Genres and Language Features

Common Genres in Senior Secondary Schooling
Structures and Some of the Important Language Features
(This information can be adapted by teachers to suit the specific literacy demands of individual subjects.)
DECS CURRICULUM SERVICES, NUMERACY AND SCIENCES PORTFOLIO including Senior Secondary Reform Version 1.1 November 2008 Page 1 of 32
Context and Purpose of this Material
This resource is based on the premise that specific subjects/disciplines have specific literacy demands. The purposes of a subject/discipline will determine the genres, language and mediums of presentation that are predominantly used. Therefore, one of the main ways in which the literacies of subjects can be identified is to examine the kinds of texts that students are expected to produce, including the structures and language features of these texts. These structures and language features can then be taught so that students gain a clear understanding of the literacy expectations of specific assessment tasks. Most students in primary schools, and an increasing number in middle schools, are exposed to genre approaches. They already have understandings that need to be built on in the senior years. Therefore, it is important to maintain a genre approach as much as possible, so that students can draw on their prior learning. For example, this means using terminology related to genre that many students will understand. Teachers may make modifications to this material to suit what they would like to do specifically within their classrooms. Both teachers and students can choose the language features that the class could concentrate on when creating texts within a unit of work. Some of the genres used in Senior Secondary schooling are macrogenres, meaning that they are made up of more than one traditional genre. In instances such as this, the different kinds of genres and related language features used at each stage of the text require identification. The language used throughout these materials is from both traditional grammar and systemic functional linguistics. It is a reality that teachers and students need a language to talk about language if they are to discuss and build on understandings about language. A glossary has been included at the back of this material to help teachers and students to develop their understandings of genres and language. There is also PD available in South Australia, which provides teachers with an understanding of systemic functional linguistics, particularly the course How Language Works offered by the Literacy Secretariat.
Some Common Genres in Senior Secondary Schooling and their Purposes

