5.

High-Pressure Sensors
B. G. LIPTK
(1969, 1982, 1995, 2003)

PI

High

Flow Sheet Symbol

Types and Ranges:

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I.

Optical (Section 5.7), up to 60,000 PSIG (4338 bars) Piezoelectric (Section 5.7), up to 100,000 PSIG (6896 bars) Magnetic (Section 5.7), up to 100,000 PSIG (6896 bars) Dead-weight testers, up to 100,000 PSIG (6896 bars) Helical Bourdon (Section 5.4), up to 100,000 PSIG (6896 bars) Manganin cells, up to 400,000 PSIG (27,586 bars) or more Strain gauge (Section 5.7), up to 200,000 PSIG (13,793 bars) Bulk modulus cells, up to 200,000 PSIG (13,793 bars) Button type pressure repeater, up to 10,000 PSIG (6896 bars)

Inaccuracy:

For dead-weight testers, 0.1% of span or better; for strain gauges from about 0.1% of span to 0.25% of full scale, for Manganin cells from 0.1 to 0.5% of full scale; for pressure repeaters 0.5 to 1% full scale, for helical bourdon tubes 1% of span; for bulk modulus cells from 1 to 2% of full span For types A, B, C, and G, see Section 5.7; for type E, see Section 5.4. Most transducers are from $300 to $500. The simplest dead-weight gauges with moderate ranges and 0.1% inaccuracy cost around $1200 to $1500; the average portable pressure/vacuum calibrator costs around $5000; the most sophisticated 0.03% hydraulic calibrator units cost about $18,000. 3D Instruments LLD (D) (www.3dinstruments.com) ABB Automation Technology (E) (www.abb.com) Ametek Inc. (D, E) (www.ametekusg.com) Ametek Drexelbrook (G) (www.drexelbrook.com) Barber Colman Industrial (G) (www.barber-colman.com) Barksdale (G) (www.barksdale.com) Barton Instrument (G) (www.barton-instruments.com) Cosa Instrument (D) (www.cosa-instrument.com) DH Instruments (D) (www.dhinstruments.com) Dresser Instrument (A, D, E, G) (www.dresserinstruments.com) Druck Inc. (B, G) (www.pressure.com) Dwyer Instruments (G) (www.dwyer-inst.com) Entran Devices Inc. (G) (www.entran.com) Fisher Controls Int., a Div. of Emerson Process Management (E) (www.emersonprocess.com) Foxboro-Invensys (E, F) (www.foxboro.com) Helicoid Instruments Div. of Bristol Babcock (E) (www.bristolbabcock.com) Honeywell Inc. (E) (www.honeywell.com) Kistler-Morse (G) Marsh Instrument Co. (E) (www.marshbellofram.com) Marshalltown Instruments Inc. (E) (www.marshbellofram.com) Mensor Corp. (B, E, quartz helix) (www.e-pressure.com) Mid-West Instrument (E) (www.midwestinstrument.com) MKS Instruments (D) (www.mksinst.com) Morehouse Instrument (D) Moeller Instrument Co. (E) (www.moellerinstrument.com) Moore Products, now part of Siemens Inc. (E) (www.sea.siemens.com)

Costs:

Partial List of Suppliers:

762
2003 by Bla Liptk

5.8 High-Pressure Sensors

763

Noshok Inc. (E) (www.noshok.com) OCI Instruments Inc. (E) (www.ociinstruments.com) Palmer Instruments Inc. (E) (www.palmerinstruments.com) Perma-Cal Corp. (E) (www.perma-cal.com) Reotemp Instrument (D) (www.reotemp.com) Rosemount Inc., a Div. of Emerson Process Management (E) (www.emersonprocess.com) Ruska Instrument (D) (www.ruska.com) Scanivalve Corp. (G) (www.scanivalve.com) Senso-Metrics Inc. (G) (www.senso-metrics.com) Sensotec (G) (www.senso-metrics.com) Smar International (D) (www.smar.com) H.O. Trerice Co. (E) (www.hotrerice.com) Vaisala Inc. (D) (www.vaisala.com) Validyne Engineering Corp. (E) (www.validyne.com) Viatran Corp. (G) (www.viatran.com) Wallace & Tiernan (D) (www.wallace-tiernan.com) Wallace & Tiernan Inc. (E) (www.usfwt.com) Weiss Instruments Inc. (E) (www.weissinstruments.com) Weksler Instruments Corp. (E) (www.dresserinstruments.com) Wika Instrument Corp. (E) (www.wika.com) Yokogawa Corp. of America (E) (www.yca.com)

