Apotheosis of the Roman Emperor Author(s): Larry Kreitzer Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 53, No. 4 (Dec.

, 1990), pp. 210-217 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210166 . Accessed: 24/09/2011 18:31
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puzzle by examining background evidence. The category to which I am referringis the apotheosis, or deification of the Roman emperor. The practice of apotheosis of the Roman emperorwas certainly widespreadand influential enough to have touched upon the lives of some of the early Christians. Thus, it is perhapsnot too farfetchedto suggest that a fresh look at the practice might shed some light on how many common people living in the first
and second centuries C.. might have

shows the spoils of the first Jewishrevolt being carriedoff by the conquering Romans. Less well known is another carvedscene in the interior of the arch that depicts the apotheosis of Titus. The apotheosis of Augustus is the subject of a very beautifully carvedcameo, the Gemma Augustea, in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The idea was apparentlymuch more widespreadthan we often realize. This article is limited to the
C.E.), which

Apotheosis of the
Roman

Emperor Kreitzer
by Larry
ew Testament scholars
have spent a great deal of energy in recent years trying to trace the development of Christology, the theological interpretationof the person and work of Jesus (Dunn 1980;Kreitzer 1987b).How is it that the man Jesus of Nazareth was eventually declared by the Church to partakeof the very nature of God? More important in terms of New Testament studies, how much, if at all, can we rely upon the New Testament documents to initiate or support such a belief? Certainly these questions are much too complicated to try and answer in one brief article, but I would like to call attention to one category of evidence that is often overlookedin attempts to solve the Christological

conceived of the relationship between god and humankind. Such a look might also help to illuminate some of the ideas being formulated in the backgroundof ancient Near Easterncultures that helped shape the development of New Testament Christological thought. The deification of the Roman emperoreventually became a standardreligious practice that was generally confirmed by senatorial vote (forthe two best volumes on the subject see Taylor 1931 and Weinstock 1971;also see Bowerstock 1984 and Sweet 1919).Ratification followed the death of the emperor and was virtually guaranteedunless the emperor did something during his reign to offend the Senate and thereby jeopardizehis chances of being enrolled with the gods. By chance we have one historian'saccount of the apotheosis ceremony.Herodian of Syria,a biographerwriting during
the third century C.E.,composed an

period 45 B.C.E.to 68 C.E., the end of

Julius Caesar'sreign to the death of Nero. This Julio-Claudianperiod is most relevant to the formulation of New Testament Christology as some of the most significant Christological developmentsundoubtedlytook place during this time. Because coins constitute our most important primary evidence for this period, I will use numismatic evidence as a guide. Given that Judeawas a Roman province, and given that we know a great deal about the prevailingeconomic policies of the Roman Empire,we can rest assured that many early Christians, especially Gentiles, would have had daily contact with Roman coins and thus were regularly exposed to the imperial propaganda that such coinage displayed.It is hoped that this brief excursion will sensitize students of the New Testament to the contribution that numismatic evidence has made to the subject of Christology. Numismatic Evidence from the
For the purposes of this article, I will limit myself to a consideration of the officially sanctioned imperial numismatic evidence. Rome permitted many Greek cities and states to mint their own coins, but their contribution will not be considered here. These coins do have a great contribution to make, especially as they often reflect a much more fluid understanding of how great rulers were accorded divine status. After

account of imperial rule from the time of MarcusAurelius in 180 C.E.

to the death of Gordian III in 238 Included in Herodian's work is an C.E.. account of the ritual ceremony of the apotheosis of Septimius Severus (193 to 211 C.E.).' The story mentions a funeral pyre and, at the climax of the ceremony, the releasing of an eagle to symbolize the emperor's ascent into the heavens. The apotheosis of the emperor also found its way into Roman sculpture and art. Most of us have seen a picture of the Arch of Titus (79 to 81

Period Julio-Claudian

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211

Titus was one of five caesars mentioned by Suetonius as having apotheosis conferredupon him after death. Above: This well-known bas-relieffrom the interiorof the Arch of Titus, erected after his death in 81 c.E., depicts the spoils menorah, of Jerusalem,including the seven-branched being carriedoff by Romansoldiers after the destruction of the JerusalemTemplein 70 C.E.(BAarchivephoto.) Below: Less familiar is the opposite bas-relief,which shows Titus in a triumphalprocession;behind him the winged personificationof Victoryholds a laurel crown overhis head (hardto discern because this portion of the relief is badly damaged).Right: In the center of the interior of the arch, directly above the opposing bas-reliefs,is this niche relief that shows the apotheosized figureof Titus surroundedby eagles who bearhim to heaven on their wings. Photos from Der Titusbogen by Michael Pfanner (Mainz:Philipp von Zabern, 1983).

