Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina Nenad Makuljevi and cultural changes on this territory,

as well as in other parts of Serbia and the Balkans, gave rise to emergence, development or dis-

appearance of sacred areas. In the heart of the sacred topography of Negotin Krajina there are Orthodox churches, acred topography comprises holy places which have been built since the Middle Ages on a given territory including sancti ed to the present day. The preserved Orthodox areas, as well as places of veneration and churches give out an incomplete image of the prayer.1 Therefore it represents a holy/sacred past ecclesiastic culture of Negotin Krajina. area within a particular geographical and The churches from the Middle Ages and the administrative unit. Sacred topographies have Ottoman period are only partly preserved and been formed through history. They are not insu ciently studied, and most of them date static, but changeable in line with religious, from the 19th century, i.e. the restoration of the social and cultural contexts, depending on Serbian state. In fact, the contemporary conlegends and customs, on the ethnical and cept of sacred topography of Negotin Krajina national character of the residents, and the was established precisely during the 19th and relationship among church, state and local beginning of the 20th centuries. authorities. Even though they can include The research of Orthodox churches on the various forms of religious culture, in the centre territory of Negotin Krajina was initiated as of sacred topographies there are devotional early as in the 19th century, when the Orthoplaces of the dominant religion. dox Church schematisms in Serbia gave the The territory of Negotin Krajina2 in Serbia is rst information on churches and the time characterized by a unique sacred topography. of their construction.3 What was very imporNegotin Krajina is located in eastern Serbia tant was the Spomenica (Memorial Volume) and it is framed by the Danube, the state borof the Eparchy of Timok, which showed all ders with Romania and Bulgaria, mountains the churches. The Spomenica featured hisKuaj and Deli Jovan, and the valley of the river tory, current state of a airs and photographs Timok. The sacred topography of this area has of the churches.4 After the Second World War, been formed through times. Dynamic political art historical research was also intensi ed. In

VISUAL CULTURE AND FORMATION OF SACRED TOPOGRAPHY IN NEGOTIN KRAJINA

1 On sacred topography see: . -, , Balcanica 35 (Beograd 2004), 285322. 2 On Negotin Krajina see: . , : 1858. , . 1, 1972; Ibid., 1859. 1940. , . 2, 1980.

the period between 1964. and 1966. studies of a great number of churches in the county
3 , 1895, 182188; 198199. 4 1834-1934, 1934.

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Nenad Makuljevi of Zajear were published, which also included the churches from Negotin Krajina.5 As its works were very important, the eccle-

THE MEDIEVAL HERITAGE

n the Middle Ages, the territory of todays siastical art of Negotin Krajina also attracted Negotin Krajina belonged to di erent state the scholars interested in the Serbian art of systems. It was not part of any centers of Balthe 19th century, so a number of studies and kan medieval states. After the long Byzantine monographs dealt with the works of architec- rule and until the Ottoman conquests, this ture and painting.6 However, despite tremen- territory was a border area between Serbia dous e orts put into this research, the sacred and Bulgaria,8 which in uenced the developtopography of Negotin Krajina has not been ment of its ecclesiastic culture. systematically studied so far. This is why the Today there are several churches preserved courses of ecclesiastic culture are analyzed here on the basis of eld research, archive sources7 and literature. The study also shows the parochial Orthodox churches on the territory of Negotin Krajina, i.e. the contemporary from the medieval period on the territory of Negotin Krajina. The Korogla Monastery,

one of the oldest ecclesiastic constructions in this area today, was built in the Middle Ages.9 Korogla was constructed as a single-nave arhijerejsko namesnitvo (deanery) of Nego- church with a narthex. In the interior of the tin, in order to enable a clear overview of the church there were frescoes which are now formation and contemporary characteristics destroyed. Felix Kanitz wrote a description of sacred visual culture and the sacred topo- of this wall painting: three female gures on graphy of Negotin Krajina. the northern wall on the left, then in the concave middle eld three exquisitely individuali-

zed horse riders with shields and swords, and three priests on the right. On the southern wall it is only on a small place in the niche that 5 Documentation on the study of icon-painting on one can discern St Trifun and St Agaton; in the territory of Krajina is kept in the Museum of Krajina in Negotin. the apse on both sides of its narrow window, 6 Here is a selection of texts mentioning churches and sacral art from Negotin Krajina: . , above the schematically painted curtain, two
, XIII-2 ( 1987), 151180; . , . , . , . , : 1832-1925, 2002; . , ( XIX - XX ), 1994; . , (1882-1914), 2007. 7 The Historical Archives of Serbia from Belgrade and the Archives of the Cathedral Church in Negotin are particularly important for the study of the sacred topography of Negotin Krajina.