The term high pressure is relative, because in an average plant the pressure of 1,000 PSIG (69 bars) is usually considered to be high, while in synthetic diamond manufacturing 100,000 PSIG is viewed as normal. For the purposes of this section, we will dene high-pressure instruments as devices that are capable of measuring pressures in excess of 10,000 to 20,000 PSIG (700 to 1,400 bars). Some of these detectors have already been discussed in Section 5.4 (helical Bourdons) and in Section 5.7 (strain gauge, optical, piezoelectric, and magnetic types). Therefore, in this section the emphasis will be on the description of dead-weight piston gauges, bulk modulus, and Manganin cells. INTRODUCTION High pressure can be measured by: 1. Dead-weight testers 2. Pressure repeaters 3. Elastic deformation gauges, such as helical bourdon tubes, strain gauges, or bulk modulus cells 4. Detecting the change in electrical resistance in materials like Manganin One might group these sensors by other characteristics, such as: 1. Mechanical, such as pressure repeaters, helical bourdon tubes, or dead weight testers 2. Electronic, like the strain gauge devices 3. Very high pressure detectors, as the bulk modulus and the Manganin cells. The only primary high-pressure detector is the dead weight sensor, which is also a rather slow measuring device. The sensors that detect elastic deformation follow Hokes

Law but not with absolute accuracy and all have at least 0.1% hysteresis. The Manganin gauge was rst described by the 1 Nobel prize winning physicist Bridgman who recommended it as a secondary gauge. MECHANICAL HIGH PRESSURE SENSORS Dead-Weight Piston Gauges As illustrated in Figure 5.8a, these are piston gauges in which the test pressure is balanced against a known weight that is applied to a known piston area. The test pressure is applied by the secondary piston. The principal purpose of these free-piston gauges is as a primary standard to calibrate other pressure sensors. The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) has been using these devices for many years. Piston gauges, or dead-weight testers, are normally provided with a number of interchangeable piston assemblies and NBS-certied weights. They can be used to calibrate at pressure levels as low as 5 PSIG (35 kPa) or as high as

Dead Weight Gauge under Test Primary Piston Cylinder

Screw Secondary Piston

FIG. 5.8a Dead-weight piston tester.

2003 by Bla Liptk

764

Pressure Measurement

100,000 PSIG (690 MPa). The range has been extended to even greater pressures, but research on piston and cylinder material and their treatment to withstand loads is a limitation. Assuming that one wants to generate a pressure of 100,000 PSIG while keeping the dead weight under 1000 lb (450 kg), 2 2 it is necessary to reduce the piston area to 0.01 in (6.4 mm ). This means that a 0.1 in. (2.5 mm) diameter piston will have to support a 1000 lb weight, while also being rotated. The accuracy of dead-weight piston testers has improved over the years. For higher pressure services, the main improvement resulted from controlling the piston-cylinder clearance by pressurizing the outside surface of the cylinder. Thus, the piston-cylinder clearance is kept constant, resulting in a slow rate of fall for the piston unaffected by pressure level. The laboratory piston gauges are standardized by NBS, calibrating the associated weights and measuring the piston diameter. NBS has found these dead-weight testers to be inaccurate to 1.5 parts in 10,000 of the measured pressure at values greater than 40,000 PSIG (280 MPa) and to 5 parts in 100,000 at lower pressures. The inaccuracy of industrial dead weight testers is better than 0.1% of span. The free-piston gauge is limited to its principal purpose, a primary standard for calibrating other pressure sensors, because it is slow in response and is not practical for direct industrial installation. The utility of the high-accuracy piston gauges is being extended to the lower pressure ranges by the titling-type, airlubricated designs. With such design, pressures (and pressure differentials) in the millimeter of mercury range have been detected to one part in 100,000 full-scale error. Button-Type Pressure Repeater This instrument (Figure 5.8b) is discussed in more detail in Section 5.12. It has been developed for extruder monitoring and control in the plastics and synthetic ber industries. It can repeat the process pressures within an error of 0.5 to 1%, and it can operate up to 10,000 PSIG (69 MPa) and at temperatures up to 800F (430C). Helical Bourdon The detailed features of this instrument (Figure 5.8c) are discussed in Section 5.4. The helical elements used in this instrument are available with spans up to 0 to 80,000 PSIG (0 to 550 MPa) and can detect pressures with an error of about 1% of span. BULK MODULUS CELLS These cells, shown in Figure 5.8d, are comprised of a hollow cylindrical steel probe closed at the inner end, and a stem that projects beyond the outer end of the probe. When subjected to process pressures, the active part of the probe contracts isotropically, causing its tip to be displaced to the right. As a result, the stem moves outward, increasing the distance it

Output Air Signal (P2)

Balancing Diaphragm

A2

Air Supply

Vent

Force Bar

Regulating Valve P1 A1 = P2 A2 Therefore A P P2 = 1 (P1) 1 A2 200

Sensing Diaphragm

P1 A1

FIG. 5.8b Button-diaphragm-type pressure repeater.

Process Pressure Moving Tip

FIG. 5.8c Helical Bourdon-type pressure sensor.