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The coin representedin this drawing is an antoninianusminted between257 and 258 C.E. during the reign of ValerianI. The reverse shows his son ValerianII, who died as a boy, beingcarriedto heavenon the back of an eagle; the accompanyinginscriptionreads CONSECRATIO. The obverseis a portraitof the boy with the inscription DIVO VALERIANO CAESAR All (TheDivine Caesar Valerian). coin drawings are by RosemaryLehan.

all, the Greeks had a long history of deifying their kings, a practice that is traceablein coinage at least as far back as the reign of Alexander the actively promoted this policy during their reigns, perhapsthe most famous example being the Seleucid
king Antiochus IV (175 to 163 B.C.E.), Great (336 to 323 B.C.E.)?Some kings

This silver tetradrachmawas minted by Antiochus IV a successor of Alexander The inscription, translatedas BASILEUS ANTIOCHUS THEOSEPIPHANES, declares KingAntiochus as God made manifest. This attitude helped bringAntiochus into conflict with his Jewish subjects, eventually leading to the Maccabean Revolt.
the Great who ruled from 175 to 163 B.C.E.

one of Alexander'ssuccessors. This act eventually broughtAntiochus into direct conflict with his Jewish public adulation of Caesar's rule in a manner and scale heretofore unfor the and set the subjects stage in Rome. The numismatic known revolt. Maccabean ensuing evidence bears this out. One striking As the Romans absorbedthe remnants of Alexander'sempire, the fact underlies the direction in which these senatorial honors were headremaining generals and provincial ing: Until 44 B.C.E.no living person governorsoften found themselves had ever appeared on Roman coinage; the objects of divine honors and acclaim. This was especially true of yet, in that year many moneyers Pompey the Great and Julius Caesar. minted coins with Caesar's portrait on them. The obverse of one coin Following Caesar'svictory at the

Greek city of Pharsalusin 46 B.C.E., his statues often bore inscriptions that proclaimedhim a god. An inscription from Ephesus in the province of Asia, located along the western coast of Asia Minor, for instance, calls him THEOSEPIPHANES (God Made Manifest). Such divine honors aboundedin the East. Returningto the early imperatorial period, I should point out that religious practice operatedon several different levels in the Empire. Many of the associations that were made between the great leaders and deities of the East would have been unacceptable in the West. It was alright for Roman generals to be showered with divine honors when they were in the Easternworld, but such honors were frownedupon in Rome. Therefore,whenever we can see significant senatorial developments towardapotheosis of the emperor, we can be certain that such developments had long been a part of religious activity in the East. In a way,by examining the official senatorial steps towardapotheosis we give ourselves a starting point from which to understandwhat must have been a more popularperception among many Easternpeoples of the Empire. Following the precedents of the Easternprovinces in relating kingship and divinity, we find that a series of senatorial honors were decreed on Julius Caesar from 45 to 44 B.C.E. These honors established a pattern that was to culminate in his full enrollment into the pantheon. Although not technically constituting deification, all of these honors contributed to an atmosphere of

Until 44 B.C.E., no living person had ever appearedon Roman coinage, yet in that year all the moneyers minted coins with a portrait of Julius Caesar.One example is this obverse of a coin portrayingCaesaras a priest and bestowing a fatherly image upon him with the inscription CAESAR PARENS PATRIAE (Caesar,Fatherof the Nation).

portraysCaesar as a priest and bestows a fatherly characteron the emperorwith the inscription, CAESAR PARENSPATRIAE (Caesar,Father of the Nation). This title was one of many senatorial honors given to Caesarprior to his death in March of 44 B.C.E. Another of the senatorial honors bestowed on Caesar was the placing of his statue, with the inscription DEUS INVICTUS (Tothe Conquering God), in the temple of Quirinius. This quasi-divinehonor prompted Cicero to make some sarcastic comments in his Letters to Atticus (compare book 12, letter 45 and book 13, letter 28; see Winstedt 1967:95-96 and 165-67). Caesar'sstatue was associated with other gods and other temples as well. The obverseof one coin, for example, depicts the temple