large gures of saints; in the upper narrow band: Christ at the table, and on his right and
8 The status of todays territory of Negotin Krajina in the Middle Ages is not clear enough, see: . -, XV XVI , o 31-32 ( 1969), 67. 9 On Korogla see: . . , , 3 ( 1888), 103108.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina left hand sides there are six apostles in a line. so it was refurbished by the protection authoOn the western wall there is a similar compo- rities during 1975-76.13 sition, and below it the laying of the Mother In the formation of the sacred topography of God in the tomb with a few gures around of Negotin Krajina the stay of hesychast Saint her, and above her, oating among the clouds, Nicodemus of Tismana Saint Nikodim Gri a choir of angels, carrying with them saints was very important.14 Saint Nikodim was from busts with halos to the sky. What is particularly well drawn here is a wonderful horse rider with a shield and a spear on the right from the 2m tall entrance horizontally cut from a side, which was decorated with frescoes, as shown Mount Athos, a monk of Serbian and Greek origin who withdrew into the mountains on the Danube river banks after his stay on this holy mount. From there he moved to Wallachia, where he founded the monasteries of

by the traces of colour in the mortar and the Vodica and Tismana. His relics are situated in outer wall.10 Kanitzs description shows that the Tismana Monastery, which is how saint the order of frescoes followed the medieval Nikodim got his name Tismanski (of Tismaprogram in the decoration of the church. This na). He played a particularly important role in nds particular con rmation in the note on the history of Serbia, when he e ected a truce the western wall, where the composition of between the Serbian Church and the Patriarthe Ascension of the Mother of God is ren- chy of Constantinople at the time of Prince dered. Lazar. A large cemetery surrounding the church in During his stay on the territory of todays Korogla has been preserved to present day. Krajina, Saint Nikodim founded two monasThe position of this church was very impor- teries. These are the Manastirica Monastery15 tant in local folk tradition. According to one of and, most probably, Vratna.16 Saint Nikodim the stories, this is where Marko Kraljevic died kovic, who believed the church had dated from the 15th after the Battle of Rovine. Another legend said that the church had own over from the sinful country of Wallachia, whereas according to yet another one the church in Korogla was erected by Emperor Duan in memory of one of his dukes who died ghting the Bulgarians.11 The Korogla Monastery was in ruins,12
10 . , , , . II, 1987, 471. 11 . . , , 104, 107; . , , , . II, 469. 12 The Korogla Monastery was visited by D. Boscentury: . , , .. I ( 1950), 196197. 13 . , , , : : , . , 1998, 218. 14 On Saint Nikodim Tismanski: . , XIV XV , in: , , 1971, 308309. 15 On Manastirica see: . , 1445. 1586. , 29/30 ( 1993-1994), 206207. 16 On the Vratna Monastery see: . , 1445. 1586. , 206.

299

Nenad Makuljevi practiced his anchoretic life in the immediate belonged to the county of Vidin19 and Vidin vicinity of the Vratna Monastery, on a highly Metropolitanate, which also in uenced speinaccessible place, near the natural stone arch ci c characteristics of ecclesiastic life.20 known as the gate. This is where we can nd Numerous sources testify of the ecclesiasthe remains of the original hermitage church, tic culture and sacral topography of Negotin the cell of Saint Nikodim.17 The location of the Krajina at the time of the Ottoman rule. Apart hermitage shows that a monk hesychast prac- from very few preserved churches, there are ticed his anchoretic life there, showing the strength of his faith and devotion through the choice of this dangerous place out of reach. The Vratna Monastery was founded at the foot of the gate. The church of the Vratna Monastery was refurbished several times. In the 19th century there was an inscription on it about the construction of the church and about its founder Duke erban: erban Voda Desturca from Bucharest in the year 1415.18 also testimonies of monasteries which existed during the 16th and 17th centuries. Thus, today we know about the Duica Monastery21 and the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, located near the todays village of Kobinica in the so-called Negotin mud (Negotinsko blato).22 At the time of the Ottoman rule, one of the most important monasteries in Krajina was the Bukovo Monastery. The existence of this monastery was recorded in the documents from the second half of the 16th century,23 which clearly indicates its earlier foundation. The church of the Bukovo Monastery was re-

THE OTTOMAN AGE

furbished and repainted at the end of the 17th he Ottoman age was a particularly impor- century.24 This church had smaller dimensions, tant and complex period in the history of 19 . -, Negotin Krajina. During this period of time, XV XVI ,

Krajina gained a special position and autonomy. Local Christian administrators, called kneevi princes, in Krajina were hereditary rulers, and there was only a minimal number of present Ottomans. Since the second half of the 15th century the territory of Krajina

17 . , , 29 ( 2005), 7174. 18 , 198199; . , , , . II, 461.

65109. 20 On Vidin Metropolitanate see: . , 1739-1834, . XLIX (2002), ( 2003), 163181. 21 The remains of this church were visited by ure Bokovi: . , , .. I ( 1950), 197. 22 The Monastery of The Holy Trinity was mentioned in the year 1560: . , 1445. 1586. , 208209. 23 . , 1445. 1586., 208. 24 . Bokovi saw two layers of frescoes in Bukovo. In his opinion, the younger layer belonged to the restoration from the end of the 17th century: . , , 199.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina and what is preserved from the original fres- that the church had been covered with earth, coes today is only the fresco of the Mother of especially the northern part, and damp, The God Wider than the heavens. Placed on the iconostasis was old, damaged by the damp, naos vault, it is framed with the text of the the windows were very small, reaching the poem O Tebe Raduyetsya. The inscription on earth itself, so it was dark inside. The church the painting of the church was placed above was partitioned in the middleThe door the entrance to the naos. It was destroyed, was very narrow, and one could barely pass together with the wall, during the restoration of the church in the year 1877.25 What has been preserved is its transcript, where it is said that the church was painted in 1684 during the time of metropolitan Sofronije of Vidin, prior Mihail hegumenos Deanac and with the help of patron Kir Simon, Prince (knez) of Trnjane.26 The inscription on the painting of this church reveals some aspects of the life of the Bukovo Monastery. The monastery, as well as Krajina, was under the jurisdiction of Vidin Metropolitanate, but they apparently kept in touch with Serbian monastic centers. This nds most obthrough. The todays narthex was a simple porch in front of the church with four windows and no doors. The church was covered with ceramide and it was one meter shorter, oored with brick only. It was entered after climbing six stairs. On the left there was no space for choir.28 The description of the church of the Bukovo Monastery shows that the church had an inner division of space, and that there was only a porch outside. The church was buried in the ground, which used to be characteristic of the churches built at the time of the Ottoman rule. During this period Bukovo was an

