P,
is
shown
in the
Fig.
Steam
enters at S,
passes through the throttling governor V, through the port A to the rotor at the right hand and small end. Here it strikes,
alternately, the fixed
increases in size
and moving vanes which, it will be noticed, from right to left. By this means, as well as
by the two enlargements of the rotor diameter, opportunity for expansion of the steam is allowed. After traveling through the
entire set of bucket wheels, the
chamber B, and then to the atmosphere or a condenser. The passage of the steam through the turbine from end to end, This is countertends to produce a thrust toward the left.
acted by the three balance pistons P, which, by means of pipes This E, are connected with equal diameters of the rotor.
249
turbine runs at a comparatively low speed, 1200 to 3600 R.P.M., Arrangement is made yet this is too high for fixed bearings.
for allowing the rotor to revolve
about
the
De
Laval.
In
this
machine,
flexible,
made
to take care
of
the entiie
movement.
These bearings consist of concentric rings, submerged in oil, and the play between the rings suffices for the movement necessary. The oil prevents leakage of steam past
The centrifugal governor is shown at the upper hand. It is operated by a worm gear from the shaft. right It opens At V8 is another valve operated by the governor.
the bearings.
FIG. 198.
only when the load becomes greater than normal, and admits steam into the middle set of bucket wheels. This, of
course,
is
done
at
the expense
right
will
economy.
is
At the
for the
to
purpose of keeping the rotor in its proper place, and preserve the proper clearance between moving and fixed
blades.
it
Though
this
machine has the advantage of low speed, work as the clearance between fixed
250
STEAM-POWER.
to be very small, owing to the fact that within the vanes. It also requires an takes place expansion The impact action number of wheels. bucket excessively large
of the
steam upon the vanes in the De Laval turbine makes large clearances and less machine work possible.
Steam Chest
Nozzfe
Moving Blades
Stationary Blades
Moving Blades
Xozzle Diaphragm
Moving Blades
Stationary Blades
/-
Moving Blades
) )"H
FIG. 1980
Diagram
of Nozzles
and Buckets
in Curtis
Steam Turbine.
is
The
Curtis turbine
shown
really
De
The steam
and
is
partially
expanded
velocity.
in diverging nozzles, converting part of the energy into This part of the process is similar to the De Laval.
The steam,
now enters
and
is
251
directly
expanded
set of vanes.
In the con-
densing turbine,
however,
passes
FIG. 1986.
diverging nozzles and vanes. are separate chambers, and " " low pressure respectively.
These two
known
as
"
By
252
initial velocity,
STEAM-POWER.
the
number
is
creased.
The R.P.M.
ones depending
upon the load. By this means there is full pressure in the steam chest at all times, the loss of energy, due to expansion
past the usual governor valve, without doing work, being avoided. This machine differs from the others in being vertical. Its
appication has been principally in electric dynamo driving, the dynamo being direct connected and above the turbine. The
FIG.
is supported by a single step bearing, upon which The great pressure upon so small an the shaft rests. of end the area would cause heating, but for the fact that oil is forced in
entire weight
to
and bearing.
is
Fig.
1986 shows a
view of
this
machine.
Fig. igSc
an
illustration
construction.
It is the
The
rotor consists
of a shaft with a
in a separate
number
chamber.
The steam
enters a
chamber
at
one
253
btea
u;
through a number of nozzles, so situated as to direct jets of m against the buckets which are of the same form as those
ed on the Pelton water motor, Fig. 254. The number of these nozzles for each wheel depends upon the size of the machine. After the steam acts upon the first wheel it expands through a
chamber, where
it
acts
it
In like manner
passes successively through all the chamone with a low pressure, from whence
is
The
nozzles direct the steam against the buckets in their own plane. As each There is, therefore, no end thrust upon the shaft.
of constant pressure, there is no need of small clearance between the stationary and moving
wheel revolves in a
medium
parts,
is
reduced.
By
divid-
ing the expansion into several stages, the velocity of rotation is made relatively small. The speed is regulated by a throttling centrifugal governor in the steam pipe.
One
steam engines is that of initial condensation and re-evaporaThe tion, due to the reversal of conditions at each stroke.
steam turbine avoids
vibrations,
this.
The
This, also,
bine.
On
for their absorption. not the case with the continuously revolving turthe other hand the high speed of the turbine requires
is
parts.
APPENDIX TO PART
II.
APPENDAGES TO ENGINES.
THE
be used;
chapter are used with engines They may or may not working.
will
be found that
least.
many
an oiler as an to common bearordinary applied engine-cylinder, ings cannot be used to lubricate the piston- and slide-valve
Owing
for the
enter.
reason that the steam-pressure will not allow the oil to For this purpose lubricators are used which force the
The "Detroit"
Lubricator.
by steam-pressure.
They
steam-pipe just
APPENDIX TO PART
chest.
11.
255
in section,
The
is
illustration
chamber containing
the steam-pipe just above the steam-chest. A is a is a cylinder-oil. pipe connecting the
top of the lubricator to the steam-pipe above, usually about is another connection with the 3 feet long. steam-pipe.
is
a glass tube which shows the level of oil in The operation of the apparatus is as follows:
The chamber'
/'provides for the condensation of steam which enters through This water of condensation passes down through the pipe F. and through the tube and discharges into the the valve
This chamber
is
filled
with
oil
before starting. drop of condensed water enters the bottom of A and displaces an equal bulk of oil, because of its greater specific gravity, and this' drop of oil is forced out through S,
E making its appearance in the and then to the cylinder and valve. K, feed-glass through A considerable Separator. quantity of steam is condensed in the steam-pipe between a boiler and its engine. Water is also carried over in the
past the regulating-valve
//,
y
As
water
is
incompressible,
it
is
The
shows,
accompanying
in section,
in
illustration
is
a separator which
as
very simple
construction.
principle
It.
well
to
as
is
attached
the
FlG 200
Steam-separator,
steam-pipe
near
the
is
the steam-passage
engine, as indicated
so that
by the arrows.
256
STEAM-POWER.
the steam drops to the bottom, while the steam passes on and out. The water is drained off from the bottom.
in
The water
Oil-separators.
exhaust steam
for
m m m_
TET
FIG. 201.
TTT
Oil-separator.
separating
as
it
oil
cylinder-oil in
will
Oil
is
combine with any dirt or mud in the boiler-water, to form a scale, which settles on the tubes and retards the passage If this oil-scale becomes too thick it of heat to the water.
may
An
an oil-separator
is
here given.
PART
COMPRESSED
CHAPTER
III.
ETC.
XXIII.
PUMPING-MACHINERY.
used only to raise water. At the present time, however, pumps are used for many other purposes; such as feeding water against steam-pressure into a
boiler, furnishing water-pressure for hydraulic machines such as a hydraulic press, for irrigating, for forcing water or other fluids through long lines of piping for water- works supply, and
pump
buckets such as vanes producing an inductive action. The reciprocating pump is of two kinds: The suction or
the force-pump. The principle of of is shown by diagrams in action of these two classes pumps
and 203.
theoretically can
lift water through 34 28 about feet, practically through feet; that is, the height of a column of water which the atmosphere will sustain. Therefore for wells deeper than 28 feet some other pump must
The suction-pump
In Fig. 202, C represents a pipe from the water to The piston A has a valve in it which opens the top of a well.
be used.
2 57
D'
Fie. 202.
is
FIG. 203.
-and a
is
closed.
This
is
In the figure the piston is on its the form used with the old-style
Fig. 203 is a diagram showing the principle of the forcepump. In this case, a solid piston is used having no valve in
PUMP1NG-MACHINER Y.
it.
2 59
The
valves are
is
shown
closed.
at a'
and
the
'.
On
The water being forced out by the piston or plunger through the pipe D' to any height, depending upon the force which is applied to the piston. Here C' must not be
over about 28
feet,
On
down
stroke a
or
it
will
FIG. 204.
to the
much
This form requires pump-cylinder by means of suction. than the construction stronger suction-pump, owing to
the increased height through which the water may have to be It is evident that the flow of water from the deliveryraised.
pipe D' will be in spurts because of the periodic movement of This may be avoided by the use of the air-chamber the piston.
placed in the delivery-pipe which is practically an enlargement The diagram in Fig. 204 shows this of the delivery-pipe.
arrangement, which
is
air-chamber E.
When
water
is
forced
2UO into
compressed so that after a few strokes the water begins to issue from G in a steady stream, being forced from the air-chamber by the compressed air, during the interval between the strokes of the pump. These diagrams mentioned heretofore are all single acting.
the air
is
As has been Fig. 205 shows a double-acting pump-piston. stated before, suction-pumps are used only for lifting water or
other fluids through small heights, usually for drawing water For all cases in which the fluid is to be from shallow wells.
FIG. 205.
The manner
is
differ-
ent for different pumps, but steam is the most common method The of supplying the force, that is, a steam-engine is used.
First, according following is a classification of modern pumps. to the height of the pump above the water-supply: Suction-
to the
means of giving
single.
Steam-pumps
compound.
duplex.
PUMPJNG-M/iCHINERY.
single.
261
Power-pumps
-{
j-
Belted or Geared.
triplex.
centrifugal.
Electric pumps.
Hot-air pumps.
Gas-pumps.
Hydraulic pumps. Windmill-pumps.
steam-pump one or more steam-cylinders are used containing a reciprocating piston, operated by a slide-valve. A single steam-pump is one having one steam-cylinder and
In the
A
side
duplex pump is one having two single pumps side by on the same bed delivering into a common pipe and
In this construcusually supplied by a common suction-pipe. tion the two steam-pistons usually move in opposite directions,
so that the slide-valve for one steam -cylinder
may
get
its
motion from the piston-rod of the other by means of suitable connection, the D-valve always moving in a direction opposite
to that of
its
piston
Power-pumps are not connected direct to the source of the power but are connected to a revolving shaft by belts or gearing, this shaft receiving its motion from some motor separate
from the pump.
according to the
Electric
triplex,
pumps
by
electric motors.
The
by the water-piston by means of gear-wheels. Gas-engines are sometimes the means of running pumps. Again as with electric pumps, the high speed of the gas-engine is reduced to the necessary slow speed of the pump by means
of gear-wheels or belts.
hydraidic
pump
is
262
exception that water at a great pressure is used as the motorpower instead of steam. In fact, some of the steam-pumps with
alterations may be used as hydraulic pumps. This arrangement is practicable only where a large amount of water is at hand and at a high pressure, due to natural
slight
causes.
in the
above
classification
in
are
not
pumping any
Petroleum
is
is
an example of a
lines
pumped through long these various pumps. Nearly all the pumps driven
are
which
cf
piping by means of
or other
in
by steam
to
it
power
pages
wise.
The pumps
referred
is
the
Power-pumps are
fitted either
PATTERN
Single Steam-pump.
their water-cylinders.
plunger is in the form of a solid rod, a while suitably packed, piston is more in the shape of a disk. is shown in the plunger pump in Fig. 207. 206 shows a Fig. double-acting single pump as manufac-
PUMPING-MACHINERY.
263
The supply of tured by the Worthington Hydraulic Works. and is delivered The enters water through C, through D. The pump-piston is shown at B "working in a bored ring.
piston
is
the stroke.
The
dis-
charge-valves, near open upwards and consist of brass disks The supply- or suction-valves, near held down by springs.
y
C also open upwards. To show the operation of pumping, The suppose the piston B makes a stroke toward the right. left-hand suction-valve will be opened by the suction and the
y
left-hand discharge-valve will be closed by means of the tension of its spring as well as the pressure of the water above it.
From this point it passes through displacement of the piston. the air-chamber and out through the discharge-pipe in a steady The steam part of the pump is made plain by the stream.
The steam-piston drawing. Its motion the water-piston.
is is
The D-valve
an arm
is
which swings with the stroke of the piston. This arrangement takes the place of the eccentric in the steamengine, necessarily by reason of the fact that there is no rotary motion of a shaft in pumps to which an eccentric could be
attached.
This type
is
designed
such as
filling
of a
pump
designed for
hydraulic
riveting-
and
punching-machines,
and
where high pressures are hydraulic presses It is of the required. duplex type and differs from the pump shown in Fig. 206 mainly in that it has water-plungers instead of pistons, the plungers entering the cylinder-head full size and
of
all
kinds,
being
made
of brass.
in
in
There are four single-acting plungers, the cut, and the other two behind them,
the drawing.
The
264
PUMPING-MACH1NER Y.
20=:
of producing
its
is
speed. that by
dividing the work done between four plungers instead of two the strain on each piece is made less and hence the pieces may be made lighter. In this way large pressures are carried
FIG. 208.
by a number
ones.
It
of small
parts rather
heavy
has just been stated that the water-pressure which is maintained by the pressure-pump just described depends largely
pressure to be very uncertain as far as regularity is concerned. In hydraulic plants also where hydraulic machines draw off
266
water-pressure sometimes at irregular intervals the pressure in the pump delivery-pipe is very irregular. For the purpose of giving a uniform pressure the steam-
accumulator shown
pressure-pumps.
It consists
in
Fig,
210
is
of a large steam-cylinder in which the piston works, into which the steam from the boiler enters as shown.
PUMPING-M4CHINER Y.
267
268
The supply-steam
pump, which
is
cut, passes from the steam-cylinder of the accumulator through of The end the perforations in the pipe C and out at D. the accumulator is in direct connection with the delivery-pipe
\s a ram which is bolted to the piston and of the pump. moves with it, passing through two stuffing-boxes,. one in the steam cylinder-head and one in the ram cylinder-head. The
perforated regulating-pipe C is stationary and enters through When the piston A moves to the piston A and into the ram.
FIG. 211.
the
left it
of the steam-supply to the pump tions of consumption we will suppose that the
To
pump
has been
;
running fast, causing the pressure in the delivery-pipe to rise causes the ram and steam the high pressure of water at
This causes a number of holes in piston to move to the left. C to be closed, thereby decreasing the quantity of steam
PtfMPlNG-MACHINER Y.
admitted to the
pressure to cover
entirely.
is
269
If the waterfar
its
speed.
will
be pushed
enough
all
the perforations in C and thereby stop the pump When the pressure at E begins to fall, due to the
slowing up of the pump or to the drawing off of water by some machine, the ram and piston move to the right, uncovering the perforations, so that steam is admitted to the pump, thus
service.
increasing the speed according to the requirements of the Fig. 211 shows an accumulator of this type built in
connection with a pressure-pump. Figs. 212 and 213 show a plan often used in deep waterwells, in which the water fails to flow to the surface of the
It consists of a vertical steam-engine placed directly ground. over the top of the well and a single-acting vertical pump placed in the well at such a depth that the plunger is sub-
The plunger or within suction distance of the water. attached to the piston-rod by means of a rod made up of In Fig. 212 A is the steam-cylinder containing a sections. reciprocating piston, B is the steam-chest, C is the piston-rod,
merged
is
and end
at
c.
D the
b
is
a b is a rocker-arm pivoted at e. valve-rod, The attached by means of a short link to the piston-rod The end a is attached directly to the valve-rod. When
the piston makes a stroke in one direction this arrangement is the causes the valve to move in an opposite direction steam from enters at The the boiler F. discharge-pipe.
;
shows an enlarged view of the water-plunger and the AB is the plunger to the top of which is working-barrel. It works in a brass cylinder D which attached the pump-rod. is fastened to the casing of the well and which is called the
Fig. 213
is called the foot-valve. It is fastened to working-barrel. in the footof the valves The the bottom working-barrel. valve and the plunger consist of metal balls which are seated
in
corresponding openings
stroke,
in the seats.
When
the plunger
drawn through the footraised. At ball the same time the valve in the valve, being On the the plunger is closed, raising the water above it.
makes an upward
water
is
27
1
FIG. 212. FIG. 213.
fUMPING-MACHINER Y.
271
closed and the plunger*, opened. discharge-pipe may or may not pass through an air-chamber.
stroke
downward
valve
is
the foot-valve
is
The
Fig.