One of the honors bestowed on Caesar by the RomanSenatewas the placement of his statue, with the inscription DEUS INVICTUS(7bthe ConqueringGod),in the temple of Quirinius. Caesar'sstatue was associated with other gods and temples, such as on this obverseof a denarius showing the temple of Clementia and Caesar with the accompanyinginscription CLEMENTIA CAESAR. Some doubt this temple was ever built (it has never been located), but the coin illustrates that Caesarwas associated with gods of the Roman capital.

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of Clementia and Caesar.Although this temple has never been located (andsome doubt its existence), its image on the coin speaks to the trend of associating Caesarwith the gods of the Roman capital. The identification of Caesar with Jupiteris certainly another example of the way in which the emperor and God were merging in the popularimagination. Let us not forget that Suetonius wrote that on the night before Caesarwas murderedhe had a dream in which he ascended the heavens and shook hands with the god Jupiter (TheDeified Julius, chapter 81, verse 3; see Rolfe 1960: 109).Also remember that the mob wanted to cremate Caesar'sbody and inter his ashes in the temple of Jupiterlocated on the Capitoline hill (The Deified Julius chapter 84, verse 3; see Rolfe 1960: 115). One final senatorial honor is representedon the coinage of the time. Justprior to Caesar'sassassi-

nation of Julius Caesar in March of 44 B.C.E., however,that the Roman Senate took the official step of deification? On January1,42 B.C.E., Caesar was officially declareda god, a move no doubt promptedby his adopted heir Octavian (27 B.C.E. to 14 C.E.), who saw in the act a means of consolidating his own power.Octavian was involved at the time in a desperate political struggle with Mark

the first day of the games, which lasted for seven days.Its appearance was conveniently interpretedas being the soul of Caesar ascending heaven. The comet, or star,became a common feature in subsequent coinage of Octavian, again as a means of emphasizing his relationship to the Divine Caesar.All of the coins containing star or comet images are chargedwith symbolism-the kind of symbolism that can be used to great political advantage.
In 27 B.C.E.,when the Roman

Senate grantedOctavian the title of Augustus, the Roman Empire,properly speaking, began. It was at this time, within the Easternprovinces of the Empire,that the first logical Octavian was quick to capitalize on his step towardthe practice of worshipadoptive status and issued a series of coins the son of a god as a god was ping proclaiming his position as son of the Divine taken. The province of Bithynia, Caesar. This is one such coin, issued after located along the northwest coast of Octavian'svictory overMarkAntony at the Greek town of Actium in Septemberof Asia Minor, and the province of Asia, 31 B.C.E. The obverse shows the head of the located along Asia Minor'swestern goddesss Venus,to whom Octavian and Caesar attributed much of their success in coast, were the first areas authorized battle. The reverseis of Octavian brandishing by Rome to build a temple to the god a spear with the inscription CAESAR DIVI F were allowed to Augustus. They (Son of the Divine Caesar). build the temple on the proviso that worship would also be accordedto Antony, who vigorously opposed the the goddess Roma. Accordingto deification of Julius Caesar,and he Suetonius, Augustus did not want used the deification of Caesar as a way of legitimizing and elevating his Prior to his assassination in March of 44 B.C.E., Caesar was awarded the title DICTATOR own position. Octavianwas quick to Julius PERPETUO (Dictatorfor Life).As a part of capitalize on his adoptive status and that honor he was granteda gold crown and issued a series of coins proclaiming thronefor use in public displays and theaters. his position as son of the Divine The crown and throne are subjects of this denariusreversefrom the coinage of Octavian, Caesar.One such coin was issued Caesar'sadopted heir and successor. The inOctavian'svictory over DIC PER(shorthand following scription reads CAESAR at the Greek town of Actium Antony for Caesar,Dictator for Life). in Septemberof 31 B.C.E. The obverse shows the head of the goddess Venus, nation, between January26 and Feb- to whom both Caesar and Octavian 9 in the year 44 B.C.E., the attributed most of their military mruary Senate awardedCaesar the title successes, and the reverseis of OctaDictator Perpetuo (Dictatorfor Life) vian brandishinga spear with the The comet, or star, became a common feature and grantedhim a gold crown and a accompanyinginscription, CAESAR in the coinage of Augustus, a way of emphasizing his relationship to the Divine Caesar. gold throne for use in public displays DIVIF (Son of the Divine Caesar). The obverseportraiton this denarius, below, and theaters. The crown and throne One of the most interesting coins which dates to 17 B.C.E., is of Augustus; the are depicted on the reverseof a coin reverseis of Julius Caesarwearing a crown. issued by Octavian commemorates Note the star above Caesar's head. Theobverse minted during the time of Octavian the appearanceof a comet during of this coin, above, also dating to 17 B.C.E., is the games he held in honor of Julius (laternamed Augustus). This act a portraitof Augustus (CAESAR AVGVSTVS). The reversehas a comet and an inscription clearly spoke of quasi-divine rights. Caesar'smilitary victories in July of reading DIVVSIVLIVS (Divine Julius). It was not until after the assassi- 44 B.C.E.The comet first appearedon