vious con rmation in the presence of hegu- important spiritual center, where priests were menos Mihail Deanac. The patron of the educated. painting was Simon Prince (knez) of Trnjane, The construction and decoration of who was a member of the highest social class Orthodox churches followed the developin the Ottoman Empire. A partial description of the old church in Bukovo can be discerned from the notes of hegumenos Prokopije Bujii, a sometime hegumenos of the Banja Monastery and one of the leaders of the uprising against the Ottomans in Polimlje and Stari Vlah.27 He noted
25 , 1895, 198. 26 . . , , 1876, 957. 27 The description of Prokopije Bujiis personality can be found: . , ,

ment of the residents lives. An example of the dynamic process of construction and displacement of churches in Krajina can be seen in the preserved annals of the parish of Bukovo and Kobinica.29 According to the annals, at the beginning of the 18th century,
, . II, 466467. 28 The list of iconostases, icons and old church books on the territory of this museum from 3 11. XII 1964, 2. (Library of the Museum of Negotin Krajina) 29 . , - , 11 ( 2008), 211213.

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Nenad Makuljevi there was a common church shared by the villages of Bukove and Kobinica, devoted to St Gregory the Theologian Sveti Grigorije Bogoslov. In mid 18th century, both of these places moved to other locations, when a church was built in the new village of Bukove. This church was used until around 1817-1820. At that time both villages returned to the original, todays location, when two churches were built: the Church of Saint Georg Sveti Georgije in Bukove and the Church of Saint in this area even in the rst decades of the 19th century. One of the last churches built under the Ottoman rule was the Old Church in Negotin,33 which is clearly re ected in its distinctive features. It was built in the year 1803 and it was buried in the ground, which was a frequent solution in the construction of churches during the Ottoman rule. The rst iconostasis of this church was made upon its erection. The famous hero from the First Serbian Uprising, Hajduk Veljko Petrovi, was bur-

Nicholas Sveti Nikola in Kobinica. According ied near the church in the year 1813. to the annals, the church in Bukove was built In the rst decades of the 19th century, from wooden blocks, covered with bulrush. between the period of the Serbian uprisings There was also a cemetery in this old church and Krajinas mergence with Serbia, a number place.30 The church in Kobinica was also of churches were built and painted. During built from the same material. These churches were used until the year 1850. What also testi es of the more favourable position of the Christians on the territory of Krajina in the 18th century are the preserved crosses of larger dimensions.31 They were mostly erected as tombstones, and their size and shape revealed a certain religious freedom. At the cemetery near the Korogla Monastery, Felix Kanitz saw and read an inscription on a 2.5 m tall rock the tombstone for Radak ivanovic dating from the year 1768.32 The Ottoman authorities were present
30 Ibid. 212. 31 Some of the monumental crosses were placed in the port of the Old Church in Negotin, where during the eighties of the 20th century the Museum of Krajina formed a lapidarium. 32 . , , , . II, 469.

Ottoman rule, the churches in Popovica (1830) and Trnjan (1829) were erected, built of wood and similarly planned.34 What is particularly emphasized in the churches are the choir areas, which gives them a cruciform basis. One of the distinctive features of these churches is the similarity of their decoration with the local profane buildings, which is why they belong to a special group of wooden churches in Serbia.35 Wooden churches were frequently
33 On the Old Church see: , 1803..: 1803-2003, . , 2004. The description of the Old Church in Negotin was written by: . , , in this book. 34 , 1895, 185; 1834-1934, 246; 251. On churches in Popovica and Trnjan: . , ; Ibid., , in this book. 35 . , 17981848, 1986, 106.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina built at the time of the Ottoman rule. All over Their works can be found in the Old Church the Balkans, churches made of wood were in Negotin40, Trnjane,41 Tamnie,42 as well as in erected, together with all the necessary ele- Glogovica.43 ments of the church interior. Another distinctive feature of ecclesiastic art in Krajina is presence of the Wallachian icons. Today the icons with inscriptions in

ECCLESIASTIC CULTURE IN THE SERBIAN STATE

the Wallachian language can be seen in onstruction and restoration of churches Mihajlovac,36 Radujevac, Jabukovac,37 and in the past they could also be found in many on the territory of Krajina was initiated as churches in the Eparchy of Timok.38 It is di cult early as in the period of the Serbian uprisings.

to ascertain whether on the territory of Krajina there was a local Wallachian icon painter or if these zographs are coming from other areas.