214
is
an
illustration
of another
method
air-lift
method.
its
is
fluid
to
This
jet
mixed with
The
air-pressure
furnished
by an air-com-
pressor which pumps the air into a receiver which maintains the desired pressure. The air is taken from the receiver as needed. The height to which the water is lifted depends upon the air-pressure which is fur-
A
is
piston speed of
commonly made
this
For a piston with a 1 2-inch stroke would give 50 double strokes per minute.
of
pump
large so that the velocity of the water in passing through them will not be too great. They should
made amply
272
have an area large enough to permit the passage of water The through them at a rate of not over 250 feet per minute.
water-valve
brass which
is is
usually
made
its
held upon
Water-piston.
hemp
Water-pistons are made tight usually by The fact that most wateror other fibrous packing.
pistons are constantly in contact with water also insures their They are often made of proper working and lubrication.
brass in order better to stand the wearing and decomposing effect of different kinds of water.
Cylinders.
For the
pumps
thick.
it is
necessary to
make
brass lining is often used also, which is better adapted for contact with water than is iron. Government. Ordinary steam-pumps, of which Fig. 206 is a type, are governed usually by hand, by throttling the
at the
speed
Fig. 2
1
too
slow to
The make an
accurate
5 is
Mason Pump-governor.
sists
conshell,
mainly of a cylindrical
filled
or
reservoir,
with
oil
or
The plunger A A is glycerine. connected through the arm / to some reciprocating part of the
pump
unison
or
up
is
DD into
it
FIG.
2i5.-Mason Pump.
governor.
alternately through passages BB, through another set of check-valves into the pressureorifice C,
the
chamber EE.
The
oil
the
PUMPIN C-MACHINER Y.
size
273
of which
is
controlled
by a key
inserted at
N,
into the
In case the lower chamber, to be repumped as before. is more than or engine works intended, the rapidly
pump
oil
is
chamber EE faster than it can escape through the outlet at C and the piston GG is forced upward, raising the lever L with its weight and throttling the steam. In case
pumped
into the
,
the
pump
;
is
place
GG
the weight on the end of the lever L forces the piston As the orifice at C can is let on.
be increased or diminished by adjusting the screw at governor can be set to maintain any desired speed.
piston
pot,
the
The
over the stationary piston, forming an oil dashThis thereby preventing fluctuation of the governor.
fits
is
GG
dash-pot
which
K}.
It
requires
no further attention
for
after
once adjusted.
Water- pressures.
is
steam-pressures shows a combination water-pressure gauge, having two sets of graduations, one showing the pressure per square This inch; the other showing the height of water in feet.
Fig. 216
in
water-lifting
is
usually rated
according to the
number
of gallons
will
lift
in unit time,
and
not by horse-power, though of course the horse-power could To find the number of gallons pumped easily be calculated. per hour multiply the displacement of the piston per stroke in
cubic feet
by the number of strokes per hour, and by 7.48, the number of gallons in a cubic foot. Let 5 be the stroke in inches, A the area of the piston in square inches, and Ar the number of
Then
is
SAN
This
is
made upon
the assumption
274
that at each stroke a quantity of water is pumped equal to the displacement of the piston or plunger, and allowing nothing The length of the stroke varies constantly, also, for leakage.
FIG. 216.
Pressure-gauge.
which would vary the quantity of water pumped in a given time. The actual volume of water pumped may be Meter.
in Fig. 217-
It is
placed
passes through it. or It is used in any place where water-supply consumption is The internal arrangement of the Worthingto be measured. ton meter is shown in longitudinal section in Fig. 217 and in
transverse section in Fig. 218.
by
the
pump
The plungers A A are closely water The fitted in parallel rings. passes through the inlet and port /, and is admitted under pressure into the chamber D, at one end of each plunger alternately, while the connection is made between the chamber at the other end of the outlet,
Thus the plunger
it
in
moving displaces
its
is
through
its outlet.
The arrangement
PUMPING-MACHINER Y.
275
FIG. 217.
Water-meter.
FIG. 218.
276
PUMPS, GAS-ENGINES,
WATER POWER,
ETC.
by one admitting
The plungers are brought to rest at the water to the other. end of the stroke by the rubber buffets EE. One plunger imparts a reciprocating motion to the lever F, which operates the counter mechanism through the spindle- and ratchet-gear
as
to
shown.
Thus
it
will
is
arranged
the dial-pointers once for every four strokes or displacements, and that water cannot pass through the meter
move
without registration, for, in order to pass through, it must displace the plungers, and, therefore, be recorded by the movement of the lever and counter mechanism nor can there be
;
displaced.
Duty.
The duty
of a pumping-engine
of foot-pounds of work done by the pump for every 100 Ibs. of It is practically the same as coal burnt in the boiler-furnace.
"
efficiency."
To
Let
find the
* '
'
'
duty
as defined above
in
the
pump just before entering the determined cylinder, by multiplying the pressure-
gauge reading by 144; be the pressure of water in pounds per square foot in the discharge-pipe as the water leaves the
cylinder, ascertained as before; of level between the above
in feet;
h = difference
two gauges
in pounds; burned hour in pounds per weight = number of cubic feet of water pumped per hour. Q The head of water h may be reduced to pounds per square iv
foot
foot ol
water.
Then
water-piston
PUMPING-MACHINER Y.
277
representing the pressure required to overcome the and the resistance due to the head in the pump, and Jt X 62.4 a small pressure which is due to the difference of level of the gauges and which has to be added then
l
friction
{P.-P+^X
is
62.4)}(2
the
by
of
Dividing
-P + (A X62. 4 )i|
pound of coal
duty
this,
as the
number
burned.
is
100 times
by the
definition of
NOTE.
hour,
Q = XL A,
in
which
number
of strokes per
area of piston in feet, and is Hence, Q multiplying by equivalent to multisquare the the on total piston by the distance moved plying pressure
length of stroke in
A =
feet.
by that pressure per hour. A high-duty pumping-engine is one which gives an exceedingly high number of foot-pounds per every 100 Ibs. of fuel burned. This is attained by using the steam expansively. That is, by a compound or triple-expansion steam-end which
of course gives a higher efficiency than with a single steamcylinder.
The Indicator.
The pressure within the water-cylinder of a pump may be obtained as with the steam-cylinder with the Indicator. Figs. taken small facsimiles of cards from a and 220 are 219 pump
of the type
shown
in Fig.
206.
Fig. 220
The 219 from the steam-cylinder. two cards is due to the fact that
the scale of the indicator-spring on the steam-end was No. 36, while that of the water-end was No. 48.
278
By
it
will
steam was working non-expansively, that is, steam entered the cylinder during the whole stroke. By working up these
FIG. 219.
Pump.
FIG. 220.
Pump.
two cards
it
will
be found that
less
water-piston than on the steam -piston. sents the work lost in friction.
PROBLEMS.
1.
A pipe
whose cross-section
100
pipe
Note.
What is The
is one square foot extends vertically the total pressure on the bottom of the the pressure per square inch ? weight of a cubic foot of water is 62.4 Ibs.
What
is
2. Find the pressure per square inch on the bottom of a stand-pipe having the same height as the ^bove, but having a cross-section of 20
square
feet.
Compare
results.
It will also 3. At the sea-level the pressure of the air is 14. ; Ibs. support a column of mercury 29.92 inches high or a column of water 34 feet high. Find pressure per square inch due to a column of mer-
cury
foot high.
PUMP1NG-MACHINER Y.
4.
279
The
plunger of a
is
minute, and
6 inches in
pumped
5. Find the number of foot-pounds of work done per hour in the above if the water is pumped into a tank 50 feet above the water source. What 6. A pump discharges 100 cubic feet of water per minute. which the water the valves be the area of two should through discharge-
them
shall not
be
per minute ? cubic feet of water is pumped per hour, during which time 7. Sixty in the furnaces for it. The pressure in the coal is burned Ibs. of 15 is 90 Ibs., while the as the shown discharge-pipe by pressure-gauge
feet
level.
pressure in the suction-pip 3 is zero, and the two gauges are Find the duty of the engine.
on the same
8. Work up the card shown in Fig. 220, and find the indicated H.P. of the steam-cylinder, the stroke being 4^ inches, the diameter of cylinder 5 inches, and making 40 strokes per minute. 9. Find indicated H.P. of water-cylinder, stroke 4^ inches, diam-
and 40 strokes per minute. Find indicated H.P. lost in friction. Determine the efficiency of the pump.
CHAPTER XXIV.
GAS-ENGINES.
THE
Gas-engine
differs
in that the
into mechanical
whole process of transformation of the heat-energy of the fuel work is carried out within the engine itself.
introduced into a cylinder, containing a piston it is compressed and then ignited or exploded, and the expansion
Gas
is
its burning gives the piston a forward impulse. In the steam-boiler furnace it is necessary to give air to the fuel in order to furnish enough oxygen to support combustion.
The same
is
certain
quantity of air is mixed with the gas before it is ignited in the If the chemical constitution of a gas is known, the cylinder.
volume of oxygen necessary for making the proper explosive mixture can be calculated.
Pressures and Temperatures of Exploding Gas. With a mass of any perfect gas confined within a closed vessel the absolute temperatures and pressures are proportional to each other, according to the law of Charles.
The
following figures are the results of experiments by different mixtures of coal-gas and air.
GAS-ENGINES.
281
The temperature before explosion Was 30.6 F. The temperatures in the fourth column are derived from
the law of Charles pressure
is
:
tht
volume
the
volume
is
A
in
which
/
t
is
,
/ is atmospheric pressure, and ^ 491, the pressure p l absolute temperature corresponding to 32 F. The figures in the fifth column are those that would be obtained theoretically
if all the gas were perfectly burned, the volume remaining constant, and there being no loss of heat by conduction into the walls of the cylinder. The fact that the temperatures due
to the observed pressures are so much lower than the theoretical temperatures indicates that the combustion is not perfect
at the time of the explosion,
when
the
maximum
pressure
is
observed.
the above table we find that coal-gas will give temof peratures explosion of from 1480 F. to 3300 F., dependIt is also seen that a ing upon the dilution of the mixture.
From
I vol. of gas and 4 vols. of air gives a lower a mixture of I vol. of gas and 6 vols. of air. than pressure Gas and air in the proportion of I to 5 gives about the maxi-
mixture of
mum
pressure
when
coal-gas
is
used.
CLASSIFICATION OF GAS-ENGINES.
into two great classes, those in which the piston* receives an impulse due to the explosion of gas once for every four strokes, that is, for every
viz.,
in
282
WATERPOWER,
ETC.
The former
cycle type.
is
first
called the four-cycle or Otto type; Otto to make practical engines of the four-
The
used.
It is
now
rarely
single-acting.
it
gas-engine practice
is
efficiency
by compressing the gas in the cylinder In some early engines two cylinders were before igniting it. used, one of which was used for compressing the gas, which was then introduced into a power-cylinder and suddenly
attained
ignited, the resulting explosion driving the piston forward.
uses the
is
same
power.
Its
operation
this
is charged with gas and air; on the mixture is compressed. At the beginof the second outward the stroke, ning compressed mixture is is and the driven forward. ignited piston During the second inward stroke the burned gases are exhausted into the atmos-
inward stroke
phere.
Fig.
22
invented by Otto.
shows a sectional plan of the original engine A is the cylinder which is closed at one
end only, doing away with the stuffing-box of the ordinary steam-engine. B is the piston connected directly to the crank
by a connecting-rod.
the compression-
/ is the admission-
and ignition-port, communicating alternately with the gas and admission-port K, and the flame-port L in the slide M.
is
the covering holding the slide to the cylinder-face and carrying in it an external flame for lighting the movable one
in the flame-port
L.
The exhaust-valve
by the use
is
seen at O.
P
T
is
of bevel-gears from
the crank-shaft, which operates the admission, the exhaust, To start the engine the flame at and the igniting apparatus.
is
commanding
GAS ENGINES.
283
or
UNIVERSITY
284-
adjusted,
and the gas turned on, a couple of turns wheel, by hand, causes ignition and sets the engine
motion.
The regulation of the speed of the engine is made by a centrifugal governor which closes the gas-supply when the This causes an explosion to be engine speed is increased.
When running missed, air only being drawn into the cylinder. without load, eight or more revolutions may be made per
explosion.
Heaiy
Construction.
Owing
type to
two revolutions,
one impulse is given for every becomes necessary with engines of the Otto
make all the parts very strong in order to withstand the increased shock per stroke. The fly-wheel is also made very large in order to carry the
engines over the compression stroke, during which no impulse
is
made.
objections to the four-cycle just named, that is, the construction necessary, have caused a great deal of heavy study and investigation by gas-engine builders in producing
The
engines making an impulse for every revolution. The Day gas-engine show n in vertical section in Fig. 222 may be taken as an example of this type.
r
is
The
the piston, C is the connecting-rod, the crank-pin. crank-shaft operates in the closed chamber E, which
as a reservoir for gas
chamber serves
and
air
mixture.
the charge inlet-port which admits the charge of gas G is the exhaust-port, allowing the and air to the cylinder.
is
is
as follows:
On
the up stroke
the pressure of the gases in the chamber is of the piston less than When the reduced to a little atmospheric pressure.
is piston reaches the end of its up stroke, the air inlet-port uncovered by the lower edge of the piston and air rushes into
the
to that of the
atmos-
phere.
G/tS-ENGINES.
'85
Gas
is
by the governor, so
air.
E
B
is filled
with a mixture
this mixture of gas and stroke of the piston a to few pounds above atmospheric pressure compressed
down
FIG. 222.
Day
Engine.
and
is
uncovered
to flow into the top by the piston, causing the mixture in part of the cylinder, striking against the baffle-plate /, which
causes
it
to flow
arrow, expelling the burned gases of the previous stroke. When the piston B makes its next upward stroke, it compresses this mixture into a small space at the end of the
cylinder to a pressure of about
pressure.
50
Ibs.
above atmospheric
286
At this
ignites the
compressed mixture
and the piston makes a downward stroke due to the impulse of the explosion. By this arrangement an impulse is made for
each revolution.
The
is
averted
by conducting it first to an exhaust-chamber G2 and then to the atmosphere by the. pipe Gy Owing to the very high temperature of exploding gases it is necessary to circulate water around the cylinder, because the
cylinder-walls would be so highly heated that the entering gas
The pressure in a gas-engine cylinder be indicated with an indicator similar to the steam-engine may but a indicator, very strong spring must be used in order to reduce the effects of inertia due to the shock of the explosion.
Indicator-cards.
Fig. 223 shows a normal diagram of the work in a gasThe line 1-2 is made engine of the Otto or four-cycle type.
1150 C.
120 C.
INS. DlA.
CYLINDER.
14 INS. STROKE.
FIG. 223.
while the piston draws in the charge and shows that the pressure
falls
little
is
due to
and
gas.
On
(first
G/tS-ENGlNES.
ignition occurs
2^7
suddenly
as
expansion), the exhaust- valve opening at 7. On the second return stroke the exhaust gases are expelled as shown by the line 8-1.
The gas-engine indicator-card will not as a usual occurrence be as regular in outline as the one just shown, because of the effects of the inertia of the parts of the indicator. A
The temperatures
are (for convenience)
of the working mixture during the cycle card. The formula for
factors are the
the H.P.
is
PLAN ,
in
same
as for the
of
33.000
steam-engine, remembering that
impulses.
will
be the
number
The principal losses in a gasheat out to the walls and the jacket1st, given heat and water, 2d, great expelled in the exhaust gases. These losses cannot be avoided but may be made less by careLosses in a Gas-engine.
engine are:
ful
designing.
The
following
is
made
good gas-engines Heat transferred into useful work, 17 per cent. Heat transferred to the jacket- water, 52 per cent. Heat lost in the exhaust gas, 6 per cent. Heat lost by conduction and radiation, 5 per cent. This shows an efficiency of 17 per cent.
:
Any
fuel that is
may
gas-engine.
Generally speaking, the amount of power that can be derived from any fuel is greater when it is first made into a gas and then used to drive a gas-engine, than when the fuel is
burned
producing power
for
steam-engine.