Genre click on links for more detail Recount (personal, historical, factual, imaginative) Practical Report (e.g. write up of a practical experiment, field trip, investigation) Directed Investigation Reports Procedure Narrative Information Report Purpose -to retell events in the past.
-to explain how an experiment/practical was conducted, analyse the results and evaluate the outcomes.
-to undertake a mathematical investigation, analyse results and evaluate the outcomes. -to explain how to undertake a task. -to tell a story in an entertaining way. Often such stories also aim to present specific values. -to inform about a topic. An information report may be taxonomic or descriptive taxonomic will answer the question What kinds? and descriptive will answer What about? -A sequential explanation explains how something occurs. A causal explanation explains how and why something occurs. -to provide one line of reasoning. The author presents one interpretation of an issue and uses supporting material to try to convince others of their point of view. The thesis that is put forward is built up throughout the text. -to provide one point of view on an issue and to make the audience take action. Often these texts are very emotive. Some examples could include letters to the editor, speeches, articles and advertisements. -to present all arguments on a topic, as well as the supporting evidence for those arguments. The conclusion contains a recommendation based on the evidence for all sides that have been presented. -to interpret what a text(s) is presenting, providing evidence from the text(s) to support the interpretation. Interpretations are often similar to analytical arguments/expositions in that they present one argument/point of view. -to present a personal response. -to describe and evaluate a text (eg film, book, painting, webpage)
Explanation (sequential or causal) Exposition (Analytical Argument)
Hortatory Exposition (Argument urging the audience to act) Discussion
Interpretation
Personal Response Review
Recount
Purpose: to retell events in the past. Structure orientation sequence of events in chronological order re-orientation (optional) Language that is used to structure Recounts and give them cohesion conjunctions to begin paragraphs and sentences, usually these are related to time (eg First, Next) phrases in the place of conjunctions to begin paragraphs and sentences, usually related to time (eg In the following year, After that episode,) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences and to make them flow (eg So, Next, However) linking conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg because, when) reference items (eg he, she, it, those) Language that is used to explain the content of Recounts noun groups to define and describe (eg The beautiful small weatherboard house on the hill) a range of verbs/processes to explain actions (eg born, educated, travelled) a range of verbs/processes to explain the relationships between things (eg is, was, has, have) a range of verbs/processes to explain mental processes (eg thought, felt, dreamed) a range of verbs/processes to explain how things were said (eg expressed, told, argued) causal relational processes (eg because, resulted in) circumstances to explain time (eg At the time of his birth); place (eg In Australia); with (eg with his sister); how (eg with enormous joy); why (eg because of his parents expectations) reported speech (eg The boy shouted in response that he would not take that option.) nominalisation (eg beauty, sadness, joy) Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Recounts statements to provide information expressions of attitudes and feelings (eg pleasure, gladness, genuine warmth) words to express obligation and inclination (eg had to, expected to, felt like) objective or personal voice (eg personal used if recounting events from own life in an autobiography, objective voice used if writing a biography) Language and other techniques that are used to express information clearly and accurately in Recounts appropriate language has been used at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, conjunctions (especially those expressing time and sequence), and circumstances (especially those of time and place) past tense used appropriately and consistently words are spelt correctly presentation is effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) passive and active voices used
punctuation correct
Practical Report (eg write up of a practical experiment) Purpose: to explain how an experiment/practical was conducted, analyse the results and evaluate the outcomes. Structure introduce the purpose of the experiment in the opening sentence make a clear statement about the hypothesis to be tested list the apparatus and materials provide a step by step description of the method used provide a diagram give a table of results include a discussion of results provide a conclusion may include a statement about future work Language that is used to structure Practical Reports and give them cohesion subheadings to indicate different sections conjunctions to begin sentences in the description and method (eg First, Next, Finally) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences in the discussion and conclusion (eg So, Next, However) linking conjunctions within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns (eg it, they, those, this, them) Language that is used to explain the content of Practical Reports noun groups to define and describe with many classifiers used (eg the acidic chemical mixture in the test tube) processes/verbs that explain the actions (placed, dissolves, moves) processes/verbs that explain the relationships between things (eg is, have, has, was) causal relational processes (eg causes, results in, leads to) circumstances to explain time (eg after two minutes); place (eg in the tube, on the glass); with (eg with the hot substance); how (eg very smoothly, rapidly); why (eg because of the pressure) technical terms (eg evaporation, dissolves, photosynthesis) comparatives (eg slower, faster, thinner) nominalisation- where words (usually verbs and adjectives) are turned into nouns (eg to use=the use, to solve=solution, to reduce=reduction, intense=intensity) Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Practical Reports statements to provide information objective voice making sure that reference items/pronouns like I and We are not used, which means that scientific concepts and noun groups are often put at the beginning of sentences (eg The increase in evaporation was expected, rather than I thought the amount of evaporation would increase.) expressions of certainty, usuality, frequency (eg almost always, sometimes, often, definitely)
Language and other techniques that are used to express information clearly and accurately in Practical Reports appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, conjunctions and circumstances of time and manner appropriate tense in different sections words spelt correctly, especially technical terms presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive voice when appropriate (eg The flame is then turned on.)
Practical Report (eg Field Trip, Investigation) Purpose: to explain how a practical investigation was conducted, analyse the results and evaluate the outcomes. Structure

introduce the hypothesis in the opening sentence define the key terms related to the topic and discuss briefly the aim discuss the methods proposed discuss the reason for choosing the topic, including why the issue/topic is significant provide background to the topic synthesise information analyse and evaluate evidence gained summarise the findings discuss the findings in terms of the hypothesis comment on the significance of the main finding evaluate the extent to which the hypothesis is supported evaluate the limitations in the study suggest how the investigation could be done differently and why suggest future trends and research subheadings to indicate different sections conjunctions to begin sentences (eg First, Next, Finally) phrases in the place of conjunctions to begin sentences (eg In addition to, On the other hand, Another reason why) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences in the discussion and conclusion (eg So, Next, However, Therefore) linking conjunctions within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns (eg it, they, those, this, them) noun groups to define and describe with many classifiers used (eg the humanitarian and political refugees) processes/verbs that explain the actions (eg investigated, interviewed, surveyed) processes/verbs that explain the relationships between things (eg is, have, has, was) causal relational processes (eg causes, results in, leads to)
Language that is used to structure Practical Reports and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Practical Reports

circumstances to explain time (eg after the war); place (eg in the hospital); with (eg with the support of friends); how (eg very smoothly, rapidly); why (eg because of the tension) technical terms (eg evacuation, granite) comparatives (eg slower, faster, thinner) nominalisation- where words (usually verbs and adjectives) are turned into nouns (eg to use=the use, to solve=solution, to reduce=reduction, intense=intensity, demonstrate=demonstration) statements to provide information objective voice used in most sections, except when evaluating the research process or providing opinion at the end. Objective voice means making sure that reference items/pronouns like I and We are not used, which means that concepts and noun groups are often put at the beginning of sentences (eg The increase in humanitarian refugees from the area was expected, rather than I thought that the number of refugees from the area would increase.) expressions of certainty, usuality, frequency (eg almost always, sometimes, often, definitely)
Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Practical Reports