Biblical Archaeologist, December 1990

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In 27 B.C.E., when

Senate theRoman Octavian the granted titleof Augustus, theRoman Empire,

properly speaking, began.

the worship of himself to be independent of that given to the personification of the rulingcity (TheDeified Augustus, chapter 52; see Rolfe 1960:207; also see Price 1980).In so stipulating, Augustus was at the same time, of course, strengthening the provincial allegiance to Rome-a remarkably perceptiveand politically astute move. Temples were raised in Nicomedia and Pergamum,the respective capital cities of Bithynia and Asia. The temple erected at Pergamumis depicted on a coin dating to 19 B.C.E. The coin shows the edifice of the temple, which bears on its pediment the inscription ROMET

AVGVSTUS (Romeand Augustus). The other inscription, COM ASIA (shorthandfor COMMUNIAEASIA), indicates that the coin was issued by the common league of Asia. The first Westernprovince to institute a similar cult was Gaul, a region comprising much of modern France, Belgium and northern Italy.At Lugdunum, capital of the three districts

This is an example of an extensive series of coins depicting the altar erected to the gods Roma and Augustus at Lugdunumin 10 B.C.E. The inscription reads ROMETAVG(the "R" is off the edge of the coin). The obverse,a portrait of Augustus, is not shown. Lugdunum was the capital of the threedistricts of Gaul, the first Western province to institute a cult of Augustus. Similar temples were erectedin Germania and Spain.

of Gaul, an altarwas erected to the gods Roma and Augustus in 10 B.C.E. Pergamumwas the capital city of the province This altar is depicted in a series of of Asia, which was one of the first areas coins. Similar authorized by Rome to build a temple to the temples and altars god Augustus. That temple is depicted on were erected in Germania and Spain. this coin, dating to 19 B.C.E. The inscription on Augustus was not deified in the pediment, ROMETAVGVSTUS, stands Rome until after his death in 14 C.E. for Rome and Augustus, who did not want worshipof himself to be independent of that His successor, Tiberius (14to 37 C.E.), given to the personification of the ruling city was largely responsible for propagatof the empire.Theotherpart of the inscription, COMASIA (shorthandfor COMMUNIAE ing the cult of the Divine Augustus. ASIA),indicates that the coin was issued by Tiberius was emperor during the the common league of the provinceof Asia. public ministry of Jesus.One coin The obverseportraitis of Augustus; the infrom the reign of Tiberius bears on nine scription, IMPIX TRPO V (Imperator times; TribuniceaPotestasfive times), is its reverseside a portrait of the shorthandfor Holder of the TribunalPower. Divine Augustus and an inscription

Emperor
Octavian (Augustus)

Born
63 B.C.E.

Years of Rule
27 B.C.E.to 14 C.E.