288
PUMPS, GAS-ENGINES,
WATER POWER,
ETC.
The most common gas-fuel is city ga. The amount used by the engine is measured
meter.
with a gas-
Gas-producing plants are sometimes arranged which manufacture gas for the direct use of a particular gas-engine.
Fig. 224 shows such an apparatus which is designed to use The producer at the left is a brick chamber anthracite coal.
lined with fire-brick.
FIG. 224.
Producer Gas-plant.
a furnace and grate. At Coal is placed in the upper part and the heat of the furnace drives off the volatile matter in the form of gas, smoke, etc.
the bottom
is
From
by
filled
the top of the producer this gareous matter is carried a pipe to the bottom of the scrubber. This scrubber is
all
with water and other substances, which catch impurities and allows pure gas only to reach the top.
the
From
to the holder,
the top of the scrubber the gas is' carried by a pipe which is sealed with water, the gas being above
whence
it
is
taken, as needed,
by the engine.
The
and the admission- and exhaust-valves are poppet-valves held upon their seats by a spring (see Fig. 228). These valves are
GAS-ENGINES.
289
operated from the cam-shaft by means of cams, levers, etc. The cam-shaft is operated by the crank-shaft (see Fig. 228).
by means
of bevel-gears, the axes of the crank-shaft shaft being perpendicular to each other.
and cam-
REGULATION.
There are two general methods of controlling the speed of 1st, by varying" tlie number of gas-engines for variable loads. is called the hit-and-miss method, and 2d, by which impulses,
varying the strength of tlie impulse, the number of impulses being the same for each revolution, but the strength of the
irr.
in three
ways:
during the time for one or more the action 2d, impulses; by stopping required of the exhaust-valve, keeping it either open or closed during
By holding
closed
When
the exhaust-valve
is
the cylinder is not sufficient to open the admission-valve. When the exhaust-valve is kept closed during the idle strokes,
the products of combustion are kept in the cylinder, which of course keeps the pressure within too great to allow an admission of new mixture.
3d. By cutting off the current from the igniter. In this case the governor is attached to a switch, which
is
opened when a speed is reached which is above normal, the charge within the cylinder being alternately compressed and expanded until the speed is decreased to normal and the switch
closed.
The
1st.
is,
variable-impulse method
may
by
the proportion of gas in the full mixture, a by partial stoppage of the gas-supply. Of course if the mixture is poor in gas the force of each impulse will be
By reducing
that
correspondingly small.
2cl.
By reducing
290
and air. This method is similar method used with the steam-engine using a throttling-
governor.
3d.
By
occurs.
greatest strength of impulse is obtained by igniting at such a time that the maximum pressure is at the beginning of
The
the stroke.
Making the
the force of the impulse and hence the speed. The six methods above named are operated by two classes of governors, viz., the centrifugal governor and the inertia
governor.
The centrifugal governor works upon as that used on throttling steam-engines. principle
the
same
Fig. 229 shows an example. Fig. 225 shows one form of the inertia governor which
is
FIG. 225.
Inertia Governor.*
is
The valve-stem used only with the hit-and-miss method. from the means of the slide M. cam-shaft by operated
Every time
opened. connected the pendulum P, which swings about a pivot. When the speed is above normal, the pendulum lags behind, "causing a to strike the pin C, which causes C to
M
B
strikes
the valve
is
To
the slide
is
From
the "Gas-engine
W. Roberts."
GAS ENGINES.
291
As soon
fuel for
another impulse.
closed and the engine admits This it will be seen is that method,
is
already described, .in which the exhaust-valve during the idle strokes. IGNITERS.
kept open
There are four ways of igniting the charge in a gas-engine: 1. Ignition by means of a naked flame as in the Otto
engine, Fig. 221. 2. Contact with a surface which
as
is
at a high temperature,
shown
in Fig. 222.
The
hot-tube
this class,
Fig. 226
class.
is
shown
I
at the right.
The The
\\rought-iron
tube
is
2.
piston at the proper time uncovers the hole 4, and the mixture
entering
under
pressure
is
ignited.
from a battery
within
the
effected
by means of cams
or
is
method of ignition most popular probably method in modern gas- and gasoThis
latter
the
line-engines.
FIG. 226.
Hot-tube.
29 2
GASOLINE-ENGINES.
gasoline-engine is practically the same as" the gasengine except for a few details, and many engines are manufactured which may be used either for gas or for gasoline.
The
introduced into the cylinder in a finely divided spray by passing a jet of air over the gasoline as it enters. This spray is then compressed and ignited just as if it were a
is
Gasoline
mixture of
air
and gas.
is supplied to the engine, from a tank placed below it, by means of a gasoline-pump, which pump is operated from the cam-shaft by suitable gearing. The other details of
The
gasoline
gasoline-engines are practically the same as for gas-engines. Fig. 227 shows the general arrangement of the engine and
FIG. 227.
Arrangement of Engine
P is
T is the gasoline-tank, gasoline-tank for a stationary plant. the gasoline-pump, and 5 is the pipe leading to the pump from the tank.
The pump
lifts
GAS-EHG1NFS.
supply-pipe
^>
to
From
FIG. 228.
the
gasoline-valve
into the
FIG. 229.
pump
is
capable of supplying
the over-supply of gasoline which the When is taken back to the tank.
-94
PUMPS, GAS-ENGINES,
it
WATER POWER,
pump
ETC.
is
cup
N by hand.
is
necessary to
This
is
connected from the engine by unscrewing the pin M. Fig. 228 shows an end view and Fig. 229 a side view of the
cylinder and governing apparatus of the Otto gasoline-engine.
OIL-ENGINES.
The
engine
oil-engine
may be
in
which
is
oil,
is
not only
it is
first
atomized by the process already described, but by passing it through a heated chamber.
vaporized
By
which
these
it
oil is
is
The atomizing
principle
rs
spray-producer shown
in Fig. 230.
FIG. 230.
Perfume-sprayer.
jet A
In this elementary form an air-blast passing from the small and creates a partial vacuum crosses the top of the tube
within.
The
at the
G/tS-ENGINES.
295
This principle is used for spraying gasoline and oil. In the oil-engine this spray is then easily vaporized by heat and The principal fuel used in then introduced into the engine. is petroleum. Fig. 231 shows a very simple oil-engines
FIG. 231.
vaporizing arrangement for oil-engines as used on the HornsbyAckroyd oil-engine. Vaporizing is done by introducing the
is
arranged so
that the heat of each explosion maintains it at a temperature high enough to vaporize the spray by mere injection upon the hot surfaces, the heat being sufficient to ignite the mixture of
compressed. To start the engine, the first heated by a separate lamp, the spray is vaporizer injected into the inlet B, and the engine is given a few turns
vapor and
air
when
it is
is
which the heat of each explosion furnishes heat charge for the next impulse. shows a section through the vaporizer and cylinFig. 232 der of the Priestman oil-engine. is the cylinder and E is
by hand,
after
the vaporizer.
The
oil is
by means
of an air-
pump which
operated by vaporizer is kept hot, while the engine is running, by the exhaust gases which leave the cylinder through the exhaust-valve and the
is
the cam-shaft.
The
The
P which
and besides
this
it
is difficult
to
296
as converting heat-
FIG. 232.
The
supplied by cam-shaft.
jacket- water for gas-, gasoline-, and oil-engines is means of a water-pump usually operated from the
CHAPTER XXV.
WATER-POWER.
are those in which the working fluid is water, corresponding to steam in the steam-engine for pro-
WATER-MOTORS
The pump does not belong to this class, ducing motion. which acts upon water rather than one instrument an being
upon which water acts. Water is practically incompressible and consequently inexpansible, hence it cannot be used expansively in water-engines, as is the case with steam, though water is sometimes used in engines similar to those which use Hence an indicator-card taken steam for the working fluid. water or a from hydraulic engine would show a reciprocating
maximum
pheric In the steam-engine the pressure of steam depends the quantity of heat supplied to it in the boiler.
line.
upon
its
velocity.
Water-pressure depends upon the height of its source and Here the term "head" is used instead of height
is,
50
feet
feet
is
of
is
50
above where
water
is
V = V 2gH,
is an equation connecting head and velocity, in which V is velocity in feet per second, //the head in feet, and g 32.2 in feet may be reduced to pounds per The head square
inch by multiplying by 62.4 the weight of a cubic foot of water and dividing by 144. This is equivalent to multiplying the
head
in feet
62.4
by
.426.
297
144
The
Those
having rotary pistons or runners and those having reciprocating The former are by far the more common in American pistons.
practice.
The
motors
:
following
is
Overshot wheel.
Water-wheels
4
(
Undershot wheel.
Breast-wheel,
Parallel flow.
I.
Rotary
~ Turbines
,
.
f
-{
jn now Radial
T>
i
(
(
Outward.
Inward.
[Mixed
(
flow.
Motors
2.
Impulse.
Uet.
Reciprocating Hydraulic Engines.
FIG. 233.
The simplest and first used of the water-motors is the water-wheel, in which the water produces motion by acting directly against vanes or buckets placed upon the circumference of a wheel. Fig. 233 shows an overshot wheel.
WATER-POWER.
299
The
same as
the velocity of the water, which from (i) is V2gH, being If this velocity in feet per second be multiplied by the head. the pressure on the vane due to the weight of the water, we
V=
have the foot-pounds of work done. Suppose that the crosssection of the stream of falling water is B square feet; then
its
weight
is
62.4^ \'2gH
per
second.
through which
ft.
it falls,
-Ibs.
H =
X
60
Dividing this by 33,000, we have, apper minute. proximately, the horse-power developed by the stream
ft.
-Ibs.
500.69^77^ x 60 33,000
This
is
usually called the water H.P. because it is the horse-power which the stream is capable of producing with an
,
which there are no losses such as friction, etc. Fig. 234 shows an undershot wheel in which the water passes under the wheel. In this case the water Fig- 235 shows a breast-wheel. strikes the wheel at or near the level of the axis. These
ideal water-motor, that
is,
in
FIG. 234.
Undershot Wheel.
FIG. 235.
Breast-wheel.
return
not only will they admit water without hindrance, it to the lowest possible point on the wheel.
but also
The
flow
3 oo
by large gate-valves. These wheels amounts of water for their running, large require comparatively For the plants of the present hence their efficiency is small.
of water
controlled
time the wheel would necessarily be so large that its construcFor these reasons tion and operation would be impracticable.
TURBINES.
In a parallel-flow turbine the water enters and leaves the turbine in a line parallel to the axis. In the radial-flow turbine
the water enters and leaves the turbine on radial lines, flowing In a inward or outward according to the class of turbine.
in
The outward-flow
shown
of fixed
is
number
to rotate in
FIG. 236.
Outward-flow Turbine.
FIG. 237.
Inward-flow Turbine.
the direction
in the turbine
shown by the arrow. The action of the water is also illustrated by the arrows.
Fig. 237 shows the principle of the inward-flow turbine. In this instance the water enters from the outside, being directed
by the curved guides against the vanes or buckets of the The curves of the wheels wheel and leaves at the interior. and the guides are designed such that a maximum efficiency
may
be obtained.
WATER-POWER.
3 or
The
larger
number
of
American turbines
this type.
belong" to the
The water
flows
from the outside inward through the openings between the guides, strikes the wheel or runner and flows out through the
FIG. 238.
bottom.
vertical
curves.
at the
bottom by means of
302
FIG. 239.
FlG. 240.
WATER-POWER.
303
Fig. 239 shows the runner and shaft which when in operaFig. 240 shows a horizontal section of the
C is a guide, B is a vane of the runner-case and guides. a called The i'nflow of bucket, and A is a gate. runner, usually is controlled water into the machine by these gates. The opening between the guides may be closed by means of the gates, and the machine stopped. The efficiency of a water-turbine
of this type depends largely upon the curves of the guides or chutes and the buckets. By giving them the proper curves
the least resistance and greatest working effect is produced. Runner. The runner of this turbine is a solid casting,
though
cast
in some makes the buckets are of steel, moulded to a hub and rim. The very high speed requires that it be
made very
strong.
Transmission.
the
turbine
is
Manner
of
Applying Water.
Fig.
The wheel used for conducting water to and from the wheel. is placed in this case over an opening in the "head-race"
or flume-floor so that the water has to pass through the turtail-race which is below bine in order to get into the
'
'
'
'
this floor.
The
is
is
kept
constant.
a suction-tube,
in
The
Fig. 241
about 20
feet
an iron suction-tube
level.
From
this
it
is
readily seen that the turbine is entirely in water while in That part of the flume above the turbine is the operation.
head-race, that part in which the wheel is contained and that part below the turbine is the tail-race.
draft- or suction -tube.
is
the
is
pit,
the
The water
for
the
turbine
is
controlled
iit
its
passage
by means of large gate- valves. Fig. 242 shows one operated by a crank and gearing or by
304
FIG. 241.
Suction-tube
(New American
Turbine).
WATER-POWER.
35
By means of this valve the water may be hydraulic power. shut off from the machine for examination, repairs, etc.
FIG. 242.
Gate.
is
Fig. 243 shows the arrangement of a turbine plant (Victor). the head-race constructed of masonry. is the head
306
is the shaft to which the C is the head-flume. gate-valve. wheels are fastened (the turbines are not seen, being covered is the draft-tube, and .Fis the tail-race, by the iron casing).
The head
is
FIG. 243.
Turbine Plant.
RATING OF TURBINES.
Water-turbines are rated according to the
horse-power
For the same head and quantity of water different makes of turbines will give different horse-power, according to the These turbines are designed for plants excellence of design.
in
is
com-
Hence the quantity of water is a factor paratively small head. which affects the horse-power. The head used for these is
It has already been explained how usually not over 100 feet. The horse-power which the to find the water horse-power.
WATER-POWER.
307
wheel really develops will always be less than this. The wheel H.P. is 60 to 90 per cent, according to TT p efficiency = A \VcLLcr
,
irj.
SPEED OF TURBINE.
The
water.
velocity of the wheel is due to the velocity of the Theoretically the velocity of the wheel would be the
turvelocity of the water, but actually this is not the case. bine attains its greatest efficiency when the velocity of the The actual turbine is one half that of the water driving it.
REGULATION.
The speed
of the turbine
Fig. 244 shows the Snow centrifugal governor for water-turIt has a foundation of its own and is connected to the bines.
turbine-shaft
shaft
R is the by means of a belt to the pulley A which operates the valve which closes the water-supply. If the turbine is running at normal speed the shaft R is not revolved by the governor. If the speed is increased, however, above the normal the balls rise and the governor-spindle is
.
S and
decreased below the normal the governorballs descend and operate a mechanism which turns S and R
the speed
is
in
SETTING.
The head-race should be made sufficiently large to prevent It is usual to make a diminution of the head by friction, etc. the head-race of such cross-section that the water will not flow
through
it
faster
3 c8
Making
the head.
is
equivalent to reducing
The
be of
sufficient
wheel-pit, that is, where there is no draft-tube, should depth that it will not produce a reaction of the
FIG. 244.
Snow
Centrifugal Governor.
An
additional loss of
power is also caused by the fact that consumed by forcing the water out of
size.
The
pit
should
be lined so that
erosion.
its
will not
be damaged by
The
WA TER-POWER.
The
309
flume should be large also, in fact, all the waterpassages should be large enough to prevent loss of head on account of friction,
DRAFT-TUBES.
This
is
is
an air-tight tube used in constructions where the very deep. Its lower end should dip 2 or 3 inches
tlie
standing tail-water.
is
It is
never longer
than 28 or 30
feet,
and
usually less.
It is
sometimes very
water so that
penstock.
it
is
volumes of water with high heads by the use of a jet escaping from a nozzle and striking against buckets which are placed
upon the circumference of a wheel, thus producing motion. An example of this type is found in the Pelton motorThe waterwheel, Fig. 245, mounted upon a wood frame. in a from the and issues nozzle strikes the buckets jet supply
of the wheel.
The supply is controlled by a valve. The speed is kept constant under varying
loads by
means
of a centrifugal governor which closes or opens the supply The action of this according to the needs of the load.
governor
is
the
same
this
The discharge
wheel mounted
setting of the
Pelton motor-wheel
is
shown
also in Fig.