Language and other techniques that are used to express information clearly and accurately in Practical Reports
appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, conjunctions and circumstances of time and manner appropriate tense in different sections words spelt correctly, especially technical terms presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive voice when appropriate (eg The rocks were then collected and stored)
Directed Investigation Reports Purpose: To undertake a mathematical investigation, analyse results and evaluate the outcomes. Structure
introduce all the background information relevant to the main focus of the investigation, state the aim of the investigation and outline the features of the problem being investigated explain the methods and materials used complete solutions to all questions display results effectively analyse and interpret results complete all answers to any set questions conclude the investigation, including a summary of the main results, a statement of the overall conclusion (based on aim), evaluation of methods used (including discussion of what could be improved next time and recommendations for further investigation) subheadings may be used to define each section of the report
Language that is used to structure Directed Investigations and give them cohesion

conjunctions to begin sentences (eg First, Next, Finally) phrases in the place of conjunctions to begin sentences (eg In addition to, On the other hand, Another reason why) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences (eg So, Next, However, Therefore) linking conjunctions within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns (eg it, those, this, them) technical language used appropriately noun groups to define and describe with many classifiers and numeratives used (eg the two isosceles triangle) processes/verbs that explain the actions (eg investigated, interviewed, surveyed) processes/verbs that explain the relationships between things (eg is, have, has, was, relates to) causal relational processes (eg causes, results in, leads to, because of) circumstances to explain time (eg after the race); place (eg in the equation); with (eg with the calculator); how (eg very rapidly); why (eg because of the time difference) comparatives (eg slower, faster, thinner)
Language that is used to explain the content of Directed Investigations

nominalisation- where words (usually verbs and adjectives) are turned into nouns (eg to use = the use, to solve=solution, to reduce=reduction, to measure=measurement, to equate=equation) statements to provide information objective voice used. Objective voice means making sure that reference items/pronouns like I and We are not used, which means that concepts and noun groups are often put at the beginning of sentences (eg The multiplication of rather than I thought that the multiplication would) expressions of certainty, usuality, frequency (eg almost always, sometimes, often, definitely, rarely) passive voice used when appropriate (This is often used to ensure that the reference items/pronouns I, we are not used and the report is written in the third person eg instead of I measured the court, use The measurement of the court was conducted. appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences, including especially nouns/noun groups, nominalisations appropriate tense in different sections words spelt correctly, especially technical terms presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct
Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Directed Investigations

Language and other techniques that are used to express information clearly
Procedure Purpose: to explain how to do something, using a number of steps. Structure begin with a statement about the outcome that will be achieved by following through a number of steps list the materials or equipment that is required present the steps involved in the task in a logical order (may be numbered or demonstrated in some other way eg *) include diagrams/illustrations where appropriate
Language that is used to structure Procedures and give them cohesion temporal (time) conjunctions to help indicate sequence (eg Firstly, Secondly)

action verbs/processes to indicate a change in step (eg stir, run) reference items to refer to people/things and avoid repetition (eg it, them) full sentences may not be used
Language that is used to explain the content of Procedures short noun groups with lots of classifiers (eg Nike sandshoes)

a range of verbs/processes to explain the actions (eg run, stir, freeze)
a range of verbs/processes to describe the relationships between things/people (eg was, is, connects) a range of circumstances to explain time, place, with whom/what, how and why (eg after five minutes, in the bowl, with a large racket, carefully, with great force, because of the heat) causal relational processes (results in, causes)

technical terms (eg baking soda, blend) nominalisation (eg refrigeration)
Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Procedures words to express certainty, obligation, frequency (eg will burn, must jump high, should freeze well, twice) statements to give instructions (eg blend for 40 minutes)
objective voice
Language and other techniques that are used to express information clearly and accurately in Procedures present tense

action verbs sometimes put at the beginning of sentences/dot points words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg use of ICT) illustrations/diagrams effective punctuation correct
Narrative Purpose: to tell a story in an entertaining way. Often such stories also aim to present specific values. Structure