In a literature it is stated that the old church in tubik was erected precisely between the First and the Second Serbian Uprisings.44 Owing to Prince Milo, Negotin Krajina was One of the very few signed Wallachian icons is from Radujevac. In the icon of Christ the annexed to the Principality of Serbia in the Great Bishop from the Radujevac collection, year 1833.45 On the territory of Negotin and at the very bottom of the text from the open Zajear, the Eparchy of Timok was formed book, i.e. the Gospel, there is a signature of the and it became the most important ecclesiaspainter zugrav Konstantin from Krajova. In this tic administrative unit. The seat of the eparmanner the icon from Radujevac pointed to chy was in Negotin and Zajear, which had a the existence of cultural connections between great impact on the organization of ecclesiKrajina on the one hand, and Oltenia and Wal- astic life in Krajina.46 Thus, since the middle of lachia on the other, which was de nitely in line with the economic communications. Side by side with the Wallachian zographs, on the territory of Krajina there were also Slavic, Serbian and Bulgarian painters who used the zograph model of icon painting.39
36 See: . , , in this book. 37 See: . , , in this book. 38 See: . , (1882-1914), 78. 39 On the zograph model of painting: N. Makuljevi, The Zograph Model of Orthodox Painting in Southeast Europe 1830-1870, Balcanica XXXIV (Beograd 2004), 385405. 40 . , , in this book. 41 . , , in this book. 42 . , , in this book. 43 . , , in this book. 44 . , 1798-1848, 92. 45 . , 1830-1839, 2004, 3335. 46 On the Eparchy of Timok see: . , 1836, , . LII ( 2005), 257272; . , 1836, , Miscellanea XXVIII ( 2007), 3162.

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Nenad Makuljevi the fourth decade of the 19th century, eccle- became one of the numerous sacral construcsiastic practice in Negotin Krajina was gradu- tions serving Knez Milos ruling propaganda ally coordinated with the practices in other and commemorating his political successes.49 parts of the Serbian state, and bishops of the Due to the privileges it had in the 18th cenEparchy of Timok had a prominent role in this tury, Negotin Krajina was one of the territoprocess. ries with a greater number of churches in the The annexation of Krajina to the Principa- Principality of Serbia. This was also recognized lity of Serbia was also marked by Prince Milos involvement in patronage and propaganda. This was particularly emphasized in Mihajlovac. Namely, Prince Milo managed to move the residents from Veliko Ostrvo on the Danube to Serbia, where the settlement of Mihajlovac was formed.47 The village got its name after Mihail, Prince Milos son, which was in line with the governmental and proby Milan . Milievi, on his passing through this area when he noted: What is clear in Krajina is that there are a great many churches and despite being of weak construction, they still seem to outnumber the very priests. What is also striking is that it is almost at every crossroads or border between two villages that you

will nd crosses, made of stone or wood, as border signs.50 Milievis remarks nd con rpagandist practice of that time when settle- mation in the register of churches brought in ments received or changed their names in 1853 in the description of Krajina Okruije (the honour of a representative from the ruling region of Krajina) written by A. P. Ivanovic. house. In this manner the name of the settle- In the counties of Brza Palanka and Krajina ment permanently memorized a particular ruler. In the newly formed Mihajlovac, Prince Milo was the church founder. His idea and propagandist character of his activities are shown in the text of an inscription which was supposed to be placed above the entrance to the church in Mihajlovac. In the text it is clearly stated that the church was erected to commemorate Prince Milos visit and the there were churches in Brza Palanka, Mihajlovac, Mala Kamenica, Prahovo, Danjevo, Slatina, Urovica, Jabukovac, Plavna, Malajnica, tubik, Popovica, Trnjane, Radujevac, Srbovlah (Srbovo), Bukove/ Kobinica, Mokranj, Metri, Veliko Jasikovo, Glogovica, Rogljevo, Rajac, Brusnik, Tamni, Koprivnica, Sikol, ubra, Reka, Negotin, together with the monasteries of Bukovo and Vratna.51

annexation of Krajina and other areas torn o 49 On Prince Milos propaganda and his patronage Serbia.48 In this way the church in Mihajlovac of Orthodox churches, see: . ,
47 . . , , 1924, 98100. 48 . . , 1815-1839, , . 22, - 1926, 147. - , : , 2000, 283293. 50 M.. , , 1868, 162. 51 . . , i i , V ( 1853), 237239, 243245, 248, 251.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina Despite the existent Orthodox churches, new importance in the Principality of Serbia. the annexation of Krajina to the Principality Thus, during the rst decades under Serbian of Serbia implied a partial deviation from the rule, the Old Church of Negotin stood out. It earlier practice and introduction of contem- gained the character of both Eparchial church porary norms of church life. When divine ser- and place of national memory. Even though vice was no longer performed in the wooden the location of Hajduk Veljkos grave was not churches in Bukove and Kobinica, a common known with certainty, his brother Milutin put church was built in the year 1849. According to the sources, this church was built in gothic style,52 and it fought for primacy with the one in Milanovac.53 The case of this church shows up a memorial plate in 1844, with a becoming epitaph which celebrated Hajduk Veljko as a Serbian national hero.55 On account of its eparchial signi cance, Dositej, the rst bishop

that it was already in the middle of the century of Timok, was buried next to this church that the sacral visual culture of Krajina started in 1854, and on that occasion, the body of to accept the current norms of church archi- Hajduk Veljko was also found there.56 The ecclesiastic life in the Principality of tecture of the Principality of Serbia. th During the 19 century, some powerful Serbia implied acceptance and implementalocal customs still modeled the religious life in Krajina. Thus, in this area, as well as in the neighbouring county of Vidin,54 sacred stone landmarks with visual decoration and inscription zapisi were put up to surround the territory of a particular village. These landmarks had di erent dimensions, and they could be very monumental. They contained a dedication to a certain holiday, on which day they were visited to celebrate it. The landmarks had various shapes, such as those of a cross or a pillar, and they often had rich symbolic decoration. Some older Orthodox churches gained
52 . , - , 213. 53 . . , i i , 244. 54 Compare with: . , , : 1956 , 1958, 192, 198, 202, 245.