254,
driv-
With a low head and large volume ing an air-compressor. of water the arrangement shown in Fig. 247 is used, in
which three nozzles direct as many
wheel.
jets
against the
same
310
WATER-POWER.
311
The motors
bines.
same
setting as tur-
of these wheels
may
be determined by
means of a dynamometer.
efficiency
= wheel
H.P.
is
comparatively high.
it
simplicity of this
arrangement makes
very desirable.
FIG. 246.
Pelton Water-motor.
HYDRAULIC PUMP.
has been stated already that steam-engines with slight may be used as water-engines, in which case water is used as the working fluid instead of steam. Reciprocating water-engines are necessarily of slow speed
It
modifications
3*2
its large amount of friction in passing through pipes as compared with steam. Its Fig. 248 shows a pump driven by water-pressure. construction does not differ materially from that of the steam-
FIG. 247.
Multiple Jet-wheel.
pump except
that the driving cylinders are provided with extra large passages suitable for the prompt and easy flow of water.
Loss of Head.
piston or buckets
is
In
theoretically found
it is
given,
H=
pS
.
However,
WATER-POWER.
3*3
314
is
lost in
This loss
overcoming friction on its way through pipes, etc. is called "loss of head," since it is equivalent to
This
4/v*
head
is
f-j
<5
in
which
v
= length
and d
feet,
velocity in
feet per
second and
a coefficient which
Weisbach gives
to be .00644, which
makes h
.01288/z/ 2
-,
.
Orifices.
The
theoretical velocity
of water flowing from an orifice is V 2gH, or that of a falling body, but the actual velocity is less than this.
The
is
generally
about .97 of that due to head, that The discharge then would be
of the orifice in Fig. 249.
.97 \/2gH.
Av, where
area
FIG. 249.
The
jet contracts
on leaving the
is
orifice as
shown
at
N.
In calculating the discharge the velocity is multiplied by the area of the cross-section of the jet at this point instead of
orifice.
This area
is
orifice.
by the area .64 A X -97 V2gH = .62A ^2gH as the discharge volume. By means of this formula the size of pipe, head, and velocity may be compared.
V 2gH
WATER-POWER.
315
sideration
Tables, however, are given by authorities which take in conmore minutely the difference of flow due to the
smoothness or roughness of pipes, whether larger or smaller, etc., to which the author refers the student.
The principal method used is that of obtaining the velocity of the stream, as a creek or river, and then multiplying it by the area of the cross-section of the stream.
in which Q is the discharge in cubic feet per the area of the cross-section in square feet, and minute and i' the velocity in feet per minute. A may be found approximately by taking the depth at
Let
Av,
regular intervals across the stream, the distance from the edge to the first sounding being one half that of the other intervals.
By adding
these
different
depths
number of soundings the mean or average depth Multiply this average depth by the width at the
the result
is
obtained.
surface
and
stream.
7'
is
found
ways.
is
is
it
simple method sometimes used placed on the stream and the time
requires to pass over a
known
dis-
tance noted.
The velocity of the float will be that of the water at the surface of
toward the bottom than
the stream, the velocity being less at the top.
or average velocity is genin practice as about 80 taken erally surface of the velocity.
.
The mean
_H
>
This
is
shown
in Fig. 250.
FlG
2 5o--Pitot
Tube.
The
causes
3^6
Let
water
in the tube.
For
\ 2gk. velocity is theoretically v small streams the quantity of water which the stream
is
The
is
capable of supplying
determined as shown
in Fig. 251.
FIG. 251.
Weir.
This
and
is
method is called the "Weir-dam Measurement" more exact than the method just shown.
notch is cut in a thick plank, the length of the notch about two thirds the width of the stream. Stakes are being driven in the ground and this plank is held by them so that
the water of the stream passes through the notch. To find the depth of the stream flowing through the notch, proceed as follows
:
WATER-POWER.
In the stream about 6 feet above the
3!7
dam
drive a stake in
it
bottom of
is all
stake.
the depth of the stream. Then find the width of the notch in feet, which gives the cross-section of the
stream.
The
determined by
quantity of water flowing in the stream is then the following formulae, given by Francis:
if
the notch
is
taken the
full
if
the notch begins at one edge of the stream and does not extend completely across
;
if
the notch
is
in
either edge.
In each case
;
// = head of / = length of weir-notch in feet per second water on the crest in feet, measured as shown above.
;
PROBLEMS.
1.
The power of
feet
a certain stream
wheel TOO
due to the head; also the pressure per square foot. 2. Find the velocity of the jet which strikes the buckets in
feet
per second, neglecting friction, in the above. of water in cubic feet discharged per 3. Find the actual volume of hour by a head 150 feet through a pipe, the nozzle of which is 4 inches in diameter, taking the friction into account.
4.
A
400
stream
is
Its
mean
veloc-
ity is
feet per
minute.
it is
capable of pro-
ducing.
5.
4536 cubic feet of water per mindeveloped horse-power is 342 as Find the efficiency.
3 i8
6.
to a water-wheel.
pipe 12 inches in diameter and 600 feet long supplies water Find the loss of head in feet due to friction, by Weisbach's formula.
7.
If the
is
difference in
feet, find
level
above
8.
500 Suppose that the water rises to a height of 6 inches in a Pitot tube due to the velocity of the water. Find the velocity of the water. 9. The dimensions of a weir are inches; the weir is in
742
of water on the weir is 16 Find the quantity of water flowing in the stream. 10. Suppose that in problem 9 the weir was the full width of the Find h in this case. stream, 72 inches.
the middle
inches.
of the stream.
The depth
CHAPTER XXVI.
COMPRESSED
COMPRESSED
mitting
air is
AIR.
power through moderately long distances. common steam-plant considerable steam is condensed
the
The greater the distance pipes before it reaches the motor. For very great distances the the greater will be these losses.
use of steam for power transmission becomes impracticable, and either electric transmission or compressed-air transmission
must be used.
The power of a waterfall or that of a steam-engine may be used for compressing air up to a high pressure, and this air is then conducted through pipes to the air-motor which may be
similar to a
common
steam-engine or may have other forms, work to be done. Since the air after
it
by compression
is
not subject to
condensation by thfc atmosphere air may be transmitted through many miles of piping without any other loss except that due to friction and possible leakage.
Another example of the use of compressed air is that of mining The power-plant of the mine must be above operations. Underground there are a great number of rockground. drills and locomotives for hauling ore through the mine, which must be operated by some means. Steam is objectionable because it will have to be exhausted into the interior of the
Besides this the loss due to conmine, producing damp, etc. densation would be large because of the distance between the boiler and the motor. By means of steam or other power air
320
be compressed at the entrance to the mine and conducted The exhaust through pipes with small losses to the motors.
may
into the
mine
MANNER OF COMPRESSING
Air
is
AIR.
by means of an air-compressor.
Air-compressors
in
may be
classified
which the air-pistons are given their motion, as steamdriven, belt-driven, and water-driven. Compressors are also
classified
stage
compressors
and double-stage,
engine.
The steam-driven
to the
compressor consists
air-
of
an
ordinary
In belt- or gear-driven compressors the driving power may shaft, instead of being actuated directly by The shaft of the compressor carries a steam- or water-power.
large pulley or gear-wheel, taking by means of a belt or gear-wheels.
The water-impulse compressor is shown in Fig. 254. The impulse-wheel is mounted directly upon the main shaft of The wheel is put in motion by turning on a jet the machine. The force of the water of water from the pipe at the bottom. The force of the against the buckets produces rotary motion.
jet is
controlled
cut.
The process of compression in a double-stage compressor takes place as follows: The air is drawn into the low-pressure or intake cylinder and is partially compressed, after which it
COMPRESSED
AIR.
3 23
324
is
passes through an intercooler, where the heat of compression taken away by means of cold water. It is then drawn into
the high-pressure cylinder, where it is compressed to a higher pressure, and then it passes to an air-receiver and thence
The valves and steam-chest Cylinders and Valve-chest. are the same as for a steam-engine. Usually, the Corliss valve is used, though some manufacturers use poppet-valves for
admitting the air. Fig. 252 shows the Corliss valve used in the intake air-cylinder of the Norwalk Compressor and poppetvalves in the high-pressure air-cylinder. The higher pressure
makes it possible to use the poppet-valve more successfully without chattering, whereas in the low-pressure cylinder the low pressure and the spring would cause a constant vibration of the valve against its seat, thus producing an
in this cylinder
objectionable noise.
rapidly increases.
When
air is
compressed
its
temperature
In order to keep the temperature of the from cylinder-walls being unduly heated, the air-cylinders are
usually surrounded with a space through which water is circulated. The following table shows the theoretical increase of
60 Temperature of air before compression, " " to Ibs. compressed 15 177 "
"
.
90
212
foy
580 Formerly the temperature due to compression was lowered means of an injection of cool water, but its use has been
255
294
417
507
369
455
524
discontinued for the following reasons: ist. The presence of water on the inside of the cylinder may make it unsafe to run the compressor at speeds which
would otherwise be
safe
and proper.
\COMPRESSED
2ci.
AIR.
325
it
in
the compression-cylinder
would be impossible to lubricate the surface of the cylinder. With water in the cylinder and the dirt and grit which usually accompanies it, the piston and cylinder surface wear more
rapidly.
THE INTERCOOLER.
intercooler is used only on compressors which have at It consists of a large chamber two stages of compression. the situated between E, Fig. 252, low-pressue and high-pressure in it through which cool water has small which cylinders, pipes As already stated, the low-pressure piston comcirculates. The object of the air and raises its temperature. the presses
least
The
intercooler
is
it
enters the
This reduces the power required to high-pressure cylinder. finish the compression, because the reduction of the temperature
reduces the pressure and thereby lessens the power of steam Imagine a cylinder of any required to run the compressor.
capacity, say 2 cubic feet, containing air at a temperature of Then if by say 369 at a pressure of 60 Ibs. per square inch.
any means we can cool the temperature down from 369 to 255, the pressure is reduced from 60 Ibs. to 30 Ibs., accordThen the air at 30 Ibs. pressure can be ing to the table. further compressed with less power than air at 60 Ibs.
will
in
be dissipated sooner
it
leaves
the compressor, so that the final pressure will be approximately the same whether the cooling is in the compressor itself or after it leaves it.
Ratio of Volume
of
Air-cylinders.
The
ratio
of the
,,;
where
and
and ^the diameters of low- and high-pressure pistons. R differs with different sizes and makes, but is usually taken from 2 to 3. Fly-wheel. By taking indicator-cards from both the
steam- and air-cylinders of a compressor
it
will
be found that
326
at the
is
the steam-cylinder (practically boiler-pressure) and the pressure in the intake air-cylinder is at a minimum. This evidently
at a
maximum
make
a very unbalanced state of running, the effect being to run fast at the beginning of the stroke, with a gradual In order to balance slowing up toward the end of the stroke.
tends to
the compressor and partly counteract this effect the fly-wheels are usually made very heavy, and in fact the whole compressor
is
made massive in order to withstand the fluctuating strains. The Air-receiver. The air-receiver is not a part of the
itself,
compressor
system.
but
it
is
It is
FIG. 255.
Air receiver.
It corrects the pulsating effect caused ing the compressor. the by periodic expulsions of the air from the compressor into
motor
is
great
it is
from the compressor to the best to use two air-receivers, one near the
If the distance
compressor and one near the motor. The first receiver is pref-, erably placed far enough away from the compressor so that a
great part of the heat of compression may pass off to the atmosphere through the pipe before the receiver is reached.
COMPRESSED
Usually about 50 feet
the
is
AIR.
327
Fig. 255 shows a receiver Another use of the receiver Company. is to catch any moisture in the air that may be condensed by the cooling and allow it to be drawn off from the bottom of
sufficient.
made by
Rand
Drill
the receiver.
Additional moisture
may
be deposited
it
in the
pipe-line and carried to the second receiver, where drawn off before reaching the motor.
may be
Compressors are usually governed by a bailRegulation. or throttling-governor which works in combination with an automatic regulator so that the steam is throttled more or less
according to the air-pressure, so that the machine runs just fast enough to supply the demand for air. In this way no more
air is
Fig.
compressed than is used, thus economizing the power. 256 shows the regulating
the
.
piston
, ,
of the
,
air.,
.
regulator is pushed up and this in turn closes the governor-valve and diminishes the speed of If the air-pressure becomes low the large the compressor.
ball at the right of the figure causes the governor-valve to
FIG. 256.
open
to be increased.
MOTORS.
Compressed air may be substituted for steam in almost any uses and it can be used in any steam-driven motor, since the laws of expansion of steam and air are practically the same. Compressed air has the advantage of being more easy of transof
its
portation than steam for the reason stated before, that is, it can be taken through long distances in pipes without condensation
328
losses.
in
is
most important uses of compressed air mining operations, the rock-drills being operated by compressed air. Fig. 257 shows the details in section of the
of the
One
actuating
mechanism of a
rock-drill,
manufactured by the
is
Rand
Drill
Company. The
same
valve
is
thrown
in the
direction in
moving,
FIG. 257.
Rock-drill.
is operated by a three-arm rocker which is held in place This rocker is placed in a recess of the cylinder a by pin. between the ends of the double-headed piston, a part of which is in section, and its upper arm engages the valve. As the
and
piston reciprocates
tion in
it
in
the direc-
which it is going. Another important use of compressed air is found in the In this system a steampresent system of braking trains. driven compressor, called the air-pump, which compresses a constant air-supply into a main reservoir, is mounted on the
locomotive.
reservoirs,
From
is
taken to auxiliary
train-pipe.
car,
by means of the
kept at a uniform pressure of 70 pounds per square inch, by means of a governor on the pump, in both the trainair is
The
When it is desired to apply the brakes, pipe and reservoirs. the engineer by means of the engineer's valve in the cab
This actuates a valve, reduces the pressure in the train-pipe. The triplecalled the triple-valve, placed under each car.
valve on opening allows air to pass into the brake-cylinder under the cars; it moves a piston, which is connected to the
The brakes
are released
by
COMPRESSED
triple-valve to
AIR.
329
;
emergency stop, the pressure in the train-pipe is reduced suddenly, and the triple-valve opens in such a manner as to allow air from both the train-pipe and the auxiliary reservoir to enter the
brake-cylinder, thus applying the brakes with
full force.
brake-cylinder, thus allowing the air to escape. returns the piston to its original position. For an
spring
Compressed
with as
air is
used for
many
many
different
means of
application, of
which limited
LAWS OF AIR-PRESSURE.
Air-pressures in a compressed-air system are measured by a common pressure-gauge, similar to a steam-gauge. For
is
made
to read
atmospheres
per
square
pressure abo/e a perfect vacuum, or the gauge-pressure plus 14.7 Ibs. Free Air. This is the term commonly used for air at the atmospheric pressure; that is, of the air which enters the intakeThe temperature is usually measured by the Fahrencylinder.
heit
scale.
Absolute temperature
the thermometer
plus
is
the
F.
temperature
as
indicated
by
461
461
Thus
at
the
temperature 90
is
90
-f-
Likewise
for
a temperature of
-(-461
441
The
and temperature of
as
air
may
be given as follows:
the
The volume of air varies inversely pressure when the temperature is constant. 2. The absolute pressure varies directly temperature when the volume is constant.
1.
absolute
as the absolute
330
3.
The volume
is
varies
when
is
the pressure
4.
constant.
The product
of
PV
P'V
T'
in
which P,
V T
respectively.
The
different temperatures.
Temperature.
COMPRESSED
above vacuum, that
is,
AIR.
33 1
TEMPERATURE FAHRENHEIT
FIG. 258.*
the top are volumes from one tenth to one. degrees of temperature to 1000 Fahrenheit.
At
which begin
Air."