an effective orientation to begin, including time, place, main characters complication(s) resolution(s) evaluation/reflection about the complication(s) and resolution(s) (optional) coda (optional) phrases of time and place to organise the text (eg In the morning, On the boat) linking conjunctions to expand sentences and increase their complexity (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions to expand sentences and increase their complexity (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to refer to people/things (eg it, he, him, me, this, them) paragraphs to organise the main ideas and sections of the narrative noun groups with lots of describers/adjectives (eg the old rusty car, a clear bright morning in July) processes/verbs to explain actions (eg ran, carried, placed) processes/verbs to explain mental processes (eg thought, dreamed) processes/verbs to explain how things are said (eg cried, shouted, argued, yell) processes/verbs to describe the relationships between things/people (eg was, have, am) circumstances to explain time, place, with whom/what, how and why (eg At the end of the year, On the crystal clear beach, with the massive dog, with great trepidation, because of the time) appropriate idioms (eg pull her socks up) direct speech (eg In a minute, she yelled.) reported speech (eg The girl yelled that she would come in a minute) comparatives (eg fatter, wobblier) nominalisation (eg argument, concern, beauty) figurative language (eg similes, metaphor, personification)
Language that is used to structure Narratives and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Narratives

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Narratives

expressions of attitudes and feelings (eg terrible anguish, great sadness, sudden joy) expressions of certainty, obligation and inclination (eg definitely, might, have to, should) statements, questions, offers and commands as appropriate to the story
Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Narratives

appropriate tense (eg for time changes, flashbacks) words and phrases used to begin paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, conjunctions and circumstances of time and place words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) passive and active voices punctuation correct
Information Report Purpose: to inform about a topic. An Information Report may be taxonomic or descriptive taxonomic will answer the question What kinds? and descriptive will answer What about? Structure

clear opening statement to begin information of the same type is grouped within paragraphs each paragraph has a clear topic sentence to begin or a heading a conclusion summarises the main points that have been presented (optional)
Language that is used to structure Information Reports and give them cohesion

connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg Firstly, Next, Finally) conjunctions at the beginning of sentences to help make the writing flow (eg So, Next, However, Therefore) linking conjunctions in the middle of sentences to expand sentences and to increase their complexity (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions in the middle of sentences to expand sentences and to increase their complexity (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to refer to people/things (eg it, those, this, them, you, me) noun groups to define and describe concepts (eg the extremely large and extensive conifer forest in Canada) a range of verbs/processes to explain the actions relevant to the topic (eg shattered, shot, spread, undermined, examine) a range of verbs/processes to explain the relationships between things (eg is, was, were) a range of circumstances to explain time, place, with whom, how and why (eg in the beginning, at the end of the lake, with five other explorers, with great care and concern, because of the heat) relevant technical terms used appropriately (eg transportation, permeable) comparatives to help explain concepts (eg slower, faster, fitter) nominalisation (eg evaporation, deception, use) objective voice (no I, we, us) third person point of view statements to provide information language expressing certainty, usuality, frequency (eg It is clear that, often, frequently, always)
Language that is used to explain the content of Information Reports

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Information Reports

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Information Reports
appropriate language at the beginning of sentences and paragraphs, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, conjunctions and circumstances of time and place appropriate tense (often present tense but may depend on the topic) words spelt accurately presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) visual information presented and integrated with the written text punctuation correct passive voice at times consistent referencing and used throughout bibliography/reference list included
Explanation (Linear) Purpose: A sequential explanation explains how something occurs. A causal explanation explains how and why something occurs. Structure

introduce the phenomenon clearly in the first sentence logically sequence the explanation concluding statement connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg Firstly, Next, Finally) conjunctions at the beginning of sentences to make the writing flow (eg So, Next, However, Therefore) - in particular, temporal conjunctions expressing time (eg After, Before, Initially) linking conjunctions in the middle of sentences to expand them and increase complexity (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions in the middle of sentences to expand them and increase complexity (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to refer to people/things (eg it, those, this, them, you, me) noun groups to define and describe concepts (eg the acidic mixture in the test tube) range of verbs/processes to explain the actions relevant to the topic (eg placed, dissolves, moves) a range of verbs/processes to explain the relationships between things (eg is, was, were, am, has) a range of circumstances to explain time, place, with whom/what, how and why (eg after ten years, in outer space, with the hot substance, rapidly, because of the pressure) relevant technical terms (ed acid, evaporation) comparatives to explain concepts (eg slower, faster, clumsier) nominalisation (eg use, solution, development) objective voice (eg The test tube not I, we) statements to provide information language expressing certainty, usuality and frequency (eg almost, always, sometimes, often, definitely)
Language that is used to structure Explanations and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Explanations

