Extended Essay

Investigating the Hydrogen Atom as a Quantum System

Cole Coupland Candidate #002424-0016

Mulgrave School International Baccalaureate Programme Extended Essay in Physics May 2014 3871 Words

Author: Cole Coupland

Supervisor: Dr. Michael Frewin

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide an analytic treatment of the hydrogen atom in its ground energy state by considering the hydrogen atom as a quantum system rather than a classical system. This analysis involves the method and the solution to the Schr odinger wave equation for the said hydrogen atom. Furthermore, a graphical analysis is conducted of the plots of the electron density function and the radial distribution function of the theoretical hydrogen atom in question. The research question that will be investigated is, What conclusions can be made regarding the information obtained by applying the Schr odinger equation on the hydrogen atom and investigating its relevant wavefunctions?. By examining the intrinsic properties of the hydrogen atom and the spherical coordinate system, the necessary information can be obtained to solve the Schr odinger wave equation for the hydrogen atom. The solutions to this equation are two pieces of important information that could not be found by simply analyzing the properties of the hydrogen atom; the energy of the single electron and the most probable radius for an electron to be located at surrounding the atom or the Bohr radius. Two other important functions, the electron density function and the radial distribution function, regarding the quantum nature of the hydrogen atom are then derived, plotted and analyzed. The solution to the Schr odinger equation for the hydrogen atom was that the energy of the electron was 13.6eV and that the Bohr radius was 5.29 1011 m. There were also many signicant consequences that were then reached from analyzing the plots of the two aforementioned functions such as the fact that there is a probability of the electron in the hydrogen atom existing anywhere in the universe for when the radius is greater than zero. Word Count: 292 words

Contents
Abstract Introduction Important Concepts 1.1 Wave-Particle Duality . . . . . . 1.2 Quantum Numbers . . . . . . . . 1.3 The Wavefunction . . . . . . . . 1.4 The Schr odinger Wave Equation i 2 3 3 3 4 4 6 6 7 7 8 8 10 10 11 11 12 13 13

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Considerations for the Hydrogen Atom 2.1 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 The Spherical Polar Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 The Wavefunction in Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Laplacian of the Wavefunction in Spherical Coordinates Solving the Schr odinger Equation for the 3.1 Simplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Determining a Functional Solution . . 3.3 Rearranging the Equation . . . . . . . 3.4 The Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 The Atomic Radius . . . . . . 3.4.2 The Energy of the Electron . . Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Related Functions 15 4.1 The Electron Density Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 4.2 The Radial Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Conclusion Bibliography 18 20

Introduction
The model used to describe the atom has evolved from the times of Aristotle to the model which we currently use and is constantly adapting to new discoveries. With the fall of the Bohr model came the rise of the quantum mechanical model of the atom which described the position of electrons within the atom as a probability function rather than a denite position within space and time. The Schr odinger equation is a generalized description of a quantum mechanical system. When Schr odingers equation is applied to a specic quantum mechanical system such as an atom of a particular element, one can determine certain characteristics of the system such as the energy of certain electrons and the various atomic radii. The signicance of this discovery is profound as it is conrmation for the basis of quantum mechanics and the startling implication that nothing in our universe is certain. The existence of such orbitals and subshells also explains atomic trends such as the ionization energies of each atom. The research question that will be investigated throughout the course of this paper is What conclusions can be made regarding the information obtained by applying the Schr odinger equation on the hydrogen atom and investigating its relevant wavefunctions?. This question has great signicance in the world of physics because if the information obtained from such an investigation matched that of corresponding experimental results it would provide further evidence that particles can be expressed with wave like properties. There is also signicance in the fact that the probabilistic nature of an electrons position can be expressed in terms of the wavefunction and therefore if experimental results do match that of the information gained by applying the concept of the wavefunction, the foundation of determinism would be undermined.