332
is
by compres-
is the remaining " Isothermal," the curve when the heat of pressure compression is abstracted as fast as compression takes place. The three curves which begin at the lower right-hand corner and rise to the left are heat curves, and represent the increase of
the
compressed
air;
the
lower
temperature corresponding to different pressures and volumes, assuming in one case that the temperature of the air before
admission to the compressor is zero, in snother 60, and in We see by referring to the adiabatic curve that another 100.
for a
volume of one cubic foot the pressure is I atmosphere. Again for a volume of .5 cubic feet the pressure is nearly
3 atmospheres absolute, or say about 28 Ibs. by the gauge; and likewise the relation of pressure to volume up to I cubic
we compare
line
compression
the compression line from zero with the from 100 it will be noticed that in compressI
atmosphere to 10 atmospheres, the at the start was only 100, has now original difference, become about 200, and for a pressure of 20 atmospheres This shows that it is highly important to supply about 250.
ing the air from, say
which
air to
the compression as cold as possible. The greater the of air the the rise in temperature entering greater temperature Neither the adiabatic or for equal amounts of compression. the isothermal curves represent the exact condition of the air, but where there is a system of cooling the air during compression, the lines
on the indicator-card
may be
is
the curve
in practice.
air
As
sion should be as cool as possible in order to admit of the best economy. For this reason it is not considered best to use air
direct from the engine-room, as
it
is
more
COMPRESSED
AIR.
333
it should be taken from outside. The air should also be free from dust, for which reason the outer end of the conduit-pipe should not be too close to the ground.
air
Volume, and Weight of Air per Minute. The quantity of required for a compressor depends upon the volume of the
FIG. 259.
Knowing
feet,
we have 144
as the volume in cubic feet swept over by the piston at one stroke. Multiplying this by N, the number of strokes per
minute,
we have
as the
volume
144
r
minute
This would represent the total passed over by the piston. volume of air used if there w ere no clearance. But as this is
not generally the case,
we make
provision for
it
by multiply-
ratio, -=
AB =
x,
A AT
per minute.
To
weight of
volume, multiply by
per minute
the weight
page 320.
W =.
LA Nxw
144
* At the temperature of the intake
air.
334
The
mining
ordinary steam-engine indicator may be used in deterthe conditions of pressure, etc., in the compressor
The accompanying cards cylinder as in the steam-engine. a steam-driven from author were taken by the single-stage
and single-acting air-compressor. The card, Fig. 259, was from the steam end and the card,
Fig. 260, from the air-cylinder.
FIG. 260.
the distance
EA
representing
in
becomes greater
as indicated
by
the line
AC, which
When the point C is reached the comthe compression line. pressed air is released (delivered) from the compressor into the receiver; /^represents practically the pressure in the receiver.
At
D the end of
the stroke
is
during which admission is occurring, the pressure being reduced to atmospheric pressure as shown by the line of admission BA. By comparing Figs. 259 and 260 the opposite conditions of pressure in the steam-
manifest.
Horse-power of Air-compressor. To find the horse-power from the indicator-card, the same general method is employed
as for the steam-engine, that
is,
of finding the
mean height
of
COMPRESSED
AIR.
335
the card, either by use of a planimeter or by ordinates, then multiplying by the scale of the indicator-spring, which gives Pe, the
mean
effective pressure.
This
may
FIG. 261.
Air-heater.
formula
PLAN - =
-
H.P.
air
By
H.P
ends the
machine may
The air-card will give somewhat less H.P. be determined. than the steam-card, the difference being due to friction.
336
great deal has been said in the foregoing upon the fact that air when compressed rapidly attains an increase of temperature, for which reason jacketed cylinders and intercoolers are used in connection with the compressor. On the other
hand, when
the case in any motor, there is a corresponding lowering of the temperature. Now, if the highly compressed air reaches the motor cool, as it is likely to do after passing through long lines of piping, and if the air
air is
expanded, as
is
the expansion will cause the exhaust to have such a low temperature that the exhaust-pipe is liable to
contains moisture,
become clogged by
is
ice.
experienced
all
in this
manner.
extract
reaches the
much as possible. This can be done by between the compressor and the motor, two receivers placing one near each. The receiver near the compn^ssor catches the free moisture, and the second one drains all the water which has been condensed in the pipe. Another very practical method is to heat the air close to the point of its admission to the motor. By this means the which is a given number of for required range of temperature
motor, or at least as
expansions is made high enough so that the temperature of the exhaust will be above freezing. Fig. 261 shows a reheater
made by
the
Rand
Drill
Company.
The
air enters
it
at the
top and leaves it at the bottom. The air-chamber has a conical shape which allows for the increase of volume of the air as it is heated. By this means the velocity of the air is not retarded.
horse-power.
so far
In compressed-air systems the motor often is the source of pressure that a great loss of from away sustained is by the air in passing from one to the other pressure
COMPRESSED by
AIR.
337
many
sharp turns
The
difference found
by subtracting
'
the pressure of the air entering- the motor from the air leaving ' the compressor is called the The foldifference of head. Mr. Frank the extra formula, Richards, gives given by lowing
' '
in
which
D= L=
V
H
a
length of pipe in feet =. volume of air delivered in cubic feet per minute; '= head or difference of pressure required to over-
=
' '
come
of pipe.
VALUES OF
........ 934
ij"
33$
acting two-stage compressor making 100 revolutions per minute, the stroke being 24 inches, the diameter of the intake or low-pressure Piston rod 3 air-cylinder 20 inches, and the clearance 2 per cent.
inches.
in cubic feet of the air required for a doubleof the two-stage type making 100 revolutions per acting compressor minute, the stroke being 12 inches, the diameter of the piston being
3.
8 inches,
4.
and from which the card shown in Reproduce the indicator-card shown
Fig. 260
was taken.
in Fig. 259
on tracing-
paper, and
pressor from which it was taken, the stroke being 12 inches, bore of cylinder 8 inches, revolutions 125 per minute, and scale of spring 55. 5. Reproduce, as in the above problem, the indicator-card (Fig.
260) from the air-cylinder (single-acting) of the compressor, the stroke being 12 inches, bore of cylinder 8 inches, scale of spring 60, revoFind the indicated horse-power of the airlutions per minute 125.
cylinder.
6.
Piston rod ij inches. the results found in the above two problems find the H.P. of the steam-cylinder lost in friction. Also the per cent of the in-
From
lost in friction.
Also de-
air furnished by the compressor in problem 2 be led a lo-inch Find the through pipe a distance of 4 miles to a motor. extra pressure in Ibs. per square inch required to overcome the friction.
8.
Let the
air
3,
90.
CHAPTER
XXVII.
HOT-AIR ENGINES.
HOT-AIR
working-fluid.
engines, as the
name
effect
is
The working
heating and cooling of a body of air. The air on one side of a piston is suddenly heated, causing it to expand and drive the piston forward.
has expanded it is cooled and contracted by some external means, after which it is heated and expanded again. Fig. 262 shows a sectional view and Fig. 263 an elevation of
After
it
an Ericson Hot-air Engine. In the sectional view 2 is the power-piston working cylinder marked i, which is open at the top.
in the
3 is another piston of very large volume used to transfer 6 is a the air from above it to below it and vice versa.
The
a water-pump whose piston is operated by the engine. power-piston 2 and the transfer-piston 3 transform their
is
reciprocating motion to rotary motion, the former through the crank-beam 8 and the latter through the bell-crank 12, better
shown
piston-rod of the transfer-piston passes through the hollow piston-rod of the power-piston. The upper end of the cylinder is jacketed so that the water
The
which
is
pumped
all
it,
of the cylinder
is
340
FIG. 262.
Hot-air Engine.
HOT-AIR
conductor of heat so that
the time.
it is
ENGINES.
34i
all
The
FlG. 263.
Hct-air Engine.
air
it
may
pass to
and
fro.
operation is as follows The lower end of the cylinder The engine must be started heated by the gas-burner. it a revolution or two by hand. by giving
The
is first
342
The
air
contained
in
the cylinder
is
first
compressed
in the
cool top part, the pistons approaching each other. This compression causes the cool air to pass by the transfer-piston to the bottom of the cylinder, where it is heated and
immediately expands, driving the power-piston upward the fly-wheel carries the motion to where the expansion by the
;
An
attachment
may
This engine
is
pumps being
its
principal
especially suited to
for the
pumping because of
is
its
comparait
tively
low speed.
due to the
fact that
takes
some time
air.
the body of
heat to impart its expansive effect to same air is used continuously, and is
expanded
with
little
noise.
CAPACITY.
The horse-power
same
is
found by the
PLAN
formula,
-,
the
FIG. 264.
The
AB
CB
is
the line of
HOT-AIR ENGINES.
343
high pressure due to heating of the air in the lower end of the cylinder and made while the power-piston is moving upward it is noticeable that the end at B is lower than the atmospheric
;
line,
air
atmospheric pressure.
BDC
made during
the
downward
stroke of the power-piston, showing the gradual compression Hence CB may be called the expansion-line and of the air.
BDC the
compression-line.
PROBLEMS.
Trace the card shown in Fig. 264, andfmd.the indicated horsepower developed, the revolutions per minute being 47, the bore of the air-cylinder 8 inches, the stroke of the air-piston 4 inches, and the
1.
foot -Ibs. of
that the
4.
What
is
lost in friction, leakage, etc. the efficiency of the machine from the conditions giver.
344
TABLE
I.
345
TABLE
I.
Continued.
346
TABLE
I.
Continued.
347
TABLE
I.
Continued.
139
140.3
858.7
179.2
TABLE
II.
348
TABLES.
11
s.
s?
hr
VO
10
00
ilWJfU
ff\
&
81
vS
vg^
5-
^
I
?>
i
2
Sli
o
5=
JU R
2.
oo
5-
P;
5-
S ro
^1
TT
S o
cS
r>
fj
TABLES.
349
TABLE IV.
VELOCITY OF WATER.
Table giving velocity of water, in feet per second, and the cubic feet of water per minute, to develop one horse-power at 80 per cent duty under beads from i to 108 feet.
Head.
INDEX.
PAGE
266 332
67,
Addendum
,
of teeth
71
Admission, point of
valves for
..
233 226
57
" -chamber
compressed, uses of " -compressors, classification of " -compressor, intercooler for. " temperature of compressed
, ,
"
324, 324,
"
"
"
-receiver
,
324, 326,
in
"
moisture
327,
diagram of
of, for
"
,
proper temperature
compressors
259 319 320 325 325 335 336 335 327 329 331 333 332 335
33 7
of, in pipes
336,
"
-lift
271 121
29
38
170, 180,
Back-pressure
Balancing-pulleys Bed of engine.
206
48 168
173
352
INDEX.
PACK
38
26
classes of
Bed
of engine Bevel-gears
Bilgram gear-cutter
Blow-off pipe
151
Blower
"
Boilers
Boiler, fire-tube
14
,
plant
internally fired
117 120
I2I
externally water-tube
"
117 126
hanging the
battery of accessories
130 128
142 80
"
Bolts
129 167
328 163
133
29 173 29 141 59
2,
7,
Cams
Cam-shaped pulley
" -shaft Cast gears
Carriage-bolt
,
84,
Cap-screw
Centrifugal governor
force in belts
290
56
116,
Chimney
131
132
148
67 69
Circular pitch
Clearance of teeth
INDEX.
PAGE
Clearance
""
engines ........................................ engine-cylinder .............. . .................... I7o? harmful effects of ........................... .......... ratio ........................... .................... I00> from indicator card ........................................ "
,
.
in rotary
243
j^-
IOO
203
jgo 22
Clutch ........................................................... Compound engines ........................................... 154, " tandem and cross ............................. " losses in ...................................... " advantages of ................................ " objections to ................................. " ratio of cylinders ........ ............. 200,203, " " receiver of ................................... engine indicator-cards ................. 201,202,203, 2O 4> Collars for shafting .......................................... 18, Collar-bearing ............................................... 26, Cone-pulleys .............................................. ....... " design of ........................................... Conical pulleys ...................................................
,
,
28
3
1
'
49
52
49 206
"
, ,
"
, ,
207 .............................................. 207, 208 surface .......................................... 207, 209 tubes of surface ..................................... 208
jet
jet and surface compared ............. ................ 210 Condenser plant .................................................. 212
"
,
"
,
213 214
217
siphon .................................................
....................................... Compression, point of ............................ ............ 158, line .................... ............ ........ 191, 333, Compressors ..................................... ............ 271, Coal, classification of. ........................... ................
Compressed
324
137
138 138
Coking system of firing ........................................... 138 Combustion, rate of .............................................. 135 " air for .................................... ..
,
required
157
Connecting rod ...................................... 155, 160, 162, 282 ", diameter of ........................ ............. 162 " ends... ...................................... ...... 163 Concrete foundation for engines ...................... ............ _ 138 Conical linkwork ................................................. 103
,
.
354
INDEX.
TAG*
121 16
21,
22
"
"
,
releasing gear of
,
226 228
177
Corliss engine
Cranes
92
155,
Crank
"
-shaft,
163
161
diameter of
155, 159,
Cross-head
pin,
dimensions
of.
161
162
"
guides
Crowbar
Crank, forged
,
99
163
"
"
"
disk
163 164
"
dynamo
164 166
Crown
48
86,
".
to find
85 88
Cut-off, point of
173, 190,
196 221
221
"
"
,
varying the manner of changing, in Corliss engine " " " Greene " "
effect on, of
"
,
..
Cut gears
Cycle of engine.
Cylinder, names of, in multiple-expansion engines " formula for thickness " -head
,
"
,
manner
of connecting to
bed
146, 155, 156, 224,
valve
Dampers
Dash-pot
244
139 146
71
129,
67,
80
233 67
,
117 82
INDEX.
355
PACK 1 16
Draft
"
,
forced
"
133
132 121
276
23
156, 157, 167, 219
go-ahead
reversing clotted
shifting
setting of
222 222
226, 231
"
,
"
,
" "
"
231 221
156, 167 156, 167
-strap -rod
Eccentricity
Economizer
Efficiency of machines
148, 150
13
.-
"
''
screw
boiler
"
,
75
136
192
192, 193
" "
193
Endless screw
Energy
Energy, two kinds of " conservation of " sources of
,
,
291 135 76 10
1 1
ir
12
154
155,
341
155 162
"
,
double-acting reversing
"
,
"
,
compound
multiple-expansion hoisting
Corliss
196
1
96
" "
44
93 226
Greene, valve-gear of
rotary
**
,
44
,
44
,
" "
44
abutment and piston of rotary, packing for " manner of expanding steam in
,
first
Brancas'
gas gasoline
oil
41
,
44
,
44
,
292 294
356
INDEX.
PACK
31
It
3^
254
! x
Epicycloid teeth
68,
72
Equation for
" "
"
flat
of threads
78
72
speed of gears
cam
differential windlass
89
94
95
101,
pulley
104
50
Exhaust port " steam " port and pipe, dimensions Expansion in compound engines of tubes in surface condenser " steam in turbine and contraction of tubes
Expansions, number of
Expansion, curve
'
158, 167
159 168
200
214
247, 248, 250
120 200
190, 191, 205, 287, 343
theoretical, construction of
190
133
21
124,
1
circulating
147,
148,
Female threads
Fellows gear-shaper Firing
Fire-line
79 68
138 128
129
Flame-bed
"
-igniter
291
2
Flexible connectors
Fly-wheel
*'
342
gas-engine .air-compressor
,
Follower
284 325 85
86 86 86
"
Formula
"
44
.flat-footed...
.swinging
path for ropes " pitch of gears " H. P. of
"
63 67
73
gear-teeth
**
heating-surface
120
INDEX.
357
FAGK
Formula
" " "
for
dimensions of chimneys
heat required in furnace
"
32
"
"
Friction
" safety-valve " area of cross-head slides " diameter of crank-pin " " " " length " diameter of crank-shaft " " fly-wheel " of parts engines, note on
34,
!^6 I44
i6 2
yi
335
23
clutch
,
sliding
and rolling
"
" "
gearing wheels, made of " grooves in " connecting intersecting axes " .graphics
,
29 41
41 41
43,
43 44
85
170
in
cams
336 334
135, 137,
Furnace
Gas, air required for combustion of " compression of, in engine " pressures and temperatures of exploding " coal, table of " and air mixture for maximum pressure. . ., " -engines, classification " four-cycle " two" Otto "
,
,
,
281,
281,283
"
"
" "
Day
H.P. of
losses in
working
fluid
"
,
valves for
"
spraying of
Gauge pressure
"
,
water
"
,
vacuum.