Relations Family
Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; married to Livia

Comments
From 43 to 28 B.C.E. co-ruled as Second Triumvirate with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Mark Antony. Defeated Antony at Actium in 31 B.C.E.to solidify power base. With Octavian the Roman Empire, officially speaking, began. Emperor during the public ministry of Jesus. Largely responsible for propagating cult of the Divine Augustus. Accorded quasi-divine status to his three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia. Continued Tiberius's policy of issuing coins to support cult of Divine Augustus. Tried to promote his own divinity but was assassinated. Petitioned Roman Senate to grant Livia deification. Also honored Antonia by issuing coins personifying her as the virtue Constancy. Issued a series of coins commemorating Claudius but later annulled honor of apotheosis (eventually restored by the emperor Vespasian). Fell out of favor and committed suicide.

Tiberius

42B.C.E.

14 to 37 C.E.

Stepson of Augustus; son of Livia Grandnephew of Tiberius; Great-grandson of Livia

Caligula

12 C.E.

37 to 41 C.E.

Claudius

10 B.C.E.

41 to 54C.E.

Nephew of Tiberius; grandson of Livia; son of Antonia Stepson of Claudius

Nero

37 C.E.

54 to 68 C.E.

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that reads,DIVIF DIVOSAUGUST something neither Tiberius, her son, ever nor of the Divine the Divine Caligula,her great-grandson, Caesar, (Son The Senate ascenThe characteristic complied, attempted. Augustus). and Claudius celebratedthis honor sion star is placed above the head of by minting a pair of coins called Augustus; it is reminiscent of his use of a comet, or star,on coins to comdupondii, one of which bears on its obversea portrait of Divus Augustus memorate the appearanceof a comet in of honor and, on the reverse,Diva Augusta; during the games he held Caligula'sincestuous relationships with his Julius Caesar'sprevious military vic- three sisters Agrippina,Drusilla and Juliaare Livia is representedas seated on a throne and holding a scepter' tories. The Senate opposed the deifi- well known. Less well known is the quasidivine honors he bestowed on them by porClaudius also honored his mother in of cation of Tiberius spite attempts them, respectively,as Securitas, traying Antonia by minting coins bearing 41 to by his successor Caligula (37 Concordiaand Fortuna.These associations her portraiton the obverseand, on are depicted on this sestertius reverse. C.E.) to bestow this honor on his the reverse,displaying her as a pergranduncle.Neither did the Senate and Fortuna. Concordia sonification of the virtue Constancy. of confirm the apotheosis of Caligula; Securitas, attached These coins are similar to Caligula's was particularly thus, we have no coins proclaiming Caligula to could did all he Drusilla and to the divinity of either emperor. sestertia, mentioned previously, to the which her elevation bestowed such quasi-divine godsNevertheless, Caligula still holds promote It well himself. is did for as an important place in our study of he known that he caused a near revolt the apotheosis of the emperor.For in Judeaby insisting that his statue one thing, he continued Tiberius's be placed within the holy of the policy of issuing coins to supportthe in the JerusalemTemple.This holies cult of the Divine Augustus. He also is but one accordedquasi-divine status to his example of how Caligula's worked in trying to mind twisted three sisters, Agrippina,Drusilla and his own divinity during his Julia (with whom he had incestuous promote reign. Fortunately,he was assasrelationships),by portrayingthem, respectively, as the personifications sinated before the situation came to Claudius (41 to 54 c.E.) honored his mother a head, and the Roman Senate repuAntonia by minting coins such as this one, diated his reign by refusing his which shows her portraiton the obverse apotheosis. and portraysher as (ANTONIAAVGVSTA) the virtue Constancy on the reverse.This Next to take the throne was coin is similar to the sestertius issued by Claudius (41 to 54 c.E.). By a strange Caligula, which bestowed such quasi-divine in coincidence Claudius was born honors on his sisters. Lugdunumon August 1 of the year
10 B.C.E.,the very day on which the

famous altar to the Divine Augustus and Roma was dedicated there. Claudius appearsto have revived this type of altar coinage, possibly in celebration of his own fiftieth birthday.One further development in the divine cult during the reign of Claudius was the deification of Livia, the wife of Augustus and grandmother of Claudius. Liviahad already appearedon a variety of coin types, usually as a personification of The reverseof this sestertius depicts the Roman virtues and divine attributes. Templeof Augustus completed during the For instance, three coins issued by to 41 reign of Caligula (37 c.E.). Caligula, second figurefrom the right, stands by the Tiberius in 22 C.E. depict Livia as the altar preparingto make a sacrifice to a bull personification of Justice, Piety and in honor of his imperial predecessor.The Salus (Health).Claudius went one obverseis of Pietas. The inscription is dedicated to the divine Augustus as Holder of the step furtherby actually petitioning TribunalPower. the Senate to grant Livia deification,