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Explanations

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Explanations
appropriate language used at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, conjunctions and circumstances of time and place present tense words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive and active voices references consistent bibliography/reference list
Exposition (Analytical Argument) Purpose: Analytical Expositions provide one line of reasoning. The author presents one interpretation of an issue and uses supporting material to try to convince others of their point of view. The thesis that is put forward is built up throughout the text. Structure

statement of the main argument/thesis at the beginning main points of the argument follow the thesis statement, including a summary of the main information that will be used to support the argument each paragraph after the introduction uses a clear topic sentence, which extends the main argument elaborating sentences used within each paragraph to expand on the main idea of the paragraph supporting sentences with details and evidence used within each paragraph to support the ideas presented a paragraph may be included which includes an anticipation of an opposing viewpoint(s) and this is refuted strong concluding paragraph with a summary of all the main points and reiteration of the main argument/thesis connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg Firstly, Finally) conjunctions to begin sentences (eg Next, Secondly) phrases sometimes used in the place of conjunctions at the beginning of sentences (eg In addition to this, Another argument is that, On the other hand) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences and make them flow (eg However, Therefore) linking conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to avoid repetition and add cohesion (eg they, them, those) noun groups to define and describe concepts (eg The large longitudinal sand dunes in the north) range of verbs/processes to explain the actions relevant to the topic (eg blew, dislodged, eroded) range of verbs/processes to explain the relationships between things (eg is, are, have, am) range of verbs/processes to explain how things were said (eg argued, asserted, declared, informed)
Language that is used to structure Expositions and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Expositions

a range of verbs/processes to express cognition and sensing (eg saw, observed, know) a range of circumstances to explain time (eg during last winter); place (eg on the Coorong); with whom/what (eg with the assistance of park rangers); how (eg ferociously); why (eg because of the wind speed and direction) relevant technical terms (eg prevailing wind, abrasion) comparatives to explain concepts (eg faster, slower, mightier) nominalisation (eg erosion, distribution) objective voice expressions of certainty, usuality and frequency (eg usually, most of the time, consistently, always) statements to give information words chosen carefully to express attitude and point of view of the writer (eg horrific destruction). (The point of view of the writer is provided without using the pronoun/reference item I)
Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Expositions

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Expositions

appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences to emphasise aspects, especially nouns and noun groups tense appropriate and changed when necessary words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive and active voices used references used consistently and appropriately bibliography or reference list
Exposition (Hortatory) Purpose: A Hortatory Exposition presents one point of view on an issue and seeks to make the audience act. Often these texts are very emotive. Some examples could include letters to the editor, speeches, articles and advertisements. Structure

statement of the main argument/thesis at the beginning main points of the argument follow the thesis statement, including a summary of the main information that will be used to support the argument each paragraph after the introduction uses a clear topic sentence, which extends the main argument elaborating sentences used within each paragraph to expand on the main idea of the paragraph supporting sentences with details and evidence used within each paragraph to support the ideas presented a paragraph may be included which includes an anticipation of an opposing viewpoint(s) and this is refuted strong concluding paragraph with a summary of all the main points and reiteration of the main argument/thesis a statement about how people should act in the future is also often included connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg Firstly, Finally) conjunctions to begin sentences (eg Next, Secondly) phrases sometimes used in the place of conjunctions at the beginning of sentences (eg In addition to this, Another argument is that, On the other hand) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences and make them flow (eg However, Therefore) linking conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to avoid repetition and add cohesion (eg they, them, those) noun groups to define and describe concepts (eg The large longitudinal sand dunes in the north) range of verbs/processes to explain the actions relevant to the topic (eg blew, dislodged, eroded) range of verbs/processes to explain the relationships between things (eg is, are, have, am) range of verbs/processes to explain how things were said (eg argued, asserted, declared, informed)
Language that is used to structure Expositions and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Expositions