tion of legal acts and procedures referring to the construction and decoration of Orthodox churches. According to the Law on public structures, churches had the character of communal buildings, which underlined their importance in the society and state, laying the responsibilities of their construction and maintenance on the authorities.57 As stated in the Law on church authorities from 1862, new churches were to be built in line with the architectural characteristics of the Byzantine style and wall painting was to be done in harmony with the spirit of the Eastern Orthodox Church.58 Therefore, the construction of new
55 M. . , , 174175. 56 Ibid. 175. 57 . , 1882-1914, 2834. 58 See: XV, 1863, 112114; : . ,

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Nenad Makuljevi Apart from the state and law regulations, churches was controlled by representatives of the state and the church alike. Abidance what also in uenced ecclesiastical art in by the legal norms and understanding of Negotin Krajina was its geographical position. the Byzantine style in uenced both the form Throughout history geography has always and the decoration of Orthodox churches. a ected the possibilities of cultural connecDuring the seventh decade, the acceptance tions, artists mobility or distribution of cultural of the Byzantine style meant usage of Byzan- goods.64 The ecclesiastical art in Negotin Kratine decorative elements, and not necessarily acceptance of medieval architectural forms.59 As a result, all over Serbia and even on the territory of Negotin Krajina churches were built with a bell tower above the western front whose decoration was marked by the elements of Byzantine culture. During the second half of the 19th century ecclesiastic life in Krajina started to ourish. Old churches were abandoned and new Orthodox churches were built with features matching the trends of church civil engineering of that time. Thus, churches with bell towers and jina also con rms that. In spite of the gradual obstruction and restriction of zographs work in the Principality of Serbia, there was one constructionist and zograph workshop from the territory of the Ottoman Empire of that time. This was a constructors and painters group which, according to the annals of the churches of Krajina, was composed of the constructor Petar Nikoli and zographs Pavle and Nestor. This group built and painted the church in Mokranje, Kobinica65 and Rogljevo. Only few people from this group can be identi ed with higher probability. One of them is

Neo-Byzantine decorative plastics were built Nestor Trajkovi-Trajkov, i.e. Trajanov son of in tubik 1868-1872,60 Jabukovac 1868-1876,61 the woodcarver Trajan Negriev from Galicnik. Prahovo,62 Mokranj, Kobinica63 and Rogljevo. In the second half of the 19th century he had a 1882-1914, considerable painterly opus on the territory of
2834. 59 See: . , 1882-1914, 220-221. 60 The rst project of the church in tubik was made by D. Milutinovic. See: . -, , , 1978, 94; . , , in this book. 61 . , , in this book. 62 . , , in this book. 63 The plan of the church in Kobinica was made in the Ministry of Constructions: . , 1867-2000, 2000, 14.

Bulgaria.66 Zograph Nestor painted together with Pane Djurcinov, who is said to have led a group of zographs while working in Serbia in Negotin. Panes team (tajfa) also included his sons Mihail and Teo l.67 However, the work of zographs Pavle
64 On geographical in uence on culture see: T. DaCosta Kaufmann, Toward a Geography of Art, Chicago London 2004. 65 . , - , 215-216. 66 . , , 1965, 222223. 67 Ibid. 225.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina and Nestor was threatened by the bishop of in Kobinica was nished, but in line with the Timok Evgenije Simonovi, who tried to stop instructions from the Consistory. In Krajina there were also icons, which must them. He was not satis ed with their work in Mokranje, so he spoke to the Consistory of the have been brought there from the surroundTimok Eparchy in order to stop their work in ings of Vidin. Thus, the icon of the Mother of Kobinica. Bishop Evgenije maintained that God done by the well-known icon painter the painting in Mokranje did not meet the Dio Zograf is kept in the Cathedral Church requirements of the Orthodox Church painting. The bishop and the Consistory were confronted by representatives of the village communes of Kobinica and Bukove, who believed that the problem had been caused of Negotin.69 Also, the icon of Saint Toma was painted by Dio Zograf for the guild craft, which was led by master Niko in 1856.70 This icon was placed in the Old Church in Negotin.

Dios icons for Negotin were created when by the local priest, who wanted to hire the this renowned painter worked in the vicinity painters of the church in tubik, that is Steva of Vidin.71 The annexation of Krajina to the PrinciTodorovic. The con ict over the painting of the Kobinica church escalated to the point pality of Serbia also a ected the presence of when it came to court, where Ministry of painters and their works which did not follow Education was involved as well. The whole the zograph tradition. Thus, in the old Krajina clash ended with the zographs continuing there were paintings done by the Jakic family and nishing their work, but in line with the from Bela Crkva.72 In the Old Church in Negotin rules and instructions from the Consistory of the year 1874.68 The argument and quarrel over the painting of the church in Kobinica shows that members of ecclesiastic hierarchy in Krajina fully adopted the historical poetics of church painting and that they opposed zographs work. On the opposing side there were the purchasers of church painting local village communities, apparently with disparate aesthetic views. In the entire con ict, representatives of state authorities acted rather pragmatically. They showed their primacy and owing to them the work started in the church
68 More details on the con ict over the painting of the church in Kobinica: . , 1867-2000, 1518.

there are emperors doors painted by Simeon Jakic in 1816, while the altar icons in Popovica were painted by Simeons son Arsenije in 1820.73 Simon and Arsenije Jakics icons were
69 See: , . 70 . , 17911848, 262. 71 See: . , , 225231, 239240. 72 On the Jakic family of painters: . , , 1 ( 1965), 267286. 73 On the icons by Simeon and Arsenije Jakic in the Old Church in Negotin and Popovica see: , 272; . , 1791-1848, 244; . , , in this book;