honors on his three sisters. Claudius died on October 13, 54 taking power,Nero issued a series of coins to commemorate his stepfather,Claudius, whose rule was deemed worthy enough by the Senate to confer upon him the honor of apotheosis. Suetonius tells us that Nero later annulled the honor but that it was eventually restoredby EmperorVespasian(The Deified Claudius, chapter 45; see Rolfe 1970:81).ApparentlyNero's opinion of Claudius was not as unfavorable in the beginning of his reign as it was at the end because he did mint a Divus Claudius series in 54 to 55
C.E. and was succeeded by his adopted son Nero (54 to 68 C.E.). Shortly after

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This didrachma from Caesarea in Cappadocia was minted by Nero, whose reign lasted from 54 to 68 C.E. The obverse, left, is a portrait of the divine Claudius; the reverse, right, is a portrait of Nero. This coin was probably issued between 54 and 55 C.E., when Nero minted a Divus Claudius series. He later tried to revoke the apotheosis of Claudius, but it was restored by Emperor Vespasian (69 to 79 C.E.). Nero committed suicide in 68 C.E. during the first Jewish revolt against Rome. He was never deified by the Roman Senate, and no coins depict his apotheosis.

poked fun of the idea of the apotheosis of Claudius. He wrote a satirical work on the subject called the Apococyntosis of Claudius, which, translatedliterally, means the "pumpkinficationof Claudius." Nero fell out of senatorial favor his by mismanagement of rule and ended up committing suicide on

how did the monotheistic faith that was the foundation of both Judaism and Christianity react to the developing imperial cult? The majordifference in reaction seems to be Christologically derived.That is to say, Christians found that the incarnational basis of their faith was more readily synthesized with the prevailingreligious system of the in midst of the C.E. the 68 Romans, which included the apotheJuly 8, first Jewishrevolt against Rome (66 osis of the emperor.The Roman conto 70 C.E.).Nero was never deified by cept of apotheosis moved a man from the Roman Senate, and no coins disearth towardheaven, whereas the Christian concept of incarnation play his apotheosis. With his death the Julio-Claudianhouse of rule movedGod from heaventowardearth, came to an end. but the two are similar in that they both deal with the relationship and in the 63 Great of Aims and Monotheistic Political between the human and the divine. B.C.E., Pompey his and of Herod the Great rule the It is important to note that the barReactions a than more to little sons amounted of the Divine Man The development rier between humans and God was Roman direct from to the cult wasbyno meanspeculiar transcended in Christianity in a way temporaryrespite With rule. the Roman that it was not in Judaism.Perhaps Augustus'sappointment althoughduring Empire this aspect more than any other imperial periodthis worshipsystem of Coponius as prefect in 6 C.E., a became once reached province allowed Christianity to gain a footJudea again heights.The unparalleled and conrule Roman direct rootsof emperor hold in the life of the averageRoman worshiplay deepin under the be to so tinued cultures Julio- citizen in a way that Judaismwas throughout manyancientNearEastern in which greatrulerstook on divine Claudian period. unable to do. This period is perhapsone of Romehad What essentially began as a qualities.Nevertheless, of the in terms formative to make;ruler the most its own contribution welding together of the religious life a new andrefined was organized of the Empirewith an astute political development of Christianity, worship faith that began as a messianic sect into a unifyingpoliticalforce. expedience eventually culminated within the confines of Judaism.How in the continuing practice of the The worshipof the Roman did the monotheistic faith of Judaism apotheosis of the emperor.This of as the personification emperor and its offspringChristianity react meant that Christianity, with its divinitywasusedto greatpolitical as a meansof to the developing imperial cult? belief in transcending the barrier particularly advantage, weldingvariouspeoplesandcultures What responses can we trace within between human and divine through the incarnation of JesusChrist, was into a singleempire.The political Judaismand Christianity to this dynamicof the divinecult cannotbe religio-political cult focusing on the able to find fruitful ground and It is centralto anyproper person of the emperor?Wouldit be flourish within the Roman world. overlooked. of how the cult func- true to say that the idea of a man understanding Conclusion tionedwithin the Roman becoming god, apotheosis, was acEmpire, Fromthe brief surveypresented here, the time of ceptable to Christianity but not to during particularly when the civilizedworld, Judaism?Could this have been what I hope it is clear that the apotheosis Augustus of the Roman emperor, and its atteneventually made Christianity more yearning for relief after decades of world? to the Roman dant implications, were very much civil war, sought in the young emacceptable the To return to a part of the religious heritage of primary quesperora delivererfrom turmoil and the tion exis no better There bloodshed. imperial cult, regarding many peoples of the early Roman
C.E. It should be noted that Seneca