Important Concepts
1.1 Wave-Particle Duality

Before the dawn of quantum mechanics, scientists stood puzzled by numerous experiments involving particles and waves which would not behave as predicted by theory. Louis de Broglie suggested the groundbreaking idea that particles could act as both a wave and a particle; the idea that became well-known as the wave-particle duality. De Broglie also hypothesized that, h suggesting that particles were related by momentum to an associated wavelength (Tsokos). De Broglies idea was later conrmed by numerous experiments, one of which was the famous electron diraction experiment. Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer observed that when electrons were passed through normally to a crystalline piece of nickel, the electrons would not pass straight through but would rather diract away from the expected path. Diraction is what would be expected if an electromagnetic wave of wavelength was passed through an aperture of length comparable to . Davisson and Germer realized that this was direct evidence of electrons behaving as waves and conrmed this by nding that the experimental wavelength of the electron matched the wavelength predicted by de Broglies relations (Galitski, Part III: Pioneering Experiments (contd); Penrose, 500-01). The Schr odinger wave equation is written in terms of the properties of waves and therefore establishing the wave-particle duality allows one to treat an electron as a wave and hence solve the Schr odinger equation for the hydrogen atom. p=

1.2

Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers are used to describe many of the important features of a quantum system. In this case the quantum system that will be analyzed is the hydrogen atom. Four quantum numbers are typically used to describe the electron conguration in a general atom, three of which are relevant to the hydrogen atom.

The principal quantum number, n, has a range of values from 1 to n and indicates the energy level or electron shell the valence electrons are in. The azimuthal quantum number, l, describes which subshell is being dealt with. The subshells s, p, d, and f have l values of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The range of l is 0 to n - 1 where n is the principal quantum number. The magnetic quantum number of an atom, ml , species the orbital within the subshell that contains the electron under question and has a range of l to l. For instance, an electron in the d subshell with l value of 2, would have ml values of either 2, 1, 0, 1, and 2 and hence conrms that there are ve distinct orbitals within the d subshell. The fourth quantum number is ms , which indicates the spin of the electron within an orbital. This quantum number is not necessary to describe the hydrogen atom to solve the Schr odinger equation as the solution is not dependent on this quantum number (Hua).

1.3

The Wavefunction

The wavefunction, dened by the Greek letter , is a function of both position and time. The wavefunction alone is meaningless as it only yields complex values but is given meaning when it is squared. The square of the wavefunction, | |2 , evaluates to a real value and it is interpreted as the probability of a freeparticle being located at a certain point (x, y, z ) at a particular time t. The wave function can be described by the equation, (x, t) = ei(kxt) where i is the imaginary unit, x is the free-particles displacement, is its angular velocity and t is time. The angular wave number k is equal to 2 where is the wavelength of the particle. Thus, all of the key information concerned with the particles movement and position are contained within the wavefunction, making it crucial to determining the probability of a particle being located at a certain position in space (Galitski, Part I: Meaning of the Wavefunction).

1.4

The Schr odinger Wave Equation

For the purposes of this essay we need only be concerned with the time-independent Schr odinger Equation. This formula, similarly to the time-dependent form of the equation, uses the variable coordinates of a free-particle, dened as x, y and z but lacks the variable of time. The time-dependent Schr odinger equation is much more complex and would lead the investigation astray from its intended purpose. The time-independent Schr odinger Equation takes the form, E (x, y, z ) = 2 2 h (x, y, z ) + U (x, y, z ) 2m (1.1)

The variable E represents the energy of the free-particle, (x, y, z ) is the wavefunction of the particle, m is its mass and U is its potential energy. h is the reduced Plancks constant which is Plancks constant divided by 2 . The Laplacian operator, 2 , of a function, in this case the wavefunction, indicates the sum of the second derivatives of the wavefunction with respect to each of the independent variables (Galitski, **Part IV: Deriving the Schr odinger Eq.). That is, 2 (x, y, z ) = d2 d2 d2 + 2 + 2 dx2 dy dz (1.2)

Considerations for the Hydrogen Atom

2.1 Potential Energy

To solve the Schr odinger equation for the hydrogen atom one must dene the free particle in the equation as the electron of a hydrogen atom. One step that must be taken to reach a solution is to express the potential energy, U , of the electron in terms of r. To do this one must consider that an electrons potential energy is caused by a single proton, as in the case of a hydrogen atom (Richmond). Potential energy can be written in the form, U = mda (2.3)

where m is the mass of the electron, a is the acceleration the electron experiences and d is the distance between the electron and the reference point which happens to be the proton. Therefore r, the atomic radius, can be substituted for d. To determine the acceleration of the electron one must apply Newtons second law of motion stating that, F (2.4) m where F is the force acting on the electron and m is its mass. Interchanging the variables d and r, and substituting equation 2.4 into 2.3 yields, a= U = Fr (2.5)