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Nenad Makuljevi most probably brought to Krajina later. At the so the Jerusalem icons can now be found in time when they were made, zographs domi- the churches in Vidrovac, Tamni,76 Popovica,77 nated the art of icon-painting in Krajina. In the as well as in the Old Church in Negotin.78 An o ertory inscriptions on the icons from Popo- icon showing oblation and patronal practice, vica it is stated that they were originally done which was connected to the political state of a airs of the mid 19th century, is the one for the church in Veliko Gradite.74 Since its annexation to Serbia, there were with The Last Supper from Radujevac (image many Serbian icon painters in Krajina, and the painted programs of altar partitions and o ertory strategies were in accordance with the general trends of sacral visual culture of 11). This icon was o ered by the director of Bihela, to commemorate his arrival in Serbia and Prince Milo Obrenovics return to power (image 12).79 As it was precisely in Radujevac

the Principality of Serbia. One of the earliest that Prince Milo put his foot on the Serbian zographs paintings from the Principality is ground, this icon testi es of the embracement the iconostasis of the Bukovo Monastery from of the new government, and of a personal the year 1837. The icons on this altar partition were, according to the note on the back of the altar icon of the Mother of God, painted by Milija Markovi, ivko Pavlovi and Ivan con rmation of loyalty from Bihela. Bestowing the church with the icon thus sacralized political loyalty and it could be perceived as some kind of an oath. Simultaneously, the oblation

Markovi . act of the director of Bihela came from a wide In Krajina oblation was practiced both as a range of political usages of sacral visual culshow of private piety and as part of the public ture in the Principality of Serbia. promotion of ones own political stances. An During the second half of the 19th cenimportant form of private piety was a pilgri- tury, renowned Serbian painters also worked mage to the Holy Land, and memorabilia like in Krajina. Steva Todorovic, together with his the Jerusalem icon.75 The Jerusalem icon is a complex composition showing the most important events from ecclesiastical history and places of pilgrimage. It seems that during the second half of the 19th century there was an increase in the number of pilgrims from Krajina,
Ibid., , in this book. 74 . , , 272. 75 See: . , , in: , . . , 2006, 807837.

wife Poleksija, painted the iconostasis of the church in tubik.80 At the same time, local artists had an active role in the sacral art of this
76 . , , in this book. 77 . , , in this book. 78 . , , in this book. 79 On The Secret Supper icon from 1859 see: . , , in this book. 80 . , . , . , . , 1832-1925, 2002; . , , in this book.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina territory. They worked as drawing teachers in the thrones of the Old Church in Negotin.88 In the furnishing of Orthodox churches, the Grammar School Pavle ortanovi81 and Vatroslav Bekovi82 at that time. ortanovi liturgical objects have an important place. In stayed in Negotin from 1883 to 1897.83 During his stay in Negotin, ortanovic painted a great number of portraits and compositions from national history, as well as icons, iconostases and wall paintings in churches.84 ortanovis most important work in Krajina was painted in the Old Church in Negotin, where he restored and painted icons for the iconostasis, also doing wall painting.85 What has also been preecclesiastical rules it was stressed that liturgical objects were to be made of noble materials,89 which contributed to the grandeur of divine service. On the territories of Krajina and Eparchy of Timok, representative liturgical objects date to the very rst decades of the 19th century.90 It was already in the period of the uprisings that a silver chalice was made in 1812 by master Petko in memory of Maria. Another chalice was made with special care and complex iconographic decoration, as a gift from

served are ortanovis icons for the Cathedral Church in Negotin, The Bukovo Monastery and the church in tubik.86 ortanovic mana- Duke Milenko Stojkovi in Pore. In the Krajina ged to ful ll only some of the purchasers region there are also various liturgical objects requirements in Negotin Krajina, so he did dating from the mid 19th century and made not manage to get involved in the painting by Jovan Nikolic, one of the most renowned of the Cathedral Church of Negotin. In Krajina Serbian goldsmiths from Belgrade. In 1850 he ecclesiastical painting was also practiced by made the censer for the Bukovo monastery,91 Vatroslav Bekovi. He painted the iconostasis and his works like chalices, crosses, bound of the church in Jabukovac 1873-1874,87 and gospels can be found in the churches in Rogljevo, Radujevac, Kobinica, Mihajlovac, 81 On ortanovi see: . , the Old Churh in Negotin, and the Cathedral Church in Negotin.92 One of the most important feats in the organization of sacred topography of Negotin Krajina, together with the act of total compliance with the current trends in ecclesiastical
88 . , , in this book. 89 , x y, Wli 90 . , 17911848, 370, 418419. 91 Ibid., 371. 92 On Jovan Nikoli and his opus: . , , in print.

, 2930 ( 1993-1994), 129142. 82 1839-1989, . , 1989, 127. 83 . -, : , 2003.; 1839-1924. , . , 2003, 153235. 84 . -, : , 414. 85 . -, : ,414; . , , in this book. 86 . , , in this book. 87 . , , in this book.