215
358
INDEX.
PAGB
Gauge cocks
'
143
70
170, 179,
Gears, representing
Governors
" "
for high-speed engines
"
"
gas-engines
gasoline-engines
Grate-surface
"
"
-bar
,
hollow
in
Graphite
40
bearings
for ropes
Grooves
"
Guides
Guide-plates in turbine
32 64 162
248
29 20
Hanger-bearing
Heating-surface
Heat, definitions
,
117,
112
112
"
,
unit of
"
,
"
,
192 112
198 287
297
312, 314
Head
"
,
loss of
"
,
297
. . .
Header
Heine boiler
High-speed engines H.P. of belts " " gear-teeth " " engine from indicator-card " " " formula for " " gas-engines " " streams
,
121, 124
125
173
56
73
"
"
,
operation of
.H.P.of
Hydraulic
pump
291
286
290
.
181
INDEX.
359
PAGE
181, 183, 187, 286 18 1 183 181, 183
Indicator-spring
-pencil
-drum
"
both ends of the cylinder -card, length of " taking " data for " average height -cards from compound engine " " .combining " defective
-rig for
,
183
!8ij
,86
j86
187 201
.'
" "
"
202
191
-card
"
217
"
" "
Intercooler
Injector
,
irregularity
,-
286 286
.325, 333,334, 335
"
steam-pump
34 1 277
324, 325
139, 144, 146, 217
monitor
of
147
"
148 88
63, 72
Involute teeth
75 287
and oil-engines
2 9^
59
26, 3
1
Journal bearing
iQ 8
55
56, 59
81
50
218, 220
Lap
" "
"
,
,
of valve
effect of,
"
cut-off
compression
220 220
280, 281
Law
of Charles
92
54
57
217, 219
3, 90,
Lead
Lever, the
289
4 IO
" "
weight of
modifications of
3 6o
INDEX.
PAGE 16
98, 222, 226
,
Line-shaft
Linkwork
"
advantages of
,.
"
98
103 221
224
,
59
48
121
Loose pulley Loss of head, formula " heat from furnace "
Lubricator, engine
314
136 254
,
"
,
sight-feed
qualities of a
Lubricant "
,
255 34
39
40
2
good
Machine
"
,
law of
4
19
So
i
40
1
Marine connecting-rod
Marriotte's
63 6
Law
port -opening
158
1
Main-line shaft
Maximum
234
2*
,
187
225 274
40
311
327
297, 298
Mud-drum
Multiple-expansion engine
Non-circular wheels
124, 151
153, 171
101
7
Nut
Oil, as lubricant
"
, ' '
39
to bearings
methods of applying
31
mixtures
effects of, in
40
139
feed-water
256
INDEX.
361
PACK
Oil,
" "
" "
"
-engines
"
"
,
compression
fuel for
in
,
"
,
Orifices, flow of
Path of points in linkwork Pantograph Packing for rotary engines Pelton water-wheel Petroleum
as fuel in oil-engines
Piston "
,
built
"
,
up
in
" "
"
grooves
-rings of indicator
,
155-159
181
air
-valve
,
-rod
"
,
116
141
" "
turbine
.-
306 288
144
282,
Port, steam
"
"
155 286
282
234
12
" "
unit of
14
3i5t 3 J 6
of streams,
280
326, 334
33
186
measure of
114,
H3>
280,
2 73
.absolute
329
114
"
,
diagram of
362
INDEX.
PAGE
Propeller shaft
205 16
Prony brake
Pulley " fixed " movable
, ,
24
7,
93
8
8,
<
94
9 8
Pulleys, combinations of " relation of applied force to weight 44 for the transmission of power
,
"
, ,
47 47
51
"
,
manner
of fastening to shaft
Pumps
" "
,
feed- water
44
,
reciprocating suction
force
air
"
,
44
"
44
47 257 257 257 257, 258 , .. -258, 259, 339 .....207,210, 214 210
.
.
independent
air
214 214
217
"
,
44
,
41
,
air-chamber of force
f
41
44
for jacket-water
,
deep-well hydraulic
44
,
44
,
4 *
.high-service
,
4<
4<
,
Quarter-twist of belt
58
71,
71,
90 303 84
2
"
Receiver
engine
175
284, 289
327
181, 183, 184,
185 191
158,
INDEX.
363
PAG a
Reversing-engine.
Rock-drill
162
Roller bearing
Rope driving
*'
,
"
,
61
63
244
57
61
Rotary engines
Rubber belting
Rule for H.P. of belts
Scale, boiler
256 126
7, 75,
78
"
-cutting machines
80
60
121
126, 128, 131
battered walls of
"
of turbine
Set-screw
Separator, steam
.oil
Shear
Shafting " materials " strains on
,
16 17 18
"
,
"
,
19
20
31
Sight-feed oiler
198
154
199
143
68, 103
Skew-wheels
Sliding contact of Slip of belts
cams
85
51
47
16
Spindle
Sprocket-wheel
Spiral of
54
87
Archimedes
firing
T
68
38
131
2 94
364
INDEX.
FACE
of, in cylinder
49 198
114
193 200, 202, 206
114
'
"
,
"
,
"
,
reheating of exhaust
"
,
manner
waste
of cooling in condensers.
"
, ' ,
of, in
rotary engines
of, in rotary
of,
consumption
condensation
saturated
engines
"
,
"
,
in pipes
"
" "
*'
-space
,
117 115
155, 167, 241
'
superheated
-chest
-ports table
167
"
'
"
example of use of
344 116
321
92, 142
^
"
139
315
170,
1
"
"
"
79
events of
Strut, the
moving
,
234 91
54, 167, 282
Stuffing-box
"
for valve-rod
167
72
System
of gears
36 68
78
344
347
"
II
" "
HI
IV
,
348 349
197
Tandem engine
Taps
Tappets, in valve-gear Tension in belt. Tensile strength of ropes
Temperature, absolute " , range of, in cylinder
of exploding gas
So
229
55 62
113, 280, 329
199, 336 280, 286
112
66
91
INDEX.
365
PAGE
72,
93
I20
Tube-expanders ........ ............................................ Turbine, steam ................................................... " hi gh speed of ......................... 245, 247, 248, 249, " efficiency of .......................................... " advantages of ................... .................. 245, " De Laval ............................................ , " , Parsons ............................................. " Curtis ...............................................
t
I2 ^
244
252 245
353 247 248
250
252
Turbines, water .............................. ...................... 205 " " mixed flow ........................................ 300 44 runner of ................................................ 303
.
44
,
"
,
"
,
of applying water ................................ 302 H.P. of .................................................. 306 speed of ................................ ................. 307 regulation ............................................... 307
manner
Vacuum
"
"
191
condenser.
...
...........................................
214
216
51
"
between
Valves, classes of .................................................. Valve, safety ....................................................... " back-pressure ............................................. " .piston ..................................................... " taking steam internally .................................... " Giddings ................................................ .... " exhaust, for gas-engines ................................ 282, " ................................................. 288,
'
'
105
143 108
227
227
227 284
poppet
324 288
292 228
"4
229
"
14
"
,
"
steam-lap of ................................................ 218 .................................................... 219 lead of 220 pressure-plate ............... ............................... -seat ............... ............. ........................... 220 -rod .......................................................... 221 -rods for Buckeye engine ....... ............................. 226
,
"
44
223 224
366
INDEX.
PAGE
'.
225 225
237
"
,
Meyer
direct.
"
,
indirect
"
,
44 44
"
14
.Corliss
,
220
175
175
"
,
50 88
295
" "
ratio of gear-wheels of steam per hour per
314
315,349
Volume
H.P
117,
45 188
142 12
Water-space
Waterfall,
"
,
power transmitted
effect of
;,
Water, wearing
flow of
" "
-power
impulse air-compressor -motors -wheels
of leather
,
"
44
Weight
"
"
143
188,
Weir
Wedge, the
Wheels, driver and driven Wheel and axle
190 316 6
45 10
92
79
93 59
13
Wire lacing
Work
Working
strain
on belts
58
Wooden
68
82
13?
180, 226,
228
Zeuner valve diagrams " 44 diagram, geometric properties of " " " example of application
,
232-
234
236-
PUBLICATIONS
OF
LIMITED
Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk (*) are All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated.
AGRICULTURE HORTICULTURE
v
Armsby's Principles of Animal Nutrition Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual: Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement Part II. Systematic Pomology Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage
FORESTRY.
8vo, $4 00
Practical Farm Drainage. (Second Edition, Rewritten) Graves's Forest Mensuration Green's Principles of American Forestry
Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. * Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol
50 50 50 50
(Woll.)
12mo, 12mo,
8vo,
00 50
2 00
4 00
Landscape Gardening.
(New
Edition, Rewritten.
In
1 1 1
Preparation).
McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making 8vo, 12mo, Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops 12mo, Sanderson and Headlee's Insects Injurious to Garden Crops. (In Preparation).
* Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forests Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods
50 50 50
12mo,
8vo, 8vo,
25
2 50 7 50
1
Woll's
Handbook
for
16mo,
50
ARCHITECTURE.
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads Birkmire's Architectural Iron and Steel Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings Planning and Construction of American Theatres Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings Skeleton Construction in Buildings
1
12mo.
4to,
2 5 3 2 3 3 3
50 00 50 00 00 50 00
Briggs's Modern American School Buildings 8vo, $4 Byrne's Inspection of Materials and Wormanship Employed in Construction. 16mo, 3 Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo, 4 * Corthell's Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations 12mo, 1 Freitag's Architectural Engineering 8vo, 3 Fireproofing of Steel Buildings 8vo, 2 Gerhard'r Guide to Sanitary Inspections. (Fourth Edition, Entirely Revised and Enlarged) 12mo, 1 * Modern Baths and Bath Houses 3 8vo, Sanitation of Public Buildings 12mo, 1 Theatre Fires and Panics 12moi 1 Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 2 8vo, Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home Grounds 2 8vo, Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-book 16mo, mor., 5 Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 5 8vo, Monckton's Stair-building 4 4to, Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 5 8vo, 7 Peabody's Naval Architecture. 8vo, Rice's Concrete-block Manufacture 8vo, 2 Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor. 4 Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16mo, mor. 5 * Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Series: * Carpenters' and Woodworkers' Edition 16mo, mor. * Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition 16mo, mor. * Plumbers', Steam-Fitters', and Tinners' Edition. 16mo, mor. * Stone- and Brick-masons' Edition 16mo, mor. Sabin's House Painting 12mo, Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo,
.
00
00 00 25 50 50 50 00 50 50 00 00 00 00 00 00 50 00 00 00
'.
Snow's Principal Species of Wood Towrie's Locks and Builders' Hardware Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence
8vo,
18mo, mor.
8vo, .Sheep, 8vo, Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi5 00 8vo, 5 50 Sheep,
'.
3 3 6 6 3
50 00 00 50 00
Wilson's Air Conditioning 12mo, 1 50 Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance, Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small Hospital.
12mo,
25
ARMY AND
Molecule Chase's Art of Pattern Making
NAVY.
Bernadou's Smokeless Powder, Nitro-cellulose, and the Theory of the Cellulose 12mo, 2 50 12mo, 2 50 Screw Propellers and Marine Propulsion 3 00 8vo, * Cloke's Enlisted Specialists' Examiner 2 00 8vo, Gunner's Examiner 1 50 8vo, 3 50 Craig's Azimuth 4to, Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 3 00 8vo, * Davis's Elements of Law 2 50 8vo, * Treatise on the Military Law of United States 7 00 8vo, DeBrack's Cavalry Outpost Duties. (Carr.) 24mo, mor. 2 00 * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial. .Large 12mo, 2 50 Durand's Resistance and Propulsion of Ships 5 00 8vo, * Dyer's Handbook of Light Artillery 12mo, 3 00 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 00 * Large 12mo, 2 00 Fiebeger's Text-book on Field Fortification Hamilton and Bond's The Gunner's Catechism 18mo, 1 00 * Hoff s Elementary Naval Tactics 1 50 8vo, 8vo, 4 00 Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire * Lissak's Ordnance and Gunnery 6 00 8vo,
.
'
* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.) Manual for Courts- martial * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places * Elements of the Art of War
,
I.
and
16mo,mor. 12mo,
8vo,
50
2 00 4 00
1
Nixon's Adjutants' Manual 24mo, Peabody's Naval Architecture 8vo, * Phelps's Practical Marine Surveying 8vo, Putnam's Nautical Charts 8vo, Rust's Ex-meridian Altitude. Azimuth and Star- Finding Tables 8vo, Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War 18mo, mor. * Tupes and Poole's Manual of Bayonet Exercises and Musketry Fencing.
00
750
2 50 2 00 5 00
1
50
24mo,
* Weaver's Military Explosives Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene
leather,
8vo,
16mo,
50 3 00 1 50
ASSAYING.
Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis 8vo, Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
4 00
1
16mo, mor. Pardoe's Manual of Practical Assaying. (Sixth Edition. Reand Enlarged) 8vo, Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.. 8vo, Low's Technical Methods of Ore Analysis 8vo, Miller's Cyanide Process 12mo,
50
Furman and
vised
3 00 3 00 3 03
1
1
of Assaying Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores
Manual
12mo,
(Waldo.). ..12mo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo,
Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining Wilson's Chlorination Process Cyanide Processes
2 2 3
4 3
1 1
12mo, 12mo,
00 00 50 00 00 00 00 50 50
ASTRONOMY.
Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers
Craig's Azimuth Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares Doolittle's Treatise on Pracical Astronomy Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy
8vo,
4to,
2 3 3 4 3
1
Hosmer's Azimuth 16mo, mor. Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, * Michie and Harlow's Practical Astronomy 8vo, Rust's Ex-meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star-Finding Tables 8vo, * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy 12mo,
2 3 5 2
50 50 00 00 00 00 50 00 00 00
CHEMISTRY.
* Abderhalden's Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures.
(Hall
and
5 00 1 25 3 00 3 00 4 00 3 50
3 00 3 00
Defren) 8vo, * Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende.) 12mo, (Matthews.) 8vo, Alexeyeffs General Principles of Organic Syntheses. Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 8vo, Armsby's Principles of Animal Nutrition Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.) Large 12mo, Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford 1906 8vo, Meeting, 8vo, Jamestown Meeting, 1907
Austen's Notes for Chemical Students 12mo, $1 50 Baskerville's Chemical Elements. (In Preparation). Bernadou's Smokeless Powder. Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose Molecule 12mo, 2 50 Biltz's Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry. (Hall and Phelan). (In Press). of Methods and Laboratory Inorganic Chemistry. (Hall Blanchard).
,
8vo,
3 00
1
1
* Blanchard's Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements * Claassen's Beet-sugar Manufacture. (Hall and Rolfe.) Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers Tests and Reagents * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) Dannerth's Methods of Textile Chemistry Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.)
12mo,
8vo, 8vo, (Boltwood.).Svo,
00
50
12mo,
8vo,
3 3 2 3
1
00 00 00
00 25
12mo, 12mo,
8vo, 8vo, 8vo,
(Dunlap.)
12mo,
* Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation Large 12mo, Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe.
00 00 00 00 1 25 2 00
2 4 3 4
12mo, mor. 1 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12mo, 2 Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 5 8vo, (Wells.) Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells.)Svo, 3 2 vols. (Cohn.) 8vo, 12 Quantitative Chemical Analysis. When Sold Separately, Vol. I, $6. Vol. II, $8. Fuertes's Water and Public Health. .". 12mo, 1 and Pardoe's Manual of Practical Assaying. Furman (Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged.) 3 8vo, * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry 12mo, 2 Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers 12mo, 1 * Gooch and Browning's Outlines of Qualitative Chemical Analysis.
.
50 00 00 00 50 50
00 00 25
25
Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Win ton.)