In order to determine the force acting upon an electron in a hydrogen atom, Coulombs law must be used, as the situation deals with charged particles. Coulombs law consists of three variables: q1 being the charge of the rst particle, q2 being the charge of the second particle and r being the distance between the charges. 0 is the permittivity of free space and is a physical constant (Tsokos). Coulombs law states that, F = q1 q2 4 0 r2 6

The magnitude of the charge of an electron and a proton are both the elementary charge, e, but the charges act in opposite directions. Therefore, F = e2 4 0 r 2 (2.6)

By substituting equation 2.6 into equation 2.5, the potential energy as a function of the radius can be obtained. U = ( e2 )r 4 0 r2 e2 4 0 r (2.7)

U (r ) =

2.2
2.2.1

The Spherical Polar Coordinate System

Spherical Coordinates

Another step that must be taken in solving the Schr odinger equation is to use spherical polar coordinates rather than Cartesian coordinates. The reason why we do this will be explained shortly but rst the system itself will be described. Consider a point mass moving around a central point of origin called O. Let the line segment that connects O and the point mass be OP . The position of a point mass in space can be described by r, the magnitude of OP , , the angle between the x-axis and OP , and , the angle between the z-axis and OP . A visual representation of the spherical coordinate system is presented in the following gure,

Figure 2.1: The Spherical Polar Coordinate System 7

In order to eliminate the need for some variables the variables x, y and z should be converted to the spherical coordinate variables r, and . It is intuitive to write the x, y and z variables in terms of the spherical coordinate variables as the potential energy is a function of r, which is also a variable in the spherical polar coordinate system. This eectively allows for two of the variables to become one unied variable, r. To do so the wavefunction must be expressed as a function of the spherical coordinates, r, and (Richmond). In the next subsection it will be shown why it will eliminate both of the angular variables, , and .

2.2.2

The Wavefunction in Spherical Coordinates

The wavefunction, in terms of the spherical coordinates, can be represented as the product of three functions, (r, , ) = R(r)()() where R(r) is the radial wave function, and () and () are the two angular wave functions (Hua). The two angular wave functions can be thought of the components of a single angular wavefunction, namely, Y (, ) = ()() The quantum numbers for hydrogen in its ground state are all 0 except for the principal quantum number which is 1. This is because the specic electron is in an s-orbital in the 1s subshell which only contains one orbital. Each component of the wavefunction is dependent on certain quantum numbers and these quantum numbers that they are dependent on are indicated in the subscripts of each wavefunction. The order in which the relevant quantum numbers are expressed in the subscript of each wavefunction is n, l and then ml (Hua). Therefore for the hydrogen atom in its ground energy state, the wavefunction can be expressed as, 1,0,0 (r, , ) = R1,0 (r)Y0,0 (, ) The corresponding angular wavefunction evaluates to a constant and therefore the wavefunction is only dependent on the variable r. In order to show that the angular wavefunction is a constant, Legendre polynomials must be used but this would deviate from the purpose and the focus of this essay (Kuntzleman).

2.2.3

Laplacian of the Wavefunction in Spherical Coordinates

The Laplacian of the wavefunction in Cartesian coordinates is much simpler to nd than that of the Laplacian of the wavefunction in spherical polar coordinates and can simply be written as the sum of the second derivatives of the x, y, and z variables as shown in equation 1.2. 8

By using the identities, x = r sin cos y = r sin sin z = r cos r= x2 + y 2 + z 2

one can determine the Laplacian of the wavefunction in spherical coordinates. This Laplacian has been proved to be, 1 1 d2 d2 r2 cos d d2 2 d + + 2 2 + + 2 2 2 2 dr r dr sin d r d r sin d

2 (r, , ) =

(2.8)

but deriving this Laplacian is extensive and beyond the scope of this essay and therefore it is reasonable to simply use this established Laplacian of the wavefunction in spherical polar coordinates (Weisstein).

Solving the Schr odinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom

3.1 Simplication

By putting together all the terms that have just been derived and using key information concerning the hydrogen atom it is now possible to simplify the Schr odinger equation to the point at which it is possible to describe a functional solution of the equation in terms of r (Richmond). First the general Schr odinger equation (1.1) must be rewritten in terms of the wavefunction in spherical coordinates and the potential energy as a function of r, 2 2 h (r, , ) + U (r) (r, , ) (3.9) 2m Then the potential energy function (Equation 2.7) and the Laplacian of the wavefunction in spherical coordinates (Equation 2.8) must be substituted into equation 3.9, E (r, , ) = h2 d2 2 d 1 d2 r2 cos d 1 d2 + + + + 2m dr2 r dr sin d r2 d2 r2 sin2 d2 e2 4 0 r