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Nenad Makuljevi art of the Principality of Serbia, was the erec- Grocka and Loznica. This was supposed to tion of the new Cathedral Church in Negotin. indicate that the plan of the church was made The construction of the new church was ini- in the Principality, and that it came from the tialized with the abandonment of the idea Ministry of Constructions. The new church that Negotin should move to another, better in Negotin was di erent from other similar and healthier location, on Danube. In the churches in the consistent neo-classicistic preparation of the building of a new Nego- work on the faades.97 The architects choice tin, Dragutin Milutinovic made a developed urban plan and projects for a number of public constructions, including the monument to Hajduk Veljko Petrovic and the new church.93 The Cathedral Church in Negotin was built owing to bishop Evgenije, who initialized its construction around 1868, but the supervisor Ranko Alimpic wanted to have it built in the new Negotin.94 For this reason preparations for the construction of this Negotin church started as early as in 1867-1868.95 Upon giving up the idea of relocation, the foundations of the new church were laid in 1872, on a historito use neo-classicistic decoration stemmed from the understanding of the church as a public edi ce. Instead of the neo-Byzantine style, which was used to emphasize the national identity, what was implemented here were the rules of academism architecture. In this manner they underlined the representativeness and power of a public state and national institution, which was especially used in Serbian ecclesiastical architecture in the mid 19th century.98 The church was situated on the main town square, representing a new heart and a symbolical center of Negotin.99 There-

cal location, next to Hajduk Veljkos powder fore, in the immediate vicinity of the church, magazine. The process of construction lasted there stood the monument to Prince Milo, until 1874, and the church was consecrated in made by the sculptor ordje Jovanovi.100 the year 1876.96 Special attention will be devoted to the The new Cathedral Church in Negotin was of monumental dimensions, according to the project of the author which has not been ascertained. The concept of the new church of Negotin was similar to the bases of the churches in Azanja, Smederevska Palanka,
93 . , 1859. 1940, . 2, 1980, 126128. 94 Ibid., 131132. 95 . , XIX , 2006, 400. 96 , 9 ( )

decoration of the Cathedral Church in Negotin. The painting of the iconostasis was originally entrusted to Pavle ortanovi, a local
97 See: . , XIX , 402. 98 On usage of neo-classicistic architecture and its symbolic meaning in Serbian ecclesiastical architecture: . , , 2006, 4546. 99 See: . , : , 2006, 375385. 100 On the monument to Prince Milo: . , : , 117415.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina teacher and painter who could not perform the 19th century.103 He ran the eparchy from such a complex task. Therefore, the icono- 1891 to 1913, when he supported the idea of stasis was assigned to Nikola Markovi, and it consistent Serbian national work in this area. was nished by Milisav Markovi. The concept Due to bishop Melentijes activities, there was of the painting of the new church iconostasis a change in the appearance and decoration was in this way coordinated with the poetics of many churches. He e ected the removal of ecclesiastical painting of that time, as the of old Vlach icons from the iconostases and bearer of the historical truth. What was particularly important for the sacred topography of Negotin Krajina in the 19th century was the restoration of the Busupported making new iconostases. Bishop Melentije was not only implementing national program, but he also supported religious and spiritual restoration. He was also good at

kovo Monastery. In the middle of the century writing ecclesiastical, i.e. spiritual literature, the location and the property of the Bukovo also thinking through the problems of eccleMonastery were quite distinguished: it is siastical icon-painting. A part of his polemics well positioned, among beautiful springs, with an old church, large property; when it is quiet the bells can be heard even in Negotin, and so can the bells from Negotin be heard here, too. Through the monastery woods called Gaj there is a beautiful road,...101 In this period the Vratna Monastery was a metoch (property) of the Bukovo Monastery.102 The monastic church was refurbished in 1888 by the archimandrite Prokopije Bujii. Through his e ort the church was expanded and decorated (image 13). On the monastic estate the School for Winemaking and Fruit Growing was founded, so Bukovo became an important spiritual, cultural and educational center in Krajina. with ore Krsti has been preserved, and here one can see he was an advocate of the Russian model of icon painting and reverence for the early modern practice in iconostasis programs.104 At the time of Episcopal service of bishop Melentije, laws and regulations on construction of Orthodox churches were fully followed.105 At the end of the 19th century, construction of Orthodox churches in Negotin Krajina fully complied with the rules and legal procedures of the Principality of Serbia, as well as with the trends in Serbian ecclesiastical architecture of that time. A great number of plans for churches in Negotin Krajina were

Melentije, the bishop of Timok, played an made in the Ministry of Constructions, and important role in the organization of the ecclesiastic life of Negotin Krajina at the end of 103 . , -

101 251. 102

. . , i i , Ibid., 239.

(1882-1914), 6264. 104 . , (1882-1914), 6263. 105 On legal regulations of ecclesiastical art in the Kingdom of Serbia: . , 1882-1914, 28-34.

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Nenad Makuljevi standard solutions were dominant. They ceptions was the church in Jasenica in 1895.113 In bishop Melentijes report for the were performed by Svetozar Ivakovi, in compliance with architectural poetics of Episcopal council from 1901, he spoke about Theophil Hansen. Following Ivakovis plan as the in uence exerted by the Ministry of Conwell as the standard ones, they made the plan struction and his dissatisfaction with the sent of the church in Tamni,106 and most probably plans: the plans for all consecrated churches plans of the churches in Urovica, ubra,107 were drafted in the Ministry of Constructions. Sala, Reka,108 Duanovac109 and Vidrovac.110 The basic model for these buildings was close to the draft of the church in lna. The proposal of the solution for these churches was They do not have any domes. I tried hard to e ect the construction of one dome in the middle of the church, but met with resistance in the aforementioned Ministry. They stated