* Haskins and Macleod's Organic Chemistry 12mo, Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) 16mo, mor. * Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol 8vo, Hinds's Inorganic Chemistry 8vo, * Laboratory Manual for Students 12mo, * Holleman's Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry for Beginners. 12mo, (Walker.) Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) 8vo, Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.) 8vo, * Holley's Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments, and Varnishes.
2 00 1 25 4 00 5 00 2 00 2 50
4 00 3 00 1 00
1
00
2 50 2 50 3 00 2 50 3 00
1
Large 12mo, 8vo, Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook in Work for Laboratory Physiological Chemistry. .8vo, Jackson's Directions Johnson's Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, SteelLarge 12mo, making Alloys and Graphite Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, * in of Aluminum and Austen's Occurrence Vegetable ProdLangworthy 8vo, ucts, Animal Products, and Natural Waters Lassar-Cohn's Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in 12mo, (Tingle.) Organic Chemistry. Leach's Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control 8vo, Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) 8vo, and Lodge's Notes on Assaying Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments.. 8vo, Low's Technical Method of Ore Analysis 8vo, 12mo, Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) * McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-making 8vo, Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo,
25
3 00 3 00 2 00
1
00
50
00 00 00 1 00 1 50 2 00
7 3 3 3
Mandel's Handbook tor Bio-chemical Laboratory 12mo, $1 Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe 12mo, Mason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) 12mo, 1 a from (Considered Principally Sanitary Standpoint.) Water-supply. 8vo, 4 * Mathewson's First Principles of Chemical Theory 1 8vo, Matthews's Laboratory Manual of Dyeing and Textile Chemistry 8vo, 3 2d Edition, Rewritten Textile Fibres. 4 8vo, * Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.) Third Edition 12mo, 1 Miller's Cyanide Process 12mo, 1 Manual of Assaying 12mo, 1 Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. 2 (Waldo.). ..12mo, Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry 12mo, 1 12mo. 3 Morgan's Elements of Physical Chemistry Outline of the Theory of Solutions and its Results 12mo, 1 * Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers 12mo, 1 Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories 16mo, mor. 1 * Muir's History of Chemical Theories and Laws 8vo, 4 Mulliken's General Method foe the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds. Vol. I. Compounds of Carbon with Hydrogen and Oxygen. Large 8vo, 5 Vol. II. Nitrogenous Compounds. (In Preparation).
* Martin's Laboratory
50
60
25
00 00 50 00
25 00 00 50 50 00 00 50 50 00
00
The Commercial Dyestuffs. (In Press). Vol. III. O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores
Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry.
8vo, 2 00 Part One. (Ramsey.) 12mo, 1 50 Part Two. (Turnbull.) 12mo, 200 Owen and Standage's Dyeing and Cleaning of Textile Fabrics 12mo, 2 00 * Palmer's Practical Test Book of Chemistry 12mo, 1 00 * Pauli's Physical Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. (Fischer.) 12mo, 1 25 Penfield's Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of Domestic Production 1 00 8vo, Pictet's Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.) 8vo, 5 00 Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 00 Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis 12mo, 1 50 * Reisig's Guide to Piece-Dyeing 8vo, 25 00 Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand8vo. 2 00 point Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 00 Rideal's Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 4 00 Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 4 00 1 25 Rigg's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory 8vo, Robine and Lenglen's Cyanide Industry. (Le Clerc.) 8vo, 4 00 Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo, 2 00
.
Whys
in
Pharmacy
12mo,
00
Ruer's Elements of Metallography. (Mathewson). (In Press.) Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) 8vo, 's Essentials of Volumetric Schimpf Analysis 12mo, Manual of Volumetric Analysis. (Fifth Edition, Rewritten) 8vo, * Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students 8vo, Handbook for Cane Manufacturers mor. Sugar 16mo, Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses 16mo, mor. Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, Stone's Practical Testing of Gas and Gas Meters 8vo, * Tillman's Descriptive General Chemistry 8vo, * Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.) 8vo, (Hall.) 8vo, Quantitative Analysis. Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.) 12mo, Venable's Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, Ward and Whipple's Freshwater Biology. (In Press.) Ware's Beet-sugar Manufacture and Refining. Vol. 1 8vo, Vol. II 8vo,
3 00 2 50 1 25 5 00
25 50 00 00 50 50 00 1 50 3 00 4 00 5 00 1 50
1
2 3 3 2 3 3
3 00
4 00
500
Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks gvo, ' $2 00 * Weaver's Military Explosives g vo 3 QQ Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis 1 50 gvo! Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering
Students Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water
Wilson's Chlorination Process Cyanide Processes Winton's Microscopy of Vegetables Food Zsigmondy's Colloids and the Ultramicroscope.
.'
2m o,
gvo,
1 1
50-
12mo,
12mo, I2mo!
gvo,
(Alexander)... Large 12mo.
25
3 50
50 1 50 7 50 3 00
1
CIVIL ENGINEERING.
HYDRAULICS.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEER-
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
3 00
Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments 12mo, Bixby's Graphical Computing Table. Paper 19i X 24J inches. Breed and Hosmer's Principles and Practice of Surveying. Vol. I. Elementary Surveying gvo, Vol. II. Higher Surveying , gvo, * Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal gvo, Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers gvo, * Corthell's Allowable Pressure on Deep Foundations 12mo, Crandall's Text-book on Geodesy and Least Squares gvo, Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables .gvo, Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage 12mo, Practical Farm Drainage. (Second Edition Rewritten.) 12mo, * Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering I .... gvo, Plemer's Photographic Methods and Instruments gvo, Folwell's Sewerage. and (Designing Maintenance.) gvo,
.
25
3 2 3 2
1
3
1
1
gvo,
5 5 3 3
1 1
12mo,
.
.
Rice's Tables of Quantities for Preliminary Estimates. 12mo, Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy gvo, 16mo, mor. Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)
for
Hauch and
3 2
1 1
Earth
* Ives's Adjustments of the Engineer's Transit and Level lOmo, bds. Large 12mo, Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods gvo, (In Preparation). Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt's Purification of Sewage. * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry gvo, Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy gvo, Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors. 16mo, mor. Plane gvo, Surveying Nugent's gvo, Ogden's Sewer Construction
4 2
1
00 50 50 50 25 00 00 50 50 00 00 00 50 50 25 00 50 00 25 25 00 00
50 50 00 50 00 00 00 53 00 00 00 50 50 50 00 00 00 00
Sewer Design
Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering
.
12mo,
gvo, .gvo, half leather, Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, the Bacterial Purification of Sewage Rideal's Sewage gvo, and Conditions. Difficult under Riemer's Shaft-sinking (Corning Peele.).gvo, Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry gvo, Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. gvo, (McMillan.) 12mo, Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways * Exercises in Surveying 12mo, mor.
ad
2 2 3 3 2 2 7 5 4 3
1
2 2
1
Tracy's Tracy's Plane Surveying * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book Venable's Garbage Crematories in America Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage
3 5 2 3
00
8vo, $6 00 Sheep, 6 50 3 00 ..8vo, Law of Contracts Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and 5 00 8vo, Architecture Sheep, 5 50 2 50 in 8vo, Problems Stone-cutting Warren's Stereotomy * Waterbury's Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 1 00 inches, mor. Webb's Problem's in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 16mo, mor. 1 25 8vo, 3 50 Wilson's Topographic Surveying
.
2X5f
Highway
Bridges.. 8vo,
Oblong paper,
8vo, 8vo,
Burr and Falk's Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations
Small 4to, Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, Fowler's Ordinary Fopndations 8vo, Greene's Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 8vo, 2 Bridge Trusses 1 Roof Trusses 8vo, Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 Heller's Stresses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations.. .8vo, 3 8vo. 2 Howe's Design of Simple Roof- trusses in Wood and Steel 2 8vo, Symmetrical Masonry Arches 4 Treatise on Arches 8vo, Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of Small 4to, 10 00 Modern Framed Structures Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: Stresses in Simple Trusses Part I. 8vo, 2 50 Part II. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 2 50 Part III. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, Morison's Memphis Bridge. Oblong 4to, 10 00 Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and 2 00 Arches 8vo, , 16mo, mor. 2 00 Waddell's De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers * 50 12mo, Specifications for Steel Bridges Waddell and Harringtoon's Bridge Engineering. (In Preparation.) one volume Two in 3 50 of 8vo, parts Draw-spans. Wright's Designing
. '
.
2 5 5 3 10 5 3 2
00
00 00 00 00 00 50 50 50 25 50 00 00 50 00
HYDRAULICS.
Barnes's Ice Formation Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing an Orifice. (Trautwine.) Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels.
8vo,
3 00
from
8vo, 8vo,
2 00 5 00 50 00 50 00 00 00 1 50 2 50
1
Oblong
Hydraulic Motors Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Folwell's Water-supply Engineering
4to, paper,
8vo,
Power
2 2 3 4 5
12mo,
Water-filtration Works 12mo, Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) 8vo,
4 00
How to Get It Filtration of Public Water-supplies Hazelhurst's Towers and Tanks for Water- works
Hazen's Clean Water and
i
Large 12mo, $1 50 8vo, 3 00 8vo, 2 50 Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 2 00 Conduits 8vo, 2 00 8vo, Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and Maintenance. 8vo, 4 00 * Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. 3 00 8vo. Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand8vo, 4 00 point.) 5 00 8vo, Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics * Molitor's Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices 8vo, 2 00 * Richards's Laboratory Notes on Industrial Water Analysis 50 8vo, Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Waterand 6 Revised 00 Second Enlarged Large 8vo, Edition, supply. * Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 6 00 4to, Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00 6 00 4to, Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 5th Ed., enlarged from York 1658 to of New 1895 the of 4to, 10 00 City Water-Supply Large 12mo, 1 00 Whipple's Value of Pure Water 1 50 Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables 8vo, Wilson's Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00 2 50 Wood's Turbines 8vo,
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Baker's Roads and Pavements 8vo, Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, Blanchard's Bituminous Roads. (In Press.) (In Preparation. V Bleininger's Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. * Bovey 's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 8vo, Byrne's Highway Construction the Materials and in of Workmanship Employed Construction. Inspection
5 00 5 00 5 00
7 50 7 50 5 00
16mo,
Church's Mechanics of Engineering Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics
Vol. II.
8vo,
3 00 6 00
7 50
Small 4to,
The
* Eckel's Cements, Limes, and Plasters Stone and Clay Products used in Engineering. (In Preparation.) Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, * Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, * Holley's Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo, Holley and Ladd's Analysis of Mixed Paints, Color Pigments and Varnishes. Large 12mo, Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, and Graphite Steel-making Alloys Large 12mo, Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Large 8vo, Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols 8vo, Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, * Strength of Materials 12mo, Metcalf 's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, Morrison's Highway Engineering 8vo, Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations. .. 8vo, Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture 8vo,
Theory
Stresses in of Flexures
Framed
and
00 00 50 50 00
750
4 00 5 00 5 00 1 00 2 00 2 50 5 00 2 00
Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements 8vo, $3 00 5 00 Richey's Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16mo,mor. * Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition Mechanics' Ready (Building Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 1 50 Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 4 00 16mo, mor. * Stone and Brick Masons' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 1 50 * Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses 5 00 8vo, * Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working Industry of the United 8vo. 2 50 States Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, 3 00 Smith's Strength of Material 12mo, Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50 12mo, 2 00 Spalding's Hydraulic Cement Text-book on Roads and Pavements 12mo. 2 00 5 00 8vo, Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 00 2 00 Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo, Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 2 50 Constituents 8vo, Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 4 00 Turneaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged 8vo, 3 50
12mo, Waterbury's Cement Laboratory Manual Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on
the Preservation of Timber 8vo, Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel 8vo,
00
2 00 4 00
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables Transition Curve * Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad. (1879)
Fisher's Table of Cubic
3X5
25
16mo, mor.
8vo,
Papei Cardboard, Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. .16mo, mor. Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-
Yards
5 00 1 50 2 50 1 50 1 50 : 50 5 00 25 2 50
1 1 1
bankments
Ives and Hilts's Problems in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy
8vo,
00 50 00
16mo, mor.
Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers 16mo, 16mo, mor. Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers * Orrock's Railroad Structures and Estimates 8vo, Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, mor. volumes. Raymond's Railroad Engineering. 3 Vol. I. Railroad Field Geometry. (In Preparation.) Vol. II. Elements of Railroad Engineering 8vo, Vol. III. Railroad Engineer's Field Book. (In Preparation.) mor. Field Searles's 16mo, Engineering Railroad Spiral 16mo, mor. 8vo, Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork * Trautwine's Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. mor. 12mo, * Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, Webb's Economics of Railroad Construction Large 12mo, Railroad Construction 16mo, mor. Large 12mo. Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Wilson's Elements of Railroad-Track and Construction 12mo,
3 00 3 00 3 00
3 50 3 00
1
50 50
2 50
2 2 5 5
00 50 00 00
2 00
DRAWING.
8vo, $2 50 3 00 8vo, 150 Abridged Ed 8vo, 1 00 8vo, paper, Coolidge's Manual of Drawing of General and Freeman's Elements for Mechanical Drafting Coolidge Engineers Oblong 4to, 2 50 8vo, 4 00 Durley's Kinematics of Machines Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 2 50 8vo, French and I ves' Stereotomy 2 50 8vo, Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 00 8vo, 2 00 Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing Elements of Mechanical Drawing 2 50 8vo, Machine Design: Jones's Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 1 50 8vo, Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 3 00 8vo, Kimball and Barr's Machine Design. (In Press.) MacCord's Elements of Descritpive Geometry 3 00 8vo, Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 00 Barr's Kinematics of Machinery * Bartltt's Mechanical Drawing " *
Mechanical Drawing 4to, Velocity Diagrams 8vo, McLeod's Descriptive Geometry Large 12mo, * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, Meyer's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, Mechanical and Machine Text-book of Drawing Elementary Design.. 8vo, Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design 8vo, Manual of Smith's (R. S.) Topographical Drawing. (McMillan) 8vo, * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, Warren's Drafting Instruments and Operations 12mo, Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. 12mo, General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Forms and Shadow 12mo, Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing 12mo, Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry 12mo, Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and
'
.
4 00 1 50 1 50 1 50 3 50 2 00 5 00 2 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 2 50 1 25 1 25
3 50 7 50
1
00
3 00
1 1 1
00 50 25
2 50 5 00 3 50
1
1
Klein.)
Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying * Wilson's (V. T.) Descriptive Geometry Free-hand Lettering Free-hand Perspective Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry
50 00
2 50 3 00
25 25
3 00
1
00
Voltaic Cell
8vo,
3 00 3 00
10
Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. * Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony
8vo, $4 OO (Boltwood.).Svo, 3 00
12mo,
* Mor.
SO
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph * Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery),
8vo,
2 00 3 00
1
25
5 00 2 50 4 00 3 00 2 5O
1
Flather's
Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power
12mo, 12mo,
8vo,
Bering's
*
00
2 50
Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery 6 8vo, Holman's Precision of Measurements 2 8vo, and Tests.. Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, Telescopic .Large 8vo, * 8vo, 6 Karapetoff "s Experimental Electrical Engineering Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines 8vo, 2 Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess.) 12mo, 3 Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz) 8vo, 3 * Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. .8vo, 3 * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols, I .and II. 8vo, each, 6 * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, 4 Morgan's Outline of the Theory of Solution and its Results 12mo, 1 * Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers 12mo, 1 * Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering 2 8vo, Norris and Denmson's Course of Problems on the Electrical Characteristics of Circuits and Machines. (In Press.) * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine 4to, half mor, 12 Design Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. Large 12mo, 3 * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee Kinzbmnner.). .8vo, 2 2 8vo, Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 1 12mo, Schapper's Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 1 8vo, Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physis Large 12mo, 2 Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3
.
00 00 75 00 OO 00 00 00 OO 00 OO 00 50 50
50
50 00 50 00
50 00 00
LAW.
* Brennan's
Hand-book
16mo, mor.
* Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, * Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, * Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial. Large 12mo, Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, mor. Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo,
.
5 00 2 50 7 00 2 50
1
50
6 00 6 50 3 09
5 00 5 50
Skeep,
MATHEMATICS.