E =

The wave function for an electron in a hydrogen atom in its ground state is not dependent on the electrons angular position as it is simply a constant independent of the variables and . Therefore the terms involving the rst and second derivatives of the wavefunction with respect to and can be removed from the equation (Richmond). The Schr odinger equation hence becomes, E = 2 d2 2 d h + 2m dr2 r dr e2 4 0 r (3.10)

E =

2 d2 h h2 2 d e2 2m dr2 2m r dr 4 0 r 10

3.2

Determining a Functional Solution

To proceed with solving the Schr odinger equation for the hydrogen atom we must be able to simplify equation 3.10. This equation involves the rst and second derivatives of the wavefunction with respect to r and therefore a functional solution must be determined. As determined previously, the wavefunction is dependent solely on the radius and therefore = kR(r), where k is a positive constant determined by the angular wavefunction. As the rst and second derivatives of the wavefunction are with respect to r, they can also be rewritten in terms of the radial wavefunction. Hence, if a general form of the radial wavefunction could be determined, it could be used to nd a general solution to the Schr odinger equation (Winter). The radial wavefunction of hydrogen with a principal quantum number of 1, azimuthal quantum number of 0, and magnetic quantum number 0 is,
r 1 3 2 b e b and the corresponding angular wavefunction is,

R (r ) = 2

1 Y (r) = k = 4 b is a constant known as the Bohr radius or the radius at which an electron is most probable to be at around the nucleus (Finley). Since the wavefunction is the product of the angular wavefunction and the radial wavefunction it can be expressed as, 1 1 = (2 b 4
3 2 r 1 1 e b ) = b 3 2

e b

To make matters simpler, the variable can be assigned to the constant before the exponential term, 1 1 = b
3 2

This makes the equation easier to algebraically manipulate and does not impede upon reaching a solution. Therefore the general functional solution for the simplied Schr odinger equation is, = e b
r

3.3

Rearranging the Equation

Equation 3.10 can now be simplied further since a functional solution has been obtained. Seeing that the equation deals with the dierentiated forms of

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the functional solution, these dierentiated forms should be determined (Richmond). The rst and second derivatives of the wavefunction can be obtained by using the dierentiation rule, d Aef (x) = Af (x)ef (x) dx where A is some constant. Applying this rule on the wavefunction,
r r d (e b ) = e b dr b

d2 r r ( e b ) = 2 e b 2 dr b b Substituting these rst and second derivatives of the wavefunction with respect to r, and the wavefunction itself into equation 3.10 provides for a more manageable form of the Schr odinger equation for the hydrogen atom (Richmond). E (e b ) =
r r r h2 r 2 2 r h e2 ( 2e b) ( e b ) (e b ) 2m b 2m r b 4 0 r

Ee b +

e2 r h2 r h2 r b + e b = e e b 4 0 r 2mb2 mrb

3.4

The Solution

As we know that the radial wavefunction for the ground state of hydrogen takes the form,
r 1 3 2 b e b it can be determined there are no radii r which makes the radial wavefunction evaluate to zero (Finley). This is because the exponential term is greater than zero for all r and the Bohr radius is a positive constant. Since the wavefunction is the product of the angular and radial wavefunctions, if the radial wavefunction was zero, the wavefunctions value would also be zero. The probability of an electron occuring at a certain point is the square of the absolute value of the wavefunction and therefore if the wavefunction were zero, the probability of an electron existing at that position in space would also be zero. Using this reasoning it can be deduced that since the radial wavefunction is positive for all r, there are no points in space where the probability of an electron being located there is zero. The lack of these points, or nodes, for the ground state of the hydrogen atom also implies there be an innite number of solutions to the Schr odinger equation specic to the hydrogen atom (Hua). For the simplied form of the Schr odinger Equation to have innite solutions two types of terms in r rb the equation must be considered; the terms and the e b terms. There re

R (r ) = 2

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are two of each type of term and for there to be innite solutions each of the like terms must be equal to one another. Therefore, Ee b = and, h2 r e2 r e b = e b 4 0 r mrb (3.12)
r

2 r h e b 2mb2

(3.11)