-a range of verbs/processes to express cognition and sensing (eg saw, observed, know) a range of circumstances to explain time (eg during last winter); place (eg on the Coorong); with whom/what (eg with the assistance of park rangers); how (eg ferociously); why (eg because of the wind speed and direction) relevant technical terms (eg prevailing wind, abrasion) comparatives to explain concepts (eg faster, slower, mightier) nominalisation (eg erosion, distribution) objective voice used to set up the writer/speaker as an independent expert subjective voice used at times to express personal involvement and emotion expressions of certainty, usuality and frequency (eg usually, most of the time, consistently, always) statements to give information words chosen carefully to express attitude and point of view of the writer (eg horrific destruction). (The point of view of the writer is provided without using the pronoun/reference item I)
Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Expositions

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Expositions

appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences to emphasise aspects, especially nouns and noun groups tense appropriate and changed when necessary words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive and active voices used references used consistently and appropriately bibliography or reference list
Discussion Purpose: Discussions seek to present all arguments on a topic, as well as the supporting evidence for those arguments. The conclusion contains a recommendation based on the evidence for all sides that have been presented . Structure

an opening statement presenting both sides of the issue main points of all the arguments follow the opening statement, including a brief summary of the main information that will be used to support the arguments each paragraph after the introduction begins with a clear topic sentence, which indicates which side of the issue the paragraph is about (OR one paragraph may contain comments about both sides of an issue) elaborating sentences are used within each paragraph to expand on the main idea of the paragraph supporting sentences with details and evidence are used within each paragraph to support the ideas presented concluding paragraph presented with both sides of the issue summarised and a recommendation made based on the weight of evidence connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg Firstly, Finally) conjunctions to begin sentences (eg Next, Secondly) phrases sometimes used in the place of conjunctions at the beginning of sentences (eg In addition to this, Another alternative argument is that) -conjunctions used to join ideas between sentences and make them flow (eg However, Therefore) linking conjunctions used to join information within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions used to join information within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns used to avoid repetition and add cohesion (eg they, them, those) noun groups to define and describe concepts (eg The enormous terrifying white pointer sharks in Australian waters) range of verbs/processes to explain the actions relevant to the topic (eg disembowelled, gorged, maimed, chew, chomp) a range of verbs/processes to explain the relationship between things (eg have, is, has, are) a range of verbs/processes to explain how things were said (eg argued, asserted, explained) a range of verbs/processes to express cognition and sensing (eg sensed, thought, knew, believed)
Language that is used to structure Discussions and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Discussions

a range of circumstances to explain time (eg during the summer); place (eg on the South West Beach); with whom/what (eg with other swimmers); how (eg slowly and carefully), why (eg because of their migration patterns) technical terms (eg culling) comparatives (eg faster, heavier) nominalisation (eg argument, reason, migration) objective voice language to express certainty, usuality and frequency (eg mostly, often, will definitely) statements to give information
Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Discussions

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Discussions
appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences to emphasise aspects, especially nouns and noun groups (eg The general public using the beach) tense used appropriately and altered correctly when necessary words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive and active voices references bibliography or reference list
Interpretation Purpose: Interpretations analyse what a text(s) is presenting, providing evidence from the text(s) to support the interpretation. Interpretations are often similar to analytical arguments/expositions in that they present one argument/point of view. Structure

statement of the main interpretation at the beginning (This is like a thesis statement). main points of the interpretation follow the thesis statement, including a summary of the main information that will be used to support the interpretation each paragraph after the introduction uses a clear topic sentence, which extends the main interpretation elaborating sentences used within each paragraph to expand on the main idea of the paragraph supporting sentences with details and evidence used within each paragraph to support the ideas presented strong concluding paragraph with a summary of all the main points and reiteration of the main interpretation connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg Firstly, Finally) conjunctions to begin sentences (eg Next, Secondly) phrases sometimes used in the place of conjunctions at the beginning of sentences (eg In addition to this, Another argument is that, On the other hand) conjunctions to join ideas between sentences and make them flow (eg However, Therefore) linking conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions to join information within sentences (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to avoid repetition and add cohesion (eg they, them, those) noun groups to define and describe concepts (eg The large longitudinal sand dunes in the north) range of verbs/processes to explain the actions relevant to the topic (eg blew, dislodged, eroded) range of verbs/processes to explain the relationships between things (eg is, are, have, am) range of verbs/processes to explain how things were said (eg argued, asserted, declared, informed) a range of verbs/processes to express cognition and sensing (eg saw, observed, know)
Language that is used to structure Interpretations and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Interpretations

a range of circumstances to explain time (eg during last winter); place (eg on the Coorong); with whom/what (eg with the assistance of park rangers); how (eg ferociously); why (eg because of the wind speed and direction) relevant technical terms (eg prevailing wind, abrasion) comparatives to explain concepts (eg faster, slower, mightier) nominalisation (eg erosion, distribution) objective voice expressions of certainty, usuality and frequency (eg usually, most of the time, consistently, always) statements to give information words chosen carefully to express attitude and point of view of the creator (eg The symbol of water supports the strong central theme of purity.). (The point of view of the writer is provided without using the pronoun/reference item I)
Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Interpretations