Baker's Elliptic Functions (Bocher) Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. * Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry
:
8vo,
12mo,
8vo,
50 00 00
11
Byerley's Harmonic Functions Chandler's Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus * Coffin's Vector Analysis Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations * Dickson's College Algebra Large * Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application Fiske's Functions of a Complex Variable Halsted's Elementary Synthetic Geometry
8vo, $1 00
2 00 2 50 1 50 1 50 1 25 2 50
1
1 1
Elements of Geometry
* Rational
Geometry
size,
12mo,
8vo, paper,
1 1
Hyde's Grassmann's Space Analysis * Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket
*
00 50 75 50 00
100 copies,
Mounted on heavy cardboard,. 8 X 10 inches, 10 copies, Johnson's (W. W.) Abridged Editions of Differential and Integral Calculus.
15 5 00 25 2 00
Large 12mo, 1 vol. 2 50 Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates 12mo, 1 00 Differential Equations 1 00 8vo, Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus Large 12mo, 1 50 Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo, 1 50 * Theoretical Mechanics 12mo, 3 00 Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares 12mo, 1 50 Treatise on Differential Calculus Large 12mo, 3 00 Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo, 3 00 Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. .Large 12mo, 3 50 Karapetoff's Engineering Applications of Higher Mathematics.
.
(In Preparation.) Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) 12mo, * Ludlow and Bass's Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other Tables 8vo, * Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables , 8vo, Macfarlane's Vector Analysis and Quaternions 8vo, McMahon's Hyperbolic Functions 8vo, Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and
.
2 00
3 00 2 00
1 1
1
00 00 00
Mathematical Monographs.
S.
12mo, Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert Octavo, each No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. HyperNo. 5. Harmonic Funcbolic Functions, by James McMahon. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, tions, by William E. Byerly. Edward W. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors, by Hyde. by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions, by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations, by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable,
Series
25
00
Woodward
by Thomas
S. Fiske.
Maurer's Technical Mechanics Merriman's Method of Least Squares Solution of Equations Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus.
4 00 2 00 1 00
1
vols. in one.
Large 12mo, Large 12mo, Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus Smith's History of Modern Mathematics 8vo, * Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One Variable 8vo, * Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 2JX5J inches, mor. Weld's Determinants 8vo, Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, of Errors Woodward's Probability and Theory 8vo,
50
3 00
1
00
2 00
00 00 2 00 1 00
1
1
12
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Bacon's Forge Practice Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings Barr's Kinematics of Machinery * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing " " *
* Burr's Ancient
Abridged Ed and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal Experimental Engineering Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating Buildings
150
3 50 6 00 4 00
1 1
Gas and Oil Engine. (New edition in press.) Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe Coolidge's Manual of Drawing Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of Geenral Drafting
Clerk's
12mo, 12mo,
8vo, paper,
for Mechanical
50 50 00
gineers
Cromwell's Treatise on Belts and Pulleys Treatise on Toothed Gearing Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making Durley's Kinematics of Machines Flanders's Gear-cutting Machinery
Flather's
Gill's
2 50
1 1
the Measurement of
Power
2 4 3 3 2
1
for Engineers
12mo,
8vo,
2 2 6 5 2 2
50 50 00 00 00 00 00 25 00
Greene's Pumping Machinery. (In Preparation.) Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) * Hobart and Ellis's High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery
16mo, mor.
8vo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo,
8vo, Kimball and Barr's Machine Design. (In Press.) Levin's Gas Engine. (In Press.) 8vo, Leonard's Machine Shop Tools and Methods 8vo, * Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean).. 8 vo, MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo,
Button's Gas Engine Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing Elements of Mechanical Drawing Jones's Gas Engine Machine Design: Part I. Kinematics of Machinery Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-Book Kerr's Power and Power Transmission
50 00 00 00 50 4 00
1
50
16mo, mor.
3 00 5 00
2 00
Mechanical Drawing
Velocity Diagrams
4to,
8vo,
MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases 8vo, Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, Mehrtens's Gas Engine Theory and Design Large 12mo, Oberg's Handbook of Small Tools Large 12mo, * Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design. Small 4to, half leather, Peele's Compressed Air Plant for Mines 8vo,
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels * Porter's Engineering Reminiscences, 1855 to 1882 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing
12mo,
8vo, 8vo, 8vo, 8vo,
Schwamb and
Smith
(A.
Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals Sorel's Carbureting and Combustion in Alcohol Engines.
Preston,) Stone's Practical Testing of
4 00 4 00 5 00 4 00 1 50 1 50 3 50 2 50 3 00 12 50 3 00 3 00 3 00 2 00 3 00 1 50 3 00 3 00 3 00 3 00
3 00 3 50
(Woodward and
Large 12mo,
8vo,
Thurston's Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics.
Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work 8vo, * Tillson's Complete Automobile Instructor 16mo, * Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, * Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers.
. . .
12mo, $1 00 3 00 1 50 1 25 7 50
1
2|X5f
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission.
Klein.) Machinery of Transmission
inches, mor.
00
(Herrmann
8vo, Klein.). .8vo, 8vo,
and Governors.
(Hermann
Wood's Turbines
5 00 5 00 2 50
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
* Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering
8vo, 8vo,
7 50 7 50
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, * Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, * 12mo Large Holley's Lead and Zinc Pigments Mixed Color and Varnishes. of Ladd's and Paints, Pigments, Analysis Holley Large 12mo, Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special and Graphite Large 12mo, Steels, Steel-Making Alloys 8vo, Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction 8vo, Keep's Cast Iron Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, and their Vehicles Maire's Modern Pigments 12mo, 8vo Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) Maurer's Techincal Mechanics 8vo, Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, * 12mo, Strength of Materials A Manual for Steel-users Metcalf's Steel. 12mo, Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish 8vo, Smith's ((A. W.) Materials of Machines 12mo, Smith's (H. E.) Strength of Material 12mo, 3 vols., 8vo, Thurston's Materials of Engineering Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering 8vo, Iron and Steel Part II. 8vo, Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents 8vo, Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, Materials and an on Treatise on the Resistance of the Appendix Preservation of Timber 8vo, Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
'
;
6 00 2 50 3 00 2 50
3 00 6 00 2 50 7 50 2 OO
7
50
4 00 5 00 1 00 2 00 3 00
1
00
8 00 2 00 3 50
2 50 3 00
2 00 4 00
Steel
8vo,
2 00 1 50 2 50 5 00 5 00 1 00 6 00 5 00 2 00 5 00 5 00 4 00
14
Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, $1 50 MacCord's Slide-valves 2 00 8vo, 4to 10 00 Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction Moyer's Steam Turbine 8vo, 4 00 Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 12mo. 1 50 Tables of the Properties of Steam and Other Vapors and Temperature1 00 8vo. Entropy Table 8vo. 5 00 Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines. for 2 8vo, 50 Steam-engines Valve-gears 8vo, 4 00 Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. 12mo. 1 25 (Osterberg.) Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. Large 12mo. 3 50 Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management 12mo, 2 00 Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice 12mo, 2 50 Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8vo, 3 00 12mo. 1 00 Spangler's Notes on Thermodynamics
,
8vo,
8vo
2 50 3 00
4 00 8vo. Thurston's Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and the Prony Brake 5 00 8vo. 1 50 8vo. Handy Tables Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 5 00 Manual of the Steam-engine 2vols.. 8vo. 10 00 Part I. History, Structure, and Theory 8vo, 6 00 Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 00 Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice 12mo, 1 50 Wehrenfenning's Analysis and Softening of Boiler Feed-water. (Patterson).
Thomas's Steam-turbines
(Du
Bois.)
.
4 5 5 4
00 00 00 00
6 00 2 00 1 50
3 50
8vo,
Vol. I Vol. II
4 00
Small 4to, 7 50 Small 4to, 10 00 * Greene's Structural Mechanics 8vo, 2 50 James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. Large 12mo, 2 00 * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 12mo. 3 00 \ Lanza's Applied Mechanics. 7 50 8vo. * Martin's Text Book on Mechanics. Voi. I, Statics 12mo, 1 25 * Vol. II, Kinematics and Kinetics. 12mo. 1 50 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 4 00 8vo. * Merriman's Elements of Mechanics 1 00 12mo, Mechanics of Materials 5 00 8vo, * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 00 Sanborn's Mechanics Problems Large 12mo, 1 50 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 3 00 8vo, Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 00 12mo, 1 25 Principles of Elementary Mechanics
. . .
Mechanics of Engineering.
15
MEDICAL.
in Thirty Lectures. (Hall and 8vo, $5 00 Defren.) 12mo, 1 00 von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) 12mo, 1 50 Bolduan's Immune Sera 8vo, Bordet's Studies in Immunity. (In Press.) (Gay). Davenport's Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Biological Variations 16mo, mor. 1 50 6 00 8vo, Ehrlich's Collected Studies on Immunity. (Bolduan.) * Fischer's Physiology of Alimentation Large 12mo, 2 00 de Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.).. .Large 12mo, 2 50 Hammarsten's Text-book on Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 00 in Physiological Cherm'stry .8vo, 1 25 Work for Laboratory Jackson's Directions Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) 12mo, 1 00 Mandel's Hand-book for the Bio-Chemical Laboratory 12mo, 1 50 * Pauli's Physical 1 25 (Fischer.) ..12mo, Chemistry in the Service of Medicine. * Pozzi-Escot's Toxins and Venoms and their Antibodies. 1 00 (Cohn.). 12mo, Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. 12mo, 1 00 (Bolduan.) Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo, 2 00
. . .
Whys
in
Pharmacy
12mo,
00
Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) .. ..8vo, * Satterlee's Outlines of Human Embryology 12mo, Smith's Lecture Notes on Chemistry for Dental Students 8vo, * Whipple's Tyhpoid Fever Large 12mo,
2 50
Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene 16mo, * Personal 12mo, Hygiene Worcester and Atkinson's Small Hospitals Establishment and Maintenance, and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small 12mo, Hospital
25 2 50 3 00 1 50 1 00
1
25
METALLURGY.
Betts's Lead Refining by Electrolysis Bolland's Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of in the Practice of Moulding
8vo,
4 00
3 00 2 50 2 50
1 00 3 00 2 50
Iron Founder
Supplement
Goesel's Minerals * Iles's
Lead-smelting Johnson's Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, Le ChateHer's High- temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess.)
Metcalf 's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo. Minet's Production of Aluminum and its Industrial Use. (Waldo.). 12mo, Ruer's Elements of Metallography. 8vo. (Mathewson) Smith's Materials of Machines 12mo, Tate and Stone's Foundry Practice 12mo, Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering, s*ee Civil Engineering,
.
3 00 2 50 3 00 2 00 2 50
1
12mo,
00
2 00 8 00
page 9. Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their Constituents 8vo, Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, West's American Foundry Practice 12mo, Moulders' Text Book 12mo,
3 50
2 3 2 2
50 00 50 50
16
MINERALOGY.
(In Preparation.). Baskerville's Chemical Elements. Pocket-book form. $2 00 Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 1 50 8vo, (Penfield.) Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. 8vo, 4 00 Butler's Pocket Hand-book of Minerals 16mo, mor. 3 00 8vo, paper, 1 00 Chester's Catalogue of Minerals
* Crane's Gold and Silver. " " of Mineralogy Dana's First Appendix to Dana's New System " Dana's Second Appendix to Dana's New System of Mineralogy."
.
25
5 00
1
00
Manual
Minerals and
How
2 00
1
50
Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, (In Preparation). Eckel's Stone and Clay Products Used in Engineering. Goesel's Minerals and Metals: A Reference Book 16mo, mor. Groth's Introduction to Chemical Crystallography (Marshall) 12mo, * Hayes's Handbook for Field Geologists 16mo, mor. 8vo, Iddings's Igneous Rocks Rock Minerals 8vo, Johannsen's Determination of Rock-forming Minerals in Thin Sections. 8vo,
Guide
to
Qualitative
Analysis
with
the
pipe
Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence Stones for Building and Decoration
Blow12mo,
8vo, 8vo,
and Uses
60 4 00 5 00
50
1
* Penfield's Notes
of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper,
* * * *
Tables of Minerals, Including the Use of Minerals and Statistics of Domestic Production 8vo, Pirsson's Rocks and Rock Minerals 12mo, Richards's Synopsis of Mineral Characters 12mo, mor. Ries's Clays Their Occurrence, Properties and Uses 8vo, Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working Industry of the United
:
00
2 50 1 25 5 00
2 50 2 00 2 00
States * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks.
MINING.
* Beard's Mine Gases and Explosions Boyd's Map of Southwest Virginia * Crane's Gold and Silver * Index of Mining Engineering Literature
3 2 5 4 5
1
Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects Eissler's Modern High Explosives Goesel's Minerals and Metals A Reference Book
:
12mo,
8vo,
16mo, mor.
8vo,
Smelting
12mo,
Compressed Air Plant for Mines 8vo, Riemer's Shaft Sinking Under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele).8vo, * Weaver's Military Explosives 8vo, Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining. 2d edition, rewritten 12mo, Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation 12mo,
Peele's
4 3 5 2 3 3 3
2
1
00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 50 00 00 00 50 25
17
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Association of State and National Food and Dairy Departments, Hartford 8vo, $3 00 Meeting, 1906 8vo, 3 00 Jamestown Meeting, 1907 * Bashore's Outlines of Practical Sanitation 12mo, 1 25 Sanitation of a Country House 12mo, 1 00 Sanitation of Recreation Camps and Parks 12mo, 1 00 Folwell's Sewerage. 8vo, 3 00 (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.) 4 00 8vo, Water-supply Engineering Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12mo, 2 00 Fuertes's Water-filtration Works 12mo, 2 50 Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50 Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary Inspections 12mo, 1 50 * Modern Baths and Bath Houses 8vo, 3 00 Sanitation of Public Buildings 12mo, 1 50 Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo, 1 50 Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 00 Kinnicut, Winslow and Pratt's Purification of Sewage. (In Preparation.) Leach's Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State Control 8vo, 7 50 Mason's Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological) 12mo, 1 25 (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint). Water-supply. 8vo, 4 00 * Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Enigneering 8vo, 2 00 12mo, 2 00 Ogden's Sewer Design Parsons's Disposal of Municipal Refuse 2 00 8vo, Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis 12mo, * Price's Handbook on Sanitation 12mo, Richards's Cost of Cleanness v 12mo, Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries 12mo, Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science 12mo, Cost of Shelter 12mo, * Richards and Williams's Dietary 8vo, Computer Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand8vo, 2 00 point * Richey's Plumbers', Edition (Building Steam-fitters', and Tinners' Mechanics' Ready Reference Series) mor. 1 50 16mo, Rideal's Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 4 00 8vo, 8vo, 4 00 Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 5 00 8vo, Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 2 00 8vo, Method and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 3 00 Ward and Whipple's Freshwater Biology. (In Press.) Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 * Typhoid Fever Large 12mo, 3 00
.
00
2 50
MISCELLANEOUS.
Emmons's
Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the International Congress of Geologists .Large 8vo. Fen-el's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo, Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist 18mo, Gannett's Statistical Abstract of the World 24mo, Haines's American Railway Management 12mo, * Hanusek's The 8vo, Microscopy of Technical Products. (Win ton)
1 50 4 00 1 00 75 2 50 5 00
18
A Collection of Published Papers on OrJacobs's Betterment Briefs. 8vo, $3 50 ganized Industrial Efficiency 5 00 Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures, and the Administration of Workshops.. 8vo, Putnam's Nautical Charts 8vo, 2 00 Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1824-1894. Large 12mo, 3 00 Rotherham's Emphasised New Testament Large 8vo, 2 00 Rust's Ex-Meridian Altitude, Azimuth and Star-finding Tables 8vo, 5 00 12mo, 2 00 Standage's Decoration of Wood, Glass, Metal, etc Thome's Structural and Physiological Botany. (Bennett) 16mo, 2 25 2 00 Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider) 8vo,
Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy
12mo,
50
TEXT-BOOOKS.
Old Testament Scriptures.
Small 4to, half mor, 12mo,
5 00 1 25
to the
(Tregelles.)
Green's Elementary
19
STAMPED BELOW
184
APR-5
LD
21-100m.7,'33