3.4.1

The Atomic Radius

The atomic radius for the ground energy level of hydrogen can be obtained by r b term can be continuing to solve equation 3.12 for b (Richmond). The re divided out on each side of the equation leaving, e2 h2 = 4 0 mb Rearranging to isolate b yields, b= but since h 2 =
h2 4 2

4 0 h2 me2

this value can be simplied further, b=

2 0h me2

By substituting the known values for the constants on the right hand side of the equation, an approximate value for b can be reached, b= (8.85 1012 )(6.626 1034 )2 5.29 1011 m (9.11 1031 ) (1.6 1019 )2

3.4.2

The Energy of the Electron

To determine the energy of the single electron in the ground state of hydrogen, r equation 3.11 must be solved for E (Richmond). Dividing by e b reduces the equation to, h2 2mb2 The right hand side of the equation is a constant value consisting of the reduced Plancks constant, the mass of an electron and the Bohr radius. As we have found the value for the Bohr radius in the previous subsection, the energy of an electron in the ground energy state of hydrogen can also be determined. E=

13

Using these known constants, (6.63 1034 )2 2.18 1018 J 2 4 2 (9.11 1031 ) (5.29 1011 )2

E=

Since we are dealing with very small amounts of energy it is appropriate to convert this value into electronvolts where one electronvolt is equal to 1.60 1019 J . Applying this conversion, 2.18 1018 13.6eV 1.6 1019 This is only the energy that must must be applied to the electron to move it from its position to innity and therefore the actual energy of the electron is positive and is thus 13.6eV. E=

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Related Functions
4.1 The Electron Density Function

The electron density function of an atom describes the electron density at an arbitrary point surrounding the nucleus (Winter). The electron density is the probability of an electron being present at that point and is also therefore equal to the square of the absolute value of the wavefunction. The electron density can also be thought of as the relative probability of an electron being located at a certain radius (Shusterman). The relationship between the electron density function and the radial distribution function is, | |2 = 4r2 P (r) where P(r) is the radial distribution function. Therefore the electron density is the probability per unit surface area at the specic radius (Shusterman). In section 3.2, it was determined that, 1 1 = b
3 2

e b

Therefore the electron density function for this particular hydrogen atom is, 1 2r e b b3 Given that we want the radius of the function to be measured in Bohr radii we can let b = 1, | |2 = 1 2r e The graph of the electron density function can be seen in gure 5.2 on the following page. | |2 =

4.2

The Radial Distribution Function

The radial distribution function is another useful tool to investigate the distribution of electrons in an atom. It is a function of the radius of a certain electron

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Figure 4.2: The Electron Density Function around an atom and will evaluate to the probability of an electron being located at that radius at an arbitrary time (Winter). The radial distribution function describes the probability of an electron being located at a certain radius, which is a set of points whereas the electron density function only describes the probability of an electron existing at a single point around the atom. For the hydrogen atom in its ground energy state, the probability of an electron being located at a certain point is the same for all other points with the same radius as the angular wavefunction is simply a constant (Finley). Therefore for a given sphere surrounding the nucleus, each point on the sphere will be equally probably of having an electron exist at that point. Thus, by multiplying the electron density function by the surface area of a sphere, 4r2 , it will then be equivalent to the radial distribution function (Winter). Hence, 4r2 2r e b b3 By letting the Bohr radius equal 1, the units that the radius will be measured in is the number of Bohr radii. As the denition of the Bohr radius is the most probable distance for an electron to be from the nucleus, the maximum of the radial distribution function should occur when r = 1. By substituting b = 1 into the radial distribution function this new function can be determined, P (r) = 4r2 | |2 = P (r) = 4r2 e2r The graph of the radial distribution function may be seen on the following page in gure 4.3.

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Figure 4.3: The Radial Distribution Function This graph must have a restricted domain as the distance between the nucleus and the electron must be greater than or equal to 0. Therefore the region of the graph for r < 0 can be left from analysis. It can also be conrmed that the total probability of an electron existing in the universe is 1 and this is shown by integrating the radial distribution function with respect to r from zero to innity.