ample of the statesman'sapproachto religion than in the person of Augustus. He more than any other emperor utilized religion as a means of unifying the far-flungprovinces and peoples, forgingout of them a vast new empire. This situation brings up an important consideration:the reactions of persons from traditionally monotheistic faiths to the development of this imperial cult. It is important to remember that significant numbers of Jewsand Christians lived within the boundaries of the Roman Empireduring the JulioClaudian period. Judeafirst came under Roman rule during the time

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Empire.Such a heritage must take its properplace in any attempt to trace the development of New Testament Christological thought. It is also my hope that this article will serve to inspire interest in the use of numismatic evidence for historical study,particularlywithin New Testament historical research (as in Stauffer 1955;Kreitzer 1987a). Notes
'All dates given in relation to the Roman emperors refer to their years of imperial rule. 2The process of the deification of Hellenistic monarchs is discussed in Grant (1982: 91-104). 30f the twelve Caesars, Suetonius mentions five as having apotheosis conferred upon them after death: Julius Caesar, Augustus (Octavian), Claudius, Vespasian and Titus. 4Emperor Galba (68 to 69 cE.) also issued a similar series of coins in honor of Livia. Apparently, Livia was Galba's patroness and bequeathed him a large sum of money.

Bibliography
Bowerstock,G. W. 1984 "Augustus andthe East": The Problem of the Succession. Pp. 169-88 in CaesarAugustus:SevenAspects. London:OxfordUniversity Press. Dunn, J.D. G. 1980 Christologyin the Making. London: SCM Press. Grant,M. 1982 FromAlexander to Cleopatra. London:Weidenfeldand Nicolson. Jones,D. L. 1980 Christianityand the RomanImperial Cult. Pp. 1023-54 in Aufstieg und Niedergangder R6mischen Welt, volume II 23:2. Berlin:Walterde Gruyter. Kreitzer,L. J. 1987a A Numismatic Clue to Acts 19.23-41: The EphesianCistophoriof Claudius and Agrippina.Journalfor the Study of the New Testament30: 59-70. 1987b Jesusand God in Paul'sEschatology. Sheffield:SheffieldAcademic Press. Nock, A. D. 1934 Religious Developments from the Close of the Republicto the Death of Nero. Pp. 465-511 in Cambridge Ancient History,volume 10. CambridgeUniversity Press. Price, S. R. FE 1980 BetweenMan and God: Sacrificein

the RomanImperialCult. Journalof Roman Studies 70: 28-43. Rolfe,J.C., translator 1960 Suetonius:The Lives of the Caesars, volume 1:Books 1-4. Series:Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,MA, and London:Harvard University Press and Heinemann. 1970 Suetonius: The Livesof the Caesars, volume 2: Books 5-8. Series:Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,MA, and London:Harvard University Press and Heinemann. Stauffer,E. 1955 Christ and the Caesars.London: SCM Press. Sweet, L. M. 1919 Roman EmperorWorship. Boston: GorhamPress. Taylor,L. R. 1931 The Divinity of the Roman Emperor. Middletown,CT:The American Philological Association. Weinstock,S. 1971 Divus Julius.London:OxfordUniversity Press. Winstedt,E. O., translator 1967 Cicero:Lettersto Atticus, volume 3. Series:LoebClassical Library. Cambridge,MA, and London:Harvard University Press and Heinemann.

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217

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Biblical Archaeologist, December 1990