Pressure

Stem

Probe Cell Packing Body

FIG. 5.8d Bulk modulus cell.

projects beyond the outer end. The stem motion can be detected by electromagnetic pickup, capacitance pickup, or the use of mechanical displacement transmitters (pneumatic or electronic). The unit is available with ranges of 050,000 to 0200,000 PSIG (0350 to 01,400 MPa), and its inaccuracy is 1 to 2% of full scale. Its advantages, when compared with other highpressure sensors, include its relatively fast response, its remote-reading characteristic, and its design that is absolutely

2003 by Bla Liptk

5.8 High-Pressure Sensors

765

safe because the probe is not subject to fatigue. The hysteresis and temperature sensitivity of the bulk modulus cell are similar to those of other elastic element pressure sensors.

PRESSURE-SENSITIVE WIRES The electric resistance of wires can be changed by applying linear strain or by applying hydrostatic pressure to the surface of a helically wound coil mounted on a core. This second approach is utilized in the operation of the Manganin or goldchromium wire type pressure sensors. These materials have been selected because their electric resistance changes very little with temperature variations, while it does change appreciably with changes in the applied process pressure. When a small coil of Manganin wire is subjected to highprocess pressures, the coil resistance changes linearly with pressure. The pressure-resistance relationship for Manganin is substantial, positive, and linear, and therefore can be detected by a bridge. Manganin is relatively insensitive to temperature variations. These cells can be obtained with ranges from 0 to 50,000 PSIG (0 to 3,450 bars) to 0 to 425,000 PSIG (0 to 29,300 1 1 bars), and their inaccuracy is between /10 and /2% of full scale. The main disadvantage of this cell is its delicate nature. Both the gauge coils and the coil protection bellows can be easily damaged by rapid changes in pressure or liquid viscosity. The pressure-resistance relationship of other materials, such as platinum, gold-chromium, or lead, have some of the same desirable features as Manganin, and they too have been used as elements in pressure-resistance cells.

Electronic transducers for dynamic pressure detection include the piezoelectric transducers; the bonded and unbonded strain gauge elements; and the variable reluctance, differential transformer, and electrical capacitance types. Strain gauges bonded to diaphragm or bellows elements have given good performance in measuring blast pressures. In connection with underwater explosions and noises, piezoelectric crystals have been successfully used. These units are directionally sensitive to force, necessitating a seal interposed between the element and the process and converting pressure to force for optimum response. Reference
1. Bridgman, P.W., Physics of High Pressure, London: G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., New York: MacMillan, 1952.

Bibliography
Babichev, G.G., Kozlovskiy, S.I., Romanov, V.A., and Sharan, N.N., Pressure Transducers with Frequency Output on the Base of StrainSensitive Unijunction Transistors, Paper 2.31, 1st IEEE International Conference on Sensors (IEEE Sensors 2002), Orlando, FL, June 2002. Bailey, S.J., Pressure Sensors and Transmitters Affected by Technological Change, Control Engineering, January 1984. von Beckerath, A., Eberlein, A., Julien, H., Kerstein, P., and Kreutzer, J., WIKA Handbook on Pressure and Temperature Measurement, U.S. ed., Lawrenceville, GA: Wika Instrument Corp., 1998. Bourdon Pressure Gauges, Measurements and Control, December 1991. Buckon, L., Considerations in Selecting a Pressure Calibration Device, Paper #910449, Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, 1991. Budenberg, G.F., Dead Weight Pressure Measurement, Instruments and Control Systems, February 1971. Comber, J. and Hockman, P., Pressure Monitoring: Whats Happening? Instruments and Control Systems, April 1980. Demorest, W.J., Pressure Measurement, Chemical Engineering, September 30, 1985. Hall, J., Monitoring Pressure with Newer Technologies, Instruments and Control Systems, April 1979. Hughes, T.A., Pressure Measurement, EMC series, downloadable PDF, Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2002. Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, Industrial Measurement Series: Pressure (video VHS, PAL & NTSC), Research Triangle Park, NC, 2002. Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society, Pressure: Indicators and Transmitters, CD-ROM, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2002. Johnson, D., Pressure Sensing: Its Everywhere, Control Engineering, April 2001. Kaminski, R.K., Measuring High Pressures Above 20,000 PSIG, Instrumentation Technology, August 1968. Lewis, J.D., Pressure Sensing: A Practical Primer, InTech, December 1990. Marrano, S.J., How to Choose and Apply Pressure Transmitters, Control, March 2000. Merritt, R., Keeping Up With Pressure Sensors, Instruments and Control Systems, April 1982.

CHANGE-OF-STATE DETECTION One other method for high-pressure sensing is to determine the pressure at which change-of-state occurs in various materials and then to apply that as a standard. Some of the changeof-state points have already been determined. For example, it has been established that the melting point of mercury at 0C is 109,765 30 PSIG (757 0.2 MPa). Similarly, the rst polymorphic transition point of bismuth has been found to be between 365,000 and 370,000 PSIG (2519 and 2553 MPa). DYNAMIC SENSORS The interest in dynamic pressure measurement to detect blast pressures, rapid chemical reactions, combustion pressures of rocket propellants, and so on has increased in recent years. Several electronic transducers have been developed for use with elastic elements. Because these devices were covered in Section 5.7, only a brief listing will be given here.

2003 by Bla Liptk