4r2 e2r dr
0

To determine this integral, integration by parts must be used, 4r2 e2r dr = 2r2 e2r 4re2r 2e2r

= 2r2 e2r + 2re2r +

= 2r2 e2r + 2re2r e2r

4r2 e2r dr = [2r2 e2r + 2re2r e2r ] 0 =1

0

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Conclusion
Throughout the course of this paper it should have become evident that treating the hydrogen atom in its ground state as a quantum system has allowed for a great understanding of the intrinsic properties of atoms in general and a greater understanding of the implications of quantum mechanics. The solutions to the Schr odinger wave equation for the hydrogen atom in its lowest energy state that have been obtained match that of the corresponding experimental values. 13.6eV is the value that has been accepted by the scientic community for the energy of the electron in question which was the value obtained by solving the Schr odinger equation (Serway). The same applies for the Bohr radius which has been accepted to be approximately 5.29 1011 m which is also the value that was obtained through solving the equation (Serway). The fact that someone can determine these values in their exact forms by treating the hydrogen atom as a quantum system through using the Schr odinger wave equation is conrmation for the wave-particle duality. The Schr odinger wave equation uses information that would normally apply to waves, yet accurately describes similar information for an atom and thus shows that particles may act as waves and vice versa. The graph of the radial distribution function for the said hydrogen atom contains crucial information regarding the probabilistic nature of an electrons position. Notice that,
r

lim 4r2 e2r = 0

This can be seen visually from the fact that the graph asymptotically approaches zero as the radius tends to innity. Therefore the probability of an electron existing at a certain radius never reaches zero. This conclusion is profound as it means that an electron may exist anywhere in the universe surrounding the nucleus, not just in the connes of the atom. The only position in the universe where the probability of an electron existing is zero is when r = 0, or the center of the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The maximum of the graph also indicates the most probable distance away from the nucleus for the electron of the hydrogen atom to be found. In this case the maximum occurs when r = 1 but since we dened the radius to be measured in the number of Bohr radii, this is simply the distance of the Bohr radius. When solving the Sch rodinger equation this was determined to be 5.29 1011 m. This maximum is conrmation for the fact that the Bohr radius is the most probable radius for 18

the electron to be at. If the maximum were at an r value such that r = 1 it would contradict the denition of the Bohr radius. The fact that the integral of the function from zero to innity is one shows that the total probability of an electron existing in space is 1. If it were more or less than 1 it would indicate that the radial distribution function was not a probability density function and would cause a fundamental problem in the foundations of quantum theory. The graph of the electron density function also contains important conceptual information. Intuitively one may believe that the maximum of the electron density function occurs at the Bohr radius since this is the radius which has the maximum probability of an electron existing. This is not the case since the electron density is the measure of the relative probability of an electron existing at a certain radius. Therefore, even though there is a very low probability of an electron being found innitesimally close to the center of the nucleus, the surface area as the radius approaches zero also tends to zero. It is therefore evident that the surface area approaching zero has a greater bearing on the electron density than the low probability of an electron being found at a very small radius. Also, because the graph never reached an electron density of zero, it can be concluded that there would be a positive electron density in the universe even if only a single hydrogen atom existed within such a universe. In the future it would be interesting to investigate the application of the Schr odinger equation on atoms of dierent elements, energy states, subshells and orbitals. I was very keen on making an essay similar to this one but with the Schr odinger equation being applied on an atom with an angular wavefunction that was not a constant. The three dimensional plots of such electron density functions are truly spectacular when the probability is dependent on the angle and many such graphs involved interesting geometric shapes such as toruses and shapes that resembled dumbbells. The reason I chose to instead apply the Schr odinger equation on the hydrogen atom was because I did not think it was possible to eectively treat the more advanced topics within four thousand words and thought the essay would therefore be more suited to the hydrogen atom in its ground energy state. I have already begun investigating the consequences of considering other atoms of various energies for the Schr odinger equation and I will continue to investigate this area further. Another area which I have yet to fully investigate is the time dependent form of the Schr odinger equation. It also could not be eectively treated within the word constraint as there is a greater degree of complexity involved due to the extra time dimension. Although it was not suitable to treat in this essay it will provide for interesting further investigation. In conclusion, considering the hydrogen atom solely as a particle imposes drastic limitations on ones ability to understand the hydrogen atom and furthermore the laws of the universe. The ramications of considering the hydrogen atom as a quantum system is profound and the newly discovered probabilistic nature of the universe will be crucial to future discoveries in physics should it continue to uphold.

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[12] Weisstein, Eric W. Laplaces EquationSpherical Coordinates. Wolfram MathWorld. Wolfram, n.d. Web. 7 Sept. 2013. [13] Winter, Mark. Atomic Orbitals: 1s. The Orbitron: A Gallery of Atomic Orbitals and Molecular Orbitals. University of Sheeld, 2002. Web. 15 Sept. 2013.

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