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Interpretations

appropriate language at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences to emphasise aspects, especially nouns and noun groups (eg The central argument of the text) tense appropriate and changed when necessary words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) punctuation correct passive and active voices used references used consistently and appropriately bibliography or reference list
Review Purpose: Reviews are used to describe and evaluate a text (eg film, book, painting, webpage). Structure

introduce the text often includes a brief description introduce the main argument that the reviewer will present the reviewers main opinion is made clear elements of the reviewers arguments and opinions are presented within paragraphs with supporting examples and explanations included conclusion with a summary of the main points and often a restatement of the main viewpoint and recommendation (eg Dont bother visiting this webpage if detailed information is sought.) connectives to sequence a series of paragraphs (eg First, Next, Finally, Another flaw is that) conjunctions at the beginnings of some sentences to help make the writing flow and connect ideas (eg So, Next, However, Therefore) linking conjunctions in the middle of sentences to expand sentences and to increase their complexity (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions in the middle of sentences to expand sentences and increase their complexity (eg because, when) reference items/pronouns to refer to people/things (eg I, it, those, this, them) noun groups with lots of describers (eg The chaotic unplanned structure of the webpage) a range of verbs/processes to describe the plot in novels, films, plays etc (eg advanced, escaped) a range of verbs/processes to explain mental processes (eg thought, felt, wondered, considered) a range of verbs/processes to describe how things are said (eg argue, present, assert) a range of verbs/processes to describe the relationships between people/things (eg align, represents, symbolises) a range of circumstances to explain time, place, with whom/what, how and why (eg At the beginning of the text, in southern France, with the supporting actor, with great skill, because of the great script) appropriate idioms (eg break a leg) comparatives, especially to compare and contrast texts (eg brighter, clearer, more realistic)
Language that is used to structure Reviews and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Reviews

nominalisation (eg beauty, compilation, judgement) words to express attitudes and feelings (eg astonished, concerned, shocked, horrible interpretation) words to express certainty, obligation and inclination (eg definitely, should like it, may change perspectives) words to express statements and questions (eg Why would you want to bother seeing it again? Dont expect great things from the writer.)
Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Reviews

Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Reviews
appropriate tense for different sections (eg past tense when summarising plot, present tense when providing opinions about texts that exist today, future tense when considering future work and implications) a range of words and phrases to begin paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, connectives, conjunctions and circumstances) words spelt correctly, especially technical terms presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) passive and active voices used punctuation correct
Personal Response Purpose: to present a personal response (may be related to a text, event etc) Structure

begin with an effective orientation, where the thing being responded to is introduced and briefly described paragraphs structure ideas throughout the personal response within paragraphs, further descriptions of the thing being responded to and personal feelings, reactions are included
Language that is used to structure Personal Responses and give them cohesion

phrases explaining why and how are used to organise the text at times (eg Because of my feelings, With enormous care, the painter had) conjunctions and phrases are used at the beginnings of paragraphs and sentences to sequence ideas in the text (eg First, On the other hand,) linking conjunctions are used in the middle of sentences to expand sentences and to increase their complexity (eg and, so, but, or) binding conjunctions are been used in the middle of sentences to expand sentences and to increase their complexity (eg because, when) reference items (pronouns) have been used to refer to people/things (eg it, they, those, them, I) noun groups with lots of describers (eg the beautiful bright images on the canvas) a range of verbs/processes to explain the actions involved (eg to dance) a range of verbs/processes to explain senses and mental states (eg thought, wonder, feel) a range of verbs/processes to describe the relationships between things/people (egwas, am, had, refers to) a range of circumstances to explain time, place, with whom/what, how and why (eg At the time of the performance; In the studio, With the assistance of the organiser, carefully and smoothly, as a result of the intense interest) words to express attitudes and feelings (eg loved, fantastic, reacted with fear) words to express certainty, obligation and inclination (eg definitely, will have to, should) opinions expressed as statements (eg It is not worth seeing this.). subjective voice (eg the pronoun I is used throughout) Language and other techniques that are used to express ideas clearly and accurately in Personal Responses
Language that is used to explain the content of Personal Responses