given by Svetozar Ivakovi, and the plan was that the suggestion could not be taken since made by Jovan Ilki and Aleksandar Bugarski. in that case churches would be much more Ivakovi gave an explanation for his form of expensive. And even though I acknowledged an ordinary prayer house, like a simple long house, without a dome.111 From the Ministry, they also sent the plan for the church in Radujevac, according to the project of the architect Duan ivanovi.112 This plan, identical to the plan of the church in Trstenik, was one of the reason behind their decision, I still maintained that the closed wooden domes should be built and that the plans should follow the sketch of the Church of St Sava in Vraar. The

former suggestion was declined, and the latter, they said, would be kept in mind. Howthe solutions which followed the concepts of ever, nothing was done, so all churches were Serbian-Byzantine style. What was also built in built according to almost one and the same compliance with the same architectural con- sketch. Truth be said, they are beautiful, and

yet without domes they do not possess the overwhelming beauty of the form of old Ser106 See: . , , bian churches and monasteries.114 in this book. At the end of the 19th century, most likely 107 . , , in this book. due to the legal procedures in the furbishing 108 . , and decoration of Orthodox churches with , in this book. 109 . , which committees chose painters, the most
, in this book. 110 : . , , in this book. 111 A full explanation of the project of the church in Zlna is given by: . , ( ), , . 1 ( 1894), 13. 112 . , (1882-1914), 234.

renowned Serbian church painters worked on

113 . , , in this book. 114 . 1900. 1901. , XI-XII ( 1902), 725726.

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Visual Culture and Formation of Sacred Topography in Negotin Krajina the territory of Krajina. The nishing works in stases in Jasenica122 and Reka,123 the iconodecoration of the Cathedral Church in Nego- stasis and frescoes in Mihajlovac,124 as well as tin were very important. Steva Todorovi, one the frescoes of the Bukovo Monastery,125 after of the most respected Serbian artists of that the work of Steva Todorovi in the Cathedral time, was in charge of wall painting. Together Church. Church communities and individual conwith his wife Poleksija and other assistants, he painted the wall surfaces, creating a complex tributors played an important role in the pronational thematic program.115 In this period, Lazar Krdali painted the iconostases of the Bukovo Monastery116 by himself or with his wife Olga and the church in Tamni .117 Rafailo Momilovi painted the iconostasis in Sikole in 1908,118 while Pako Vueti took care of the iconostasis and wall painting in Radujevac.119 The painter Milisav Markovi from Knjaevac had outstanding involvement in the Eparchy of Timok, which made him one of the most productive icon painters not only in Krajina but in the whole Principality of Serbia. Milisav Markovi was hired for painting numerous churches of Timok Eparchy.120 He painted the iconostasis and frescoes in Sala ,121 iconocess of funding and construction of churches. The industrialist ore Vajfert built a unique private memorial church in Krajina. In Glogovica, Vajfert built the Church of Saint Ana in memory of his mother Ana. As a renowned wealthy purchaser, he employed the architect Vladimir Popovic to make the plan for the church. The iconostasis and frescoes for the church in Glogovica were painted by Milan Milovanovi.126

THE PERIOD AFTER 1920

uring the 20th century there were large political and social changes. After the First World War, Serbia entered the SHS Kingdom the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, when activities connected to organization of ecclesiastic life were continued. As the area of Negotin Krajina already had a developed ecclesiastic network

115 . , (1882-1914), 7677. 116 Ibid., 178179. 117 J. , , in this book. 118 . , () : , (1875-1941), 2009, 23. 119 . , , 183184; . , , in this book. 120 . , , XIII-2 ( 1987), 151159. 121 . , , in this book.

122 . , , in this book. 123 . , , in this book. 124 . , , in this book. 125 . , (1882-1914), 6264. 126 . , , in this book.

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Nenad Makuljevi and a great number of churches from the 19th shaped throughout the past centuries, todays century, only few churches were built and structure of sacral topography has been ordecorated at this time. ganized into the Episcopal Deanery of NegoBetween the two world wars, Orthodox churches continued to be built in Negotin Krajina. At this time churches were built in Samarinovac and arkamen.127 The church in arkamen was designed in 1927 in Serbian-Byzantine style, which was dominant in the Serbian architecture of that time. The iconostasis of the church was painted in 1933 by the Russian emigrant Stefan Ljisuk.128 Since at that tin. In the history of its formulation, the 19th century was the most important period, when the largest number of Orthodox churches were built and decorated in this area. The distinctive features of Krajinas sacred topography match both general and political trends in Serbia, and local geographical and cultural characteristics. Therefore, sacred visual culture of Kraji-

na clearly shows the development of spiritual time Russian emigrants had one of the most and cultural life of Eastern Serbia, as one of important roles in the creation of sacral visual the most representative examples of Serbian art, the choice of this painter tted the general ecclesiastical culture of the new century. trends of ecclesiastical art. After World War One, the village of Kovilovo from Bulgaria was annexed to the territory of Negotinska Krajina. The iconostasis and wall painting of the church in Kovilovo were done

by the zograph Evgenij pop Kuzmanovi.129 The period of the Second World War marked a dramatic change. After the war, the communist government impeded the development of ecclesiastic life, which was re ected on the forms and production of sacral visual culture. After 1990, during the period of Yugoslavias breakdown and decades of war, there was a gradual renewal of ecclesiastic life. Sacred topography of Negotin Krajina shows the development of ecclesiastic life on the territory of Eastern Serbia. Having been
127 1834-1934, 251. 128 See: . , , in this book. 129 . , , in this book.

314