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Personal Responses

appropriate tense (eg present tense when speaking about a thing that exists or past tense when speaking about a thing that existed in the past but no longer does) a range of words and phrases to begin paragraphs and sentences, including nouns/noun groups, nominalisations, conjunctions and circumstances of time and place. words spelt correctly presentation effective (eg neat handwriting, use of ICT) passive and active voices punctuation correct
Glossary of Terms Circumstances: This term refers to information that is provided about the context of a process (e.g. the where, when, how and why of the process). Classifier: a word in the noun/nominal group that provides information about the kind of thing. (eg the humpback whale) Conjunctions: These words provide links within a text. Clauses, sentences and paragraphs may be linked by these kinds of words. Linking conjunctions refer to words that are used to join clauses, where the two clauses are not structurally dependent on each other (e.g. and, but, so). Binding conjunctions refer to words that are used to join clauses, where one clause is structurally dependent on the other (e.g. if, because, when). Definite/Indefinite articles: The is a definite article, as it is used to refer specifically to something, whereas a/an are indefinite articles. Describer/adjective: The word(s) that describe the thing in the noun/nominal group. Foregrounding: A way of highlighting important information is to put it at the beginning of clauses, sentences, paragraphs or whole texts. This technique is called foregrounding. Genres: Texts that are structured to achieve specific purposes. (e.g. Discussion, Description) Metalanguage: This term is used to refer to a language used to talk about language. Modality: Modality includes when the creator of a text is making a judgment of probability,
usuality, obligation or inclination.
Nominalisation: Words, such as verbs and adjectives are turned into nouns. (e.g. beautiful=beauty, to inform=information) Noun Groups: This language feature may also be called the nominal group. It refers to the group of words that are placed around the main thing/person. (e.g. The hot uncontrolled flame from the Bunsen burner) Numerative: The word that provides information about how many are in the noun/nominal group. Passive Voice: This form of language is used when the creator of a text wants to explain how something is having something done to it (e.g. The flame is turned on). This technique is used when the creator of the text does not want to express who or what is making something happen. Active voice is when the who or what is making something happen. Pointer: The word that highlights the thing in the nominal/noun group.
Processes/Verbs: These two terms refer to what is going on in the text. The words may describe, actions (e.g. run, cry), mental states (e.g. know, like), how things were said (e.g. tell, screamed) and the relationships between things (e.g. have, is). Qualifier: These words may be included within a noun group. They provide qualifying information about the noun. (e.g. The small house on the hill) Reference Items/Pronouns: These words, such as he, they, those, are used in place of specific names of people and things. They help to add cohesion to the text and avoid repetition. Tenor: This term refers to the interpersonal elements of a text. It can include aspects, such as the feelings and attitudes expressed, as well as the degree of certainty, frequency and whether or not an occurrence is usual. Objective and subjective voice is also included within the tenor of a text.

Genres and Language Features

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Genres and Language Features

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Common Genres in Senior Secondary Schooling

Structures and Some of the Important Language Features

Context and Purpose of this Material

Some Common Genres in Senior Secondary Schooling and their Purposes

Explanation (sequential or causal) Exposition (Analytical Argument)

Hortatory Exposition (Argument urging the audience to act) Discussion

Personal Response Review

Language that is used to explain the content of Practical Reports

Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Practical Reports

Language that is used to explain the content of Directed Investigations

Language that is used to provide the tenor/stance of Directed Investigations

a range of verbs/processes to explain the actions (eg run, stir, freeze)

technical terms (eg baking soda, blend) nominalisation (eg refrigeration)

Language that is used to structure Narratives and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Narratives

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Narratives

Language that is used to explain the content of Information Reports

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Information Reports

Language that is used to structure Explanations and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Explanations

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Explanations

Language that is used to structure Expositions and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Expositions

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Expositions

Language that is used to structure Expositions and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Expositions

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Expositions

Language that is used to structure Discussions and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Discussions

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Discussions

Language that is used to structure Interpretations and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Interpretations

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Interpretations

Language that is used to structure Reviews and give them cohesion

Language that is used to explain the content of Reviews

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Reviews

Language that is used to explain the content of Personal Responses

Language that is used to express the tenor/stance of Personal